Resource Sheet: Psychology Week 9

Date: 15 November, 2023

Some gender differences manifest due to biological factors like genetics and hormones, but
others reinforce themselves due to environmental influences and self-socialization. Explore
each side of the nature versus nurture debate about gender differences.

Stereotypes
Gender differences among men and women are real and observed by researchers in many
fields. The question up for debate is 'how are these differences initiated?' Does nature (or
heredity) drive a specific gender to seek out certain toys, choose activities and pursue
careers in gender-specific fields? Maybe it's nurture (the environment) that drives these
differences. This lesson will focus on gender differences by exploring the research
conducted on nature versus nurture.

What is the Nature vs. Nurture Debate?

As a question of human individuality, the nature versus nurture debate asks whether
human characteristics are based on biological or environmental factors. Professionals in the
fields of education, philosophy, psychiatry, and psychology have long been concerned with
this question, as they seek to understand how much of human behavior is determined
by genetic predisposition versus the amount that is impacted by environmental influences.
In other words, they study whether human behavior is stable or pliable.

What is Nature?
Nature, or, in other words, heredity, refers to traits that are inherited or genetic. It's a fact
that most of the aspects of human development are initially driven (directly or indirectly) by
that person's genetic makeup. Eye color, hair color, skin type and other physical
characteristics are derived directly from our genetic makeup. Our predispositions to
respond in particular ways are driven by genetics.

Researchers agree that heredity determines physiological differences in males and females.
Some of these differences are present at birth, and some differences don't present
themselves until the child reaches puberty. Heredity causes females to reach puberty earlier
than males. It also causes males (once they have reached puberty) to have more muscle
composition and be taller than females in general.

Heredity, or specifically different hormones, accounts for biological sexual differences as

well. Males are more physically aggressive, a trait that has been linked to the increased
levels of testosterone in males. Researchers have also argued that hormones may play a
role in the differences observed in visual-spatial and verbal abilities among children. A small
difference has been found among researchers indicating males have slightly higher visual-
spatial abilities while females have slightly higher verbal abilities.
Nature is defined by the hereditary factors that shape a person's identity. It is generally
accepted that an individual's physical features, such as their eye and hair color, are
determined by nature. Likewise, genetic diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, are known to be
hereditary. However, the debate comes into play when considering personality. The nature
side of the debate supports genetic determinism, the belief that psychological
characteristics are mostly, or even wholly, determined by genetics. According to this theory,
one's brain structure and chemistry are formed per their genetic code; consequently, their
emotions and behaviors are shaped by nature.

What is Nurture?
Nurture, on the other hand, or the environment, refers to all environmental influences
after conception. In other words, how a person is raised drives development. Level of
attachment, beliefs, values and how much attention one is given are all examples of
environmental influences.

Gender stereotypes can be prevalent and often perpetuated by those in one's environment,
like parents, peers, teachers, and even the child themselves.

Nurture, on the other hand, emphasizes environmental variables that affect behavior.
Character traits can be determined by one's upbringing, relationships, culture, and
community. According to social learning theory, parenting styles and learned behaviours
determine a child's personality, as children learn by observation. Some believe that nurture
begins from the moment of conception, that the mother's diet, feelings, and experiences
throughout pregnancy affect the psychological development of her child. Nonetheless,
nurture is about more than child rearing; it includes all experiences. For example, books,
social media, classes, jobs, etc. can change their personality.

Self-Socialization
As young children become increasingly aware of the typical characteristics and behaviors of
each other, they begin to form self-constructed schemas, referred to as gender schemas,
about the traits and behaviors of boys and girls.

Because gender schemas are self-constructed, their content may vary considerably from
one individual to another. One adolescent young woman may view other young women in
the media and construct an idea about the ideal woman.

History of Nature vs. Nurture Debate

Most psychologists today conclude that both nature (heredity) and nurture (the
environment) play significant roles in the cognitive development of children and
adolescents. In many cases, nature and nurture interact and amplify each other's effects.

For example, once they reach puberty, males tend to be physically stronger than females.
This is based on nature, or the inherent trait of larger muscles in males. As a result, males
may believe they are able to play certain sports or carry out specific activities such as
manual labor. As they continue to engage in these sports or activities, their skills and
performance levels develop. They begin to think of the activity as a male-specific activity,
thus perpetuating the stereotype cycle.

The nature versus nurture debate spans thousands of years and includes classic
philosophers and writers. Plato (429 - 347 B.C.E), an Athenian philosopher, believed that
knowledge was innate. Conversely, Plato's student and fellow philosopher Aristotle (384 -
322 B.C.E) supported the idea that knowledge was shaped by the environment. Even
Shakespeare shared his thoughts in his 1611 play The Tempest, when the protagonist
Prospero described Caliban, his servant, as ''a devil, a born devil, upon whose nature /
Nurture can never stick.''

Then, in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689), John Locke, an English

philosopher and physician, defined the mind as a tabula rasa, or a blank slate, an unmarked
chalkboard open to influence by experience and education. Locke brought the argument
back to the side of nurture. However, it was English eugenicist Francis Galton who was
credited with coining the term ''Nature Versus Nurture'' in his 1869 publication, Hereditary
Genius.

Galton's cousin, Charles Darwin, had recently published On the Origin of Species (1859), one
of the most influential and controversial works of all time. Darwin proposed the theory of
evolution, the idea that species change over time through the mechanism of natural
selection, or ''survival of the fittest.'' Natural selection was defined as the tendency for
favorable environmental adaptations to be passed onto offspring, thus promoting gradual
genetic mutations.

Galton was inspired by natural selection, for he had a goal of increasing desirable human
traits. Through research, Galton observed that characteristics, such as criminality and
intelligence, tended to run in families, and therefore, believed such traits were the result of
nature. Galton viewed his studies as having the potential to alter society if highly intelligent
and law-abiding people were encouraged to procreate, while those who were less intelligent
and prone to criminal behavior were discouraged from doing so.

The debate continued throughout the 20th century as new studies

emerged. Sociobiology examined the biological factors of social behaviors, and behavior
genetics focused on whether nature or nurture was more important for specific traits. Still,
these studies remained controversial, since they were often used to justify racism and
sexism. For example, some research claimed that the gap in IQ scores between black and
white Americans was due to genetics and that women were less biologically suited to
careers in science and mathematics. However, by the 21st century, scientists would come to
understand that nature and nurture were not always in competition.

Examples of Nature vs. Nurture

Psychological research from the 1900s offered many disparate conclusions within the
nature versus nurture debate. For example,

 Researchers argued that intelligence was a biological trait, since twins that were
separated at birth still had similar IQs, whereas adopted siblings who were raised
together showed no similarities.
  One study showed that genes determine babies' sleeping patterns; however, regular
exposure to sunlight during the day was proven to help babies sleep, so the
environment played an important role as well.

More recently, studies have focused on the following trends in education-related genes:

 Americans with higher educational attainment are less likely to be smokers, since
their social environments defined smoking as unacceptable; still, nature remains
significant, as people with genes linked to higher education are less likely to have
genes linked to smoking.
 The genetics of a social group often determine how long its members will stay in
school, since genes linked to educational attainment can have a positive influence on
others; nonetheless, the environment also has an effect, as teachers might respond
more favorably to students who perform well.

Nature, Nurture, and the Gender Debate

One of the most controversial areas of the nature versus nurture debate revolves around
the question of gender: Is gender identity biological, or is it influenced by child rearing and
society?

The genetic factors that affect biological gender are generally agreed upon. The brain,
however, remains a point of contention. Those supporting nature argue that exposure to
prenatal testosterone affects one's choices as a biological male or female, while those
supporting nurture state that the brain is gender neutral. Just as the brain is programmed to
learn whatever language the child is exposed to, it is also designed to differentiate gender
as modeled by parenting roles and society. So, when it comes to gender identity as reflected
through behavior, many argue that nurture plays a significant role.

Gender schema theory, for example, defines gender as a social construct, arguing that
children learn gender roles per the environment in which they are raised, as they align their
behaviors with gender norms. According to this theory, gender stereotypes affect the way
people behave, so even if biological gender is determined by genetics, societal norms still
affect gender identity through people's choices and behaviors as they seek acceptance.

Gendered colors represent stereotypes that define societal norms.

Gender Differences Examples
Research supporting nature often cites exposure to prenatal testosterone as a determining
factor for differences in gender identity. For example,

 Congenital adrenal hyperplasia occurs when biological females are exposed to

unusually high levels of testosterone in the womb; accordingly, these females tend
to choose typically male toys (e.g., trucks and cars) even when encouraged to play
with dolls.
 Biological males who were exposed to normal levels of prenatal testosterone but
born without a penis have maintained male behaviors and identity, even though
they were surgically reconstructed to appear female and raised as females.

On the nurture side, colors are clear examples of differences in gender construction; for
instance,

 In her book Pink and Blue, Professor Jo Paoletti notes that boys' clothing typically
comes in dark colors and has pictures of trucks and cars, while girls' clothing consists
of pastels, flamingos, and flowers.
 Parents assign their children gendered colors even before birth, as gender reveal
parties include cakes that have been dyed pink or blue.

Experts highlight that these color assignments have nothing to do with biology, but rather,
are based on marketing and social biases. For instance, although girls are often designated
pink at birth, they can grow to prefer blue and not be judged. Yet, due to homophobia and
sexism, boys are often judged as feminine for wearing pink. According to societal norms, it is
understandable that a girl might want to appear masculine, since men are traditionally seen
as the dominant gender, but a boy who appears feminine is classified as deviant, since it is
impossible to understand why he would want to assume a lesser role.

Aside from colors, other choices that parents make can affect their children's behaviors.
One study showed that fathers commented more on their daughters' physical appearances
and encouraged emotions, reacting to their sad expressions, while they reinforced a lack of
emotions in their sons. Additional research showed that both mothers and fathers
discouraged risk-taking behaviors when it came to their daughters but not so much for their
sons.

In addition, gender stereotypes dictate that women should be housewives, while men
should work hard to provide for their families. Therefore, when women enter the workforce,
especially in leadership roles, they are criticized for any authoritative or seemingly harsh
behaviors. In contrast, when a man decides to be a stay-at-home father, he is shamed by
society and defined as being less of a man.
Addressing Gender Equity in Society
Promoting gender equity means that society must treat people fairly by recognizing the
unique needs of cisgender males and females, transgender people, and nonbinary
individuals. For example, women of color are known to face increased levels of policing and
violence. One program that supports these women is Girls for Gender Equity. This
organization focuses on participatory action research, coalition building, and the
development of social justice curricula for cisgender and transgender women of color.

Additionally, even though women outnumber men in the workforce, they are still expected
to perform higher levels of domestic duties. As a result, women have developed a
reputation for requiring special considerations at work, since they may need to take
maternity leave, for example. However, if men took on more of the household duties, the
goal of gender equity could be furthered in society. Women would experience increased
satisfaction at work, since they would not need to worry about household duties. Children
would see their mothers and fathers act equally in work and household roles, and
workplaces would be less likely to have discriminatory hiring practices, as men would also
take paternity leave and act as equal caregivers.

Whether gender identity is a result of nature, nurture, or both, the fact remains that there is
a gap between gender bias and reality, as gender minority groups have unequal access to
power, resources, rights, and institutions. Therefore, gender mainstreaming calls for
governments to integrate the goals of gender equity at all stages and levels of policy
development, research, advocacy, legislation, and resource allocation.

Promoting Gender Equity in the Classroom

Educators can promote gender equity in the classroom in a variety of ways. Educators can
use their knowledge of typical differences and stereotypes to create experiences that offer
students equal opportunities to use their natural strengths and build new strengths.

Educators should be aware of gender stereotypes in the textbooks and other educational
materials they present in class and either engage the class in discussions about these
stereotypes or avoid using the instructional material altogether.

Educators should also continually engage in monitoring practices that ensure they are
treating all genders fairly. An example is of a teacher keeping track of the number of times
he calls on boy students versus girl students during the week.

Conclusion to the Nature vs. Nurture Debate

While the nature versus nurture debate was once a highly contested topic, contemporary
experts agree that most human traits have both genetic and environmental components. In
fact, nature and nurture often work together, interacting in complex ways to affect human
development. Epigenetics is the study of that interaction, since people's environment can
affect the way their genes function.
For example, children with genes linked to educational attainment may be encouraged or
limited based on the amount of intellectual stimulation they receive. People who naturally
lean toward sociability will likely receive favorable responses from their peers, while people
who have aggressive tendencies will likely receive negative reactions. Furthermore,
medications, diets, relaxation techniques, and brain-training gadgets can literally change the
chemical and physical properties of the brain.

Ultimately, nature is subject to nurture. When people take an interactionist position, they
recognize that both nature and nurture play an important role in determining human
behavior.

Just as plants have the potential to grow if they receive favorable

environmental factors, humans also have the potential to flourish when
given a nourishing environment.

Lesson Summary
The nature versus nurture debate asks whether human behavior is determined by biological
or environmental factors. Nature, or genetic determinism, represents biology, claiming
that personality traits and behaviours are hereditary. Nurture stands for environmental
factors, stating that one's psychological characteristics are influenced by their upbringing,
relationships, culture, and overall life experiences. Social learning theory specifically
highlights learned behaviours and parenting styles on the path to child development.

Throughout history, experts argued over whether the mind was a tabula rasa, a blank slate
waiting for instruction, or was instead subject to natural selection, meaning that favorable
traits would be selected for survival as humans evolved. Gender has remained one of the
highest points of contention. Some argue that gender is determined by prenatal
testosterone, while others support gender schema theory, the belief that gender is a social
construct. Either way, gender stereotypes and inequalities exist; thus, it is important that
societies support gender equity and gender mainstreaming, so that all genders are
treated fairly through legislation that calls for equitable rights and opportunities.

Overall, nature versus nurture is no longer much of a debate, and epigenetics has bridged
the gap between the two sides as scientists study how the environment impacts biology.
Most experts now agree on an interactionist position that defines both nature and
nurture as working together to affect human behavior.

In a nutshell, gender differences are prevalent in our society. Both hereditary factors, such
as hormones and genetics, and environmental factors, such as peers, parents, and teachers,
influence and drive these differences.

As children become aware of typical gender characteristics and differences, they begin to
form gender schemas about the behaviors of each gender. These schemas often consist of
stereotypical behaviors and traits for each gender.

Educators can promote equality in the classroom by being aware of their own stereotypes,
by introducing instructional material free of stereotypes and by constructing learning
activities that allow all genders to succeed and utilize their talents and abilities.