ECT423COMPUTERNETWORKS

Comput
erNet
wor
k

 A networkis a setofdevi
ces (of
ten r
efer
red to as nodes)connect
ed by
communi cat
ionl
i
nks.A nodecanbeacomput er,pri
nter,oranyotherdev
ice
capabl
eofsendi ng and/
orrecei
vi
ng dat
agenerated byot hernodeson the
network.

 “Comput er net
work’
’t o mean a col l
ect
ion of aut onomous computers
i
nterconnect
ed by a singl
et echnol
ogy.Two comput ers ar
e saidt o be
i
nterconnect
ediftheyar
eablet
oexchangeinf
or mat
ion.Theconnect
ionneednot
bev iaacopperwi r
e;fi
beropt
ics,micr
owav es,i
nfr
ared,andcommuni cat
ion
satel
li
tescanalsobeused.
 Ever
ynet
wor
kinv
olv
eshar
dwar
eandsof
twar
ethatconnect
scomput
ersand
tool
s.

Computernetworkscomponentscompri
sebot hphy
sicalpartsaswel lasthesoft
war
e
requi
redforinst
all
ingcomputernetworks,bothator gani
zationsandathome.The
hardwar
e component s ar
et he serv
er,client
,peer ,transmi ssi
on medium,and
connect
ingdevi
ces.Thesoft
warecomponentsareoperati
ngsy stem andpr
otocol
s.

Har
dwareComponent s
 Se r
vers−Serv
ersarehigh-conf
igur at
ioncomput ersthatmanagether
esourcesof
thenetwork.Thenetworkoperat ingsystem i
sty pi
call
yinst
all
edi
ntheserv
erand
sot heygiv
euseraccessest ot henet workresources.Server
scanbeofv ari
ous
kinds:fi
l
eserver
s,databaseserv ers,
printser
versetc.

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  Clients−Cl ientsarecomput ersthatrequestandreceiveservi
cefrom t
heservers
toaccessanduset henetwor kresources.
 Pe ers−Peer sarecomput ersthatprov ideaswellasreceiveserv
icesfr
om other
peer sinawor kgroupnetwor k.
 Tr ansmi ssionMedi a−Tr ansmi ssi
onmedi aar
ethechannel sthr
oughwhi chdata
i
st ransf erredf r
om onedev icetoanot herinanetwork.Transmissionmediamay
begui dedmedi alikecoaxi alcable,fibreopt
iccableset c;ormay beunguided
medi al i
kemi crowav es,
infra-r
edwav eset c.
 Co nnect ingDev i
ces−Connect ingdev i
cesactasmi ddl
ewar ebetweennetworks
orcomput ers,bybi ndi
ngt henet workmedi atogether.Someoft hecommon
connect i
ngdev i
cesar e:
a.Rout er s
b.Br idges
c.Hubs
d.Repeat ers
e.Gat eway s
f.Swi tches
Sof
twareComponent s

 NetworkingOper atingSy st
em −Net workOper at
ingSystemsistypical
lyi
nstal
l
ed
i
nt heser verandf aci
l
itatewor kst
ati
onsi nanet worktoshar efi
les,dat
abase,
appli
cati
ons, pr
intersetc.
 ProtocolSuit
e−Apr otocolisar ul
eorgui del
inefol
lowedbyeachcomput erfor
datacommuni cation.Protocolsuiteisasetofr el
atedpr ot
ocolsthatarelaid
downf orcomput ernetwor ks.Thetwopopul arpr
otocolsuit
esare−
o a .OSIModel (OpenSy st
em Int
erconnecti
ons)
o b .TCP/I PModel

Appli
cat i
onsofComput erNet works:
1.Busi nessAppl i
cati
ons
t odi stri
butei nf
ormat ionthroughoutt hecompany( r
esour ceshar ing) .shar
ing
phy sicalr esources such as pr i
nt er
s,and t ape backup sy stems,i s shar
ing
i
nf ormat ion
c lient -
serv ermodel.Itiswidelyusedandf or
mst hebasi sofmuchnet wor kusage.
c ommuni cati
on medi um among empl oyees.Emai l( el
ectr
oni c mai l),which
empl oyeesgener al
lyusef oragr eatdeal ofdai l
ycommuni cation.
Te lephonecal l
sbet weenempl oyeesmaybecar riedbyt hecomput ernetwork
i
nst eadofbyt hephonecompany .Thist echnologyi scalledI PtelephonyorVoi ce
overI P( VoIP)whenI nternettechnol ogyisused.
De sktopshar i
ngletsremot ewor kersseeandi nt eractwi thagr aphicalcomput er
screen
doi ngbusi nesselectronicall
y,especi al
lywithcust omer sandsuppl i
er s.Thisnew
modeli scal l
ede-commer ce( electroniccommer ce)andi thasgr ownr api
dlyin
recenty ears.

2HomeAppl
i
cat
ions

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 peer-t
o-peercommunicati
on
person-to-
personcommunicati
on
el
ectroniccommer ce
entert
ainment.(gamepl
ayi
ng,)

3Mobi
l
eUsers
Textmessagingort
ext
ing
Sma r
tphones,
GPS(GlobalPosi
ti
oni
ngSy st
em)
m-commer ce
NFC(NearFieldCommunicati
on)

Def
ini
ti
onofpr
otocol
,Pr
otocol
standar
dizat
ion
Aprotocoldef
inesthef
ormatandtheorderofmessagesexchangedbet
weentwoor
morecommunicati
ngenti
ti
es,aswellast
heacti
onstakenonthet r
ansmi
ssi
onand/
or
r
ecei
ptofamessageorotherevent
.
Ahumanpr
otocol
andacomput
ernet
wor
kpr
otocol
:

Anetworkpr
otocolissi
milartoahumanpr ot
ocol
,exceptt
hattheent
it
iesexchangi
ng
messagesandt aki
ngacti
onsar ehardwar
eorsoftwarecomponentsofacomput er
net
work.Al
lactivi
tyint
heI nt
ernett
hatinv
olvest
woormor ecommunicat
ingremote
ent
it
iesi
sgovernedbyaprotocol.
Protocolsinroutersdetermineapacket'
spat hf r
om sourcetodesti
nati
on;hardware-
i
mpl ementedpr otocolsint henetworkinter
facecar dsoftwophy si
call
yconnected
comput ers cont
rolthe f l
ow ofbi t
s on the 'wir
e'between the two computer
s;a
congestion -controlpr otocolcont
rol
st he rate atwhich packet
s aret r
ansmit
ted
betweensenderandr eceiv
er.
Prot
ocolSt
andardi
zati
oni
stheprocessofcr
eati
ngprotocol
stogui
dethecreati
onofa
goodorser
vicebasedont
heconsensusofal
ltherel
evantpar
ti
esi
ntheindust
ry.

Net
wor
kedges,
Net
wor
kcor
eandNet
wor
kli
nks.

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Net
wor
kedges

 Thecomputer
sandot
herdev
icesconnect
edt
otheI
nter
netar
eof
tenr
efer
redt
o
asendsy
stems.

 Theyar
eref
err
edt
oasendsy
stemsbecauset
heysi
tatt
heedgeoft
heI
nter
net
.

 TheI nter
net ’
sendsy st
emsi ncludedeskt
opcomput ers(e.
g.,
desktopPCs, Macs,
andLi nuxboxes) ,serv
ers(e.g.,Webande-mailservers)
,andmobi lecomputer
s
(e.
g.,laptops,smar t
phones,andt abl
ets)
.Fur
thermore,anincreasingnumberof
non-tradi
tionaldevi
cesarebei ngatt
achedtot
heInternetasendsy stems.
Endsyst
emsar eal
sorefer
redtoashost
sbecauset
heyhost(
thatis,r
un)appl
icat
ion
progr
amssuchasaWebbr owserpr
ogr
am,aWebser v
erprogram,ane-mailcli
ent
progr
am,orane-mai
lser
verprogr
am.
Hostsaresometi
mesf urt
herdi
vi
dedi
ntotwocat
egori
es:cl
ient
sandser
vers.Inf
ormall
y,
cli
ent
stendt obedesktopandmobil
ePCs,smartphones,andsoon,whereasserver
s
tendtobemor epowerfulmachi
nest
hatstor
eanddist
ri
buteWebpages,stream vi
deo,
rel
aye-mail
,andsoon.

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 Endsy
stem I
nter
act
ion
Mostoft heserver
sfrom whichwer ecei
vesearchresul
ts,e-
mai
l
,Webpages,and
vi
deosresidei
nlargedat
acenters.Forexample,Googl
ehas30–50dat
acent
ers,wi
th
manyhavingmorethanonehundredthousandserver
s.
Endsy
stems(
host
s):

 r
unappl
i
cat
ionpr
ogr
ams
o e.
g.web,
emai
l

o at“
edgeofnet
wor
k”

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  Cl
i
ent
/ser
vermodel
o cl
i
enthostr
equest
s,r
ecei
vesser
vicef
rom al
way
s-onser
ver

o e.
g.Webbr
owser
/ser
ver
;emai
lcl
i
ent
/ser
ver

 Peer
-t
o-peermodel
:
o mi
nimal
(orno)useofdedi
cat
edser
ver
s

o e.
g.Sky
pe,
Bit
Tor
rent
,KaZaA

Net
wor
kedge:
connect
ion-
ori
ent
edser
vice
 Goal
:dat
atr
ansf
erbet
weenendsy
stems

 handshaki
ng:
set
up(
prepar
efor
)dat
atr
ansf
eraheadoft
ime
TCP-Tr
ansmi
ssi
onCont
rol
Prot
ocol
Int
ernet
’sconnect
ion-
ori
ent
edser
vice
Reli
able,
in-
orderby
test
ream dat
atr
ansf
er,
usest
heconceptofacknowl
edgement
sand
ret
ransmissi
ons

 f
lowcont
rol
:senderwon’
tov
erwhel
mrecei
ver

 congest
ioncont
rol
:sender
s“sl
owdownsendi
ngr
ate”whennet
wor
kcongest
ed
connect
ionl
essser
vice
UDP-UserDat
agr
am Pr
otocol
[RFC768]
:

 connect
ionl
ess

 unr
eli
abl
edat
atr
ansf
er

 nof
lowcont
rol

 nocongest
ioncont
rol

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AccessNet
wor
k
Theaccessnet wor
k—t
henetwor
kthatphy
sical
l
yconnect
sanendsy st
em tot
hef
ir
st
rout
er(alsoknownasthe“
edgerout
er”
)onapat hf
rom theendsy
stem t
oanyot
her
dist
antendsystem.

Figureshowssever
alt y
pesofaccessnetworkswiththi
ck,shaded l
i
nes,and t
he
setti
ngs(home,
ent
erpr
ise,andwi
de-
areamobi
l
ewirel
ess)i
nwhichtheyar
eused.
HomeAccess:
DSL,
Cabl
e,FTTH,
Dial
-Up,
andSat
ell
i
te
Thet
womostpr
eval
entt
ypesofbr
oadbandr
esi
dent
ial
accessar
e
1.Di
git
alsubscr
iberl
i
ne(
DSL)
2.Cabl
e.
Ar esi
dencet ypi
cal
lyobtai
nsDSL I
nter
netaccessf r
om thesamelocalt
elephone
company( tel
co)thatprovi
desit
swiredlocalphoneaccess.WhenDSLisused,a
customer’
stelcoi
salsoi
tsISP.

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Figure shows each cust omer’
s DSL modem uses t he existing t
elephone li
ne to
exchangedat awithadigitalsubscri
berli
neaccessmul ti
plexer(DSLAM)l ocatedinthe
telco’
sl ocalcentr
alof f
ice (CO).The home’s DSL modem t akes digi
taldata and
transl
atesittohighfrequencyt onesfortr
ansmissionovert el
ephonewi r
estotheCO;
theanalogsignalsfr
om manysuchhousesar etranslat
edbacki ntodigit
alformatatthe
DSLAM.
The r
esi
denti
altel
ephone l
i
ne carr
ies both data and tr
adi
ti
onalt
elephone si
gnal
s
si
mult
aneousl
y,whi
chareencodedatdif
ferentfr
equencies:
•Ahi
gh-
speeddownst
ream channel
,i
nthe50kHzt
o1MHzband
•Amedi
um-
speedupst
ream channel
,i
nthe4kHzt
o50kHzband
•Anor
dinar
ytwo-
wayt
elephonechannel
,i
nthe0t
o4kHzband
Thisapproachmakesthesi
ngl
eDSLl i
nkappearasifther
ewer et
hreesepar
atel
inks,so
thatatel
ephonecal
landanInt
ernetconnect
ioncansharetheDSLli
nkatthesamet i
me.

DSLI
nter
netaccess
Onthecustomerside,aspli
tt
erseparat
est hedat
aandtel
ephonesignalsarri
vi
ngtothe
homeandf or
war dsthedatasignalt
otheDSLmodem.Ont hetel
coside,intheCO,the
DSLAM separatesthedataandphonesi gnal
sandsendst hedatai nt
ot heInt
ernet
.
Hundr
edsorev enthousandsofhouseholdsconnectt
oasingl
eDSLAM.
TheDSLst andar
dsdefi
netransmi ssi
onratesof12Mbpsdownst ream and1.
8Mbps
upst
ream and24Mbpsdownst ream and2.5Mbpsupstream.Becausethedownst
ream
andupst
ream rat
esar
ediff
erent,theaccessissai
dtobeasymmet r
ic.
Engineer
shav eexpressl
ydesignedDSLf orshortdist
ancesbetweenthehomeandt
he
CO;gener al
l
y,ift heresi
dencei snotlocatedwi thi
n5t o 10mi l
esoft heCO,t
he
resi
dencemustr esortt
oanalternat
ivef
orm ofInter
netaccess.
Whi
l
e DSL makesuse oft
he t
elco’
sexi
sti
ng l
ocalt
elephone i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure,cabl
e

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I
nternetaccessmakesuseoft hecabl
etel
evi
sioncompany’
sexist
ingcabl
etel
evi
sion
i
nfrastr
uctur
e.Aresi
denceobtai
nscabl
eInt
ernetaccessf
rom t
hesamecompanyt hat
pr
ov i
desitscabl
etel
evi
sion.
Asill
ust
ratedinFigurefi
beropt icsconnectthecableheadendt oneighborhood-
level
j
uncti
ons,from whichtr
adit
ionalcoaxialcablei
sthenusedt oreachindivi
dualhouses
andapartments.Eachneighbor hoodjuncti
ontypi
call
ysupport
s500t o5,000homes.
Becausebothfiberandcoaxialcableareemployedinthi
ssyst
em, i
tisoftenrefer
redto
ashybri
dfibercoax(HFC).

Ahy
bri
dfi
bercoaxi
alaccessnet
wor
k
Cablei
nter
netaccessr
equi
resspeci
almodems,call
edcabl
emodems.AswithaDSL
modem,thecablemodem i
stypi
call
yanext
ernaldev
iceandconnect
stot
hehomePC
thr
oughanEther
netpor
t.
Atthecableheadend,t
hecablemodem terminati
onsystem (CMTS)servesasi
milar
funct
ionastheDSLnetwork’
sDSLAM—t ur
ningtheanalogsignalsentfr
om thecable
modemsi nmanydownstr
eam homesbackintodigi
tal
for
mat .
Cablemodemsdi v
idetheHFC networki ntotwo channel
s,adownstream and an
upstr
eam channel.AswithDSL,accessist y
pical
l
yasy mmetri
c,wi
ththedownstream
channelt
ypicall
yall
ocat
edahighertransmissionrat
ethantheupst
ream channel
.The
DOCSIS2.0st andar
ddefi
nesdownstream r
atesupt o42.
8Mbpsandupst r
eam rat
esof
upto30.7Mbps.
Asint
hecaseofDSLnetworks,t
hemaxi
mum achi
evabl
erat
emaynotber
eal
i
zeddue
tol
owercont
ract
eddat
arat
esormediai
mpai
rments.
Oneimpor
tantchar
acter
ist
icofcableInter
netaccessisthatitisasharedbroadcast
medi
um.Inparti
cul
ar,ev
erypacketsentbytheheadendt r
avel
sdownstream onevery
l
inkt
oeveryhomeandev erypacketsentbyahomet ravelontheupst
ream channelto

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t
heheadend.Fort hisreason,i
fseveralusersar
esimul
taneousl
ydownloadi
ngavideo
f
il
eont hedownstr
eam channel,theactualr
ateatwhi
cheachuserrecei
vesit
svi
deofil
e
wi
llbesigni
fi
cant
lylowerthantheaggregatecabl
edownstr
eam rat
e.
DSL and cable net
works cur
rent
lyrepresentmor et han 90 percentofresi
dential
broadbandaccessintheUni t
edStates,anup- and-
comi ngtechnologyt
hatpromises
evenhigherspeedsi sthedeploymentoff ibertot hehome( FTTH).Asthename
suggests,
the
FTTHconcepti
ssi
mpl
e—pr
ovi
deanopt
ical
fiberpat
hfr
om t
heCOdi
rect
lyt
othehome.

 Therear
esever
alcompet
ingt
echnol
ogi
esf
oropt
icaldi
str
ibut
ionf
rom t
heCOt
o
thehomes.

 Thesimpl
estopti
caldi
str
ibut
ionnet
wor
kiscal
l
eddi
rectf
iber
,wi
thonef
iber
l
eavi
ngtheCOforeachhome.

 Eachf
iberl
eav
ingt
hecent
ral
off
icei
sshar
edbymanyhomes.

 Therearetwocompet ingopti
cal
-di
stri
but
ionnet
wor
karchit
ect
uresthatperf
orm
thi
s spli
tt
ing:acti
ve opti
calnetworks (
AONs)and passi
ve opt
icalnetworks
(PONs).AONi sessent
ial
lyswi
tchedEther
net.

FTTHI
nter
netAccess

 Fi
gur
eshowsFTTHusi
ngt
hePONdi
str
ibut
ionar
chi
tect
ure.

 Eachhomehasanopt i
calnetwor
ktermi
nator(ONT)
,whi
chi
sconnect
edby
dedi
cat
edopt
ical
fibert
oaneighbor
hoodspl
it
ter
.

 Thesplit
tercombinesanumberofhomes(
typi
cal
lyl
esst
han100)ont
oasingle,
sharedopticalf
iber
,whi
chconnectstoanopti
call
inet
ermi
nat
or(OLT)i
nt he
tel
co’sCO.

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  TheOLT, prov
idi
ngconv ersionbetweenopticalandelect
ri
calsi
gnals,connectst
o
theI
nternetvi
aat elcorouter.I
nthehome, usersconnectahomer outer(typi
cal
l
y
awir
elessrouter
)t otheONTandaccesst heI nt
ernetvi
athi
shomer outer
.

 I
nthePONarchi
tect
ure,
allpacket
ssentf
rom OLTt
othespl
i
tterar
erepl
i
cat
edat
t
hespl
it
ter(
simi
l
artoacableheadend).

 FTTH canpot
ent
ial
l
ypr
ovi
deI
nter
netaccessr
atesi
nthegi
gabi
tspersecond
range.
Accessi
ntheEnt
erpr
ise(
andt
heHome)
:Et
her
netandWi
Fi
Oncor por at
eanduniversi
tycampuses,andincr
easi
nglyi
nhomeset ti
ngs,alocalarea
network( LAN)isusedtoconnectanendsy st
em totheedgerout
er.Al
thoughthereare
many t ypes ofLAN t echnol
ogies,Et
hernetis by f
art he mostpreval
entaccess
technol
ogyi ncorpor
ate,uni
versi
ty,
andhomenetworks

Et
her
netI
nter
netaccess

TheEt hernetswi
tch,oranet workofsuchinter
connectedswit
ches,istheni
ntur
n
connectedintot
helargerI
nter
net.Wi
thEther
netaccess,
usersty
pical
lyhav
e100Mbps
accesst otheEthernetswit
ch,whereasser
versmayhav e1Gbpsorev en10Gbps
access.

Wi
rel
essLANaccessbasedonI
EEE802.
11t
echnol
ogy
,knownasWi
Fi.

EthernetandWi Fiaccessnet
workswer eini
ti
all
ydeployedi
nenter
pri
se(cor
porat
e,
universit
y)set
ti
ngs,
theyhav
erecent
lybecomerelat
ivel
ycommoncomponent
sofhome
networ ks.

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 At
ypi
cal
homenet
wor
ks

Wi
de-
AreaWi
rel
essAccess:
3GandLTE

Increasi ngl
y ,devi
cessuchasi Phones,BlackBer rys,andAndr oiddevicesarebei ngused
tosendemai l
,sur ftheWeb,Tweet ,anddownl oadmusi cwhi leont her un.These
devices empl oy the same wi rel
ess infrastructure used f orcel l
ulartelephony t o
send/ receivepacket sthroughabasest ati
ont hati soperatedbyt hecel l
ularnet wor k
prov i
der .
Telecommuni cationscompani eshav emadeenor mousi nvestmentsi nso-call
edt hi
rd-
gener ation( 3G)wi reless,whichprovi
despacket -swit
chedwi de-ar
eawi rel
essI nternet
accessatspeedsi nexcessof1Mbps.
Higher -speedwi de-areaaccesst echnologies—af ourt
h-generat
ion( 4G)ofwi de- area
wireless net works—ar e alr
eady being depl oy ed.LTE (“ Long-Term Ev olution”—a
candi dat eforBadAcr onym oftheYearAwar d)hasi tsrootsin3Gt echnology,andcan
potent i
al l
yachi ev
er atesinexcessof10Mbps.

Phy
sical
Medi
a
Foreacht ransmitter
-recei
verpai
r,thebitissentbypr opagatingelectr
omagnet i
cwav es
oropt icalpulsesacr ossaphy sicalmedi um.Thephy sicalmedi um cant akemany
shapesandf or
msanddoesnothav etobeoft hesamet ypef oreacht r
ansmi t
ter-
receiverpairalongt hepath.Exampl esofphy si
calmedi ai ncludetwist
ed-paircopper
wire,coaxialcable,multi
modef i
ber-opti
ccable,t
errestri
alradiospectrum,andsat el
lit
e
radiospectrum.
Phy sicalmediafal
lint
otwocat egori
es:gui
dedmedi aandunguidedmedi a.Withguided
medi a,thewavesareguidedalongasol i
dmedium, suchasafiber
-opti
ccabl e,
at wi
sted
-pai
rcopperwi re,oracoaxialcable.Wit
hunguidedmedi a,t
hewav espr opagateinthe
atmospher eandinouterspace,suchasinawirelessLANoradi git
alsatell
it
echannel.
Twi
sted-
Pai
rCopperWi
re

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Twi stedpairconsistsoft woinsulatedcopperwi res,eachabout1mm t hi
ck,arrangedi n
ar egularspiralpat t
ern.The wi res aret wisted t oget
hert oreduce the elect
r i
cal
i
nt erfer
encef rom si mil
arpai rscl oseby .Ty picall
y,anumberofpai r
sar ebundl ed
togetherinacabl ebywr appingthepai rsinapr otectiveshi
eld.Awirepairconsti
tutesa
single communi cat i
on link.Unshi elded twisted pai r(UTP)is commonl y used f or
comput ernetworkswi thinabui lding,thatis,f orLANs.Dat ar
atesf orLANsusi ng
twistedpairtodayr angef rom 10Mbpst o10Gbps.
Coaxi
alCabl
e
Like twi sted pair,coax i
alcabl
e consi st
s oft wo copperconduct ors,butt he two
conduct orsar e concent r
icrat
hert han parallel.Wi tht hisconst ruct i
on and speci al
i
nsulationandshi el
ding,coaxi
alcabl ecanachi evehi ghdat atransmissionr ates.Coaxial
cableisqui tecommoni ncablet elevi
sionsy stems.Tel evisi
onsy stemshav erecently
beencoupl edwi thcablemodemst oprovider esidentialuser swi t
hI nternetaccessat
ratesoft ensofMbps.I ncabl
et elevi
sionandcabl eI nternetaccess,t het ransmi t
ter
shift
sthedi git
alsignaltoaspeci ficfrequencyband,andt her esul
ti
nganal ogsi gnalis
sentf r
om t hetransmi t
tertooneormor ereceiv er
s.Coaxi alcablecanbeusedasa
guided shar ed medi um.Specifically,a numberofend sy stemscan beconnect ed
dir
ectlyt ot hecabl e,wit
heachoft heendsy stemsr ecei v
ingwhat ev erissentbyt he
otherendsy stems.
Fi
berOpt
ics
Anopticalfi
berisathin,flexi
blemedium thatconductspulsesofli
ght,wi t
heachpulse
repr
esenti
ngabi t.Asingleopticalf
ibercansupporttremendousbitrates,uptotensor
even hundreds of gi gabits per second.They ar ei mmune t o el ect
romagneti
c
i
nterf
erence,havever
yl owsi gnalat
tenuati
onupt o100kilometer
s,andar ever
yhardto
tap.Thesecharacter
isticshav emadef i
beropti
cst heprefer
redguidedt r
ansmissi
on
media,part
icul
arl
yforov erseasli
nks.
TheOpt icalCarr
ier(OC)standar
dlinkspeedsrangefr
om 51.8Mbpst o39.8Gbps;t
hese
specif
icationsareoftenrefer
redtoasOCn, wherethelinkspeedequal
sn×51. 8Mbps.
Standardsi nusetodayincl
udeOC- 1,OC-
3,OC-12,OC-24,OC-48,
OC-96,OC-192,
OC-768.
Ter
rest
ri
alRadi
oChannel
s
Radiochannel
scar rysignalsintheelectromagneti
cspectrum.Theyareanat tr
acti
ve
medium becauset heyr equi
renophy si
calwi r
etobei nstal
led,canpenetr
atewalls,
provi
deconnecti
v i
tyt o a mobileuser ,and can pot
enti
all
ycar r
ya signalforlong
di
stances.The char acteri
sti
cs of a r adi
o channeldepend si gni
fi
cantl
y on the
propagat
ionenvi
ronmentandt hedi
stanceov erwhi
chasignalistobecarr
ied.
Terrestri
alradi
ochannel scanbebr oadl
yclassi
fi
edi nt
ot hr
eegroups: t
hoset hatoperate
overv eryshortdi
stance( e.
g.,withoneortwomet ers);t
hosethatoperateinlocalareas,
typi
callyspanningf r
om tentoaf ewhundredmet ers;andthosethatoper ateinthewi de
area,spanni ng tens ofki l
omet er
s.Personaldev i
ces such as wi r
eless headset s,
keyboar ds,and medi caldev ices operat
e overshor tdist
ances;t he wi r
eless LAN
technologiesusel ocal
-arearadiochannels;thecellul
araccesst echnologiesusewi de-

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ar
ear
adi
ochannel
s.
Sat ell
it
eRadi o Channel sA communi cati
onsat ellit
el i
nkst wo ormor eEarth-based
mi crowav et ransmitter/r eceivers,knownasgr oundst at ions.Thesat el
li
tereceives
transmi ssions on one f requency band,r egener ates t he si gnalusi ng a repeater
(discussed bel ow),and t ransmi tst he signalon anot herf requency .Two t ypes of
sat ell
it
esar eusedi ncommuni cati
ons:geost ati
onar ysat elli
tesandl ow-eart
hor biti
ng
(LEO)sat ell
i
tes.Geost ationarysat ell
itespermanent l
yr emai nabov et hesamespoton
Ear th.Thisst ati
onarypr esencei sachi evedbypl acingt hesat elli
teinor bi
tat36, 000
kilomet er
sabov eEar t
h’ssur f
ace.Thi shugedi stancef rom gr oundst ati
ont hrough
sat ell
it
ebackt ogroundst ati
oni ntr
oducesasubst ant ialsignalpr opagationdelayof280
mi ll
iseconds.Nev ertheless,sat ell
it
el i
nks,whi chcanoper at eatspeedsofhundr edsof
Mbps, areof t
enusedi nareaswi thoutaccesst oDSLorcabl e-basedI nt
ernetaccess.
Net
wor
kCor
e:Thef
undament
alquest
ion:
howi
sdat
atr
ansf
err
edt
hroughnet
?"
1.PacketSwi
tchi
ng
Inanetworkappli
cat
ion,endsyst
emsexchangemessageswi
theachot
her
.Messages
cancontai
nanythi
ngtheappli
cati
ondesi
gnerwant
s.
Messagesmayper f
orm acontr
olfunct
ionorcancontaindat
a,suchasanemai l
message,aJPEGi mage,oranMP3audiofi
le.Tosendamessagefrom asour
ceend
syst
em toadestinati
onendsystem,thesourcebr
eakslongmessagesint
osmall
er
chunksofdat
aknownaspackets.
Betweensourceanddest
inat
ion,eachpackett
ravel
sthroughcommunicat
ionl
i
nksand
packetswit
ches(forwhi
cht herearetwopr edominanttypes,r
out
ersandli
nklay
er
swit
ches)
.
Packetsar etransmit
ted overeachcommunicat
ionli
nkatar ateequaltot heful
l
transmi
ssionrateoftheli
nk.So,i
fasourceendsyst
em orapacketswi
tchissendi
nga
packetofLbi t
sov erali
nkwi t
htransmi
ssi
onrat
eRbi t
s/sec,t
hentheti
met otr
ansmit
thepacketisL/Rseconds.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 Thenet
wor
kcor
e
Mostpacketswi tchesusestor
e-and-
for
wardtransmissi
onattheinputstotheli
nks.
Stor
e-and-
for
war dtransmi
ssi
onmeanst hatthepacketswit
chmustr ecei
vetheenti
re
packetbef
oreitcanbegintot
ransmitt
hefir
stbi
tofthepacketont
otheoutboundl
ink.
Ar out
erwillt
ypi
call
yhavemanyi nci
dentlinks,si
ncei t
sj obist oswitchani ncoming
packetontoanoutgoingl
ink;int
hissimpleexampl e,ther out
erhast herat hersimple
taskoftr
ansfer
ri
ngapacketfrom one(i
nput )l
inkt
ot heonl yotherat
tachedl ink.Int
his
example,thesourcehast hreepackets,eachconsi sti
ng ofLbi t
s,t o send tot he
desti
nati
on.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 St
oreandFor
war
dpacketswi
tchi
ng
Queui
ngDel
aysandPacketLoss
Eachpacketswi t
chhasmul ti
plelinksat tachedt oit
.Foreachat t
achedl ink,thepacket
switchhasanout putbuffer(alsocal ledanout putqueue),whichstorespacket sthatthe
routerisaboutt osendi ntot hatl i
nk.Theout putbuffersplayakeyr olei npacket
switchi
ng.Ifanar ri
vingpacketneedst obet ransmitt
edontoal i
nkbutf indst hel
ink
busywi ththet ransmi ssionofanot herpacket ,thearri
vi
ngpacketmustwai tinthe
outputbuffer.Thus,i naddi t
iont ot hest ore-and-for
warddelays,packet ssuf f
eroutput
bufferqueuingdel ays.Thesedel ay sarev ariableanddependont hel evelofcongestion
i
nt henetwor k.Sincet heamountofbuf ferspacei sfi
nit
e,anar ri
vi
ngpacketmayf ind
thatthebufferiscompl etelyfullwithot herpacket swaiti
ngfortransmi ssi
on.
Packetl
osswi l
loccur
—ei
thert
hear
ri
vi
ngpacketoroneoft
heal
ready
-queuedpacket
s
wil
lbedropped.
Packet
sarer
epresentedbythr
ee-
dimensi
onalslabs.Thewidthofaslabrepr
esent
sthe
numberofbi
tsinthepacket
.Inthi
sfigur
e,allpacket
shav ethesamewidthandhence
thesamel
ength.SupposeHostsAandBar esendingpacketstoHostE.
HostsAandBf i
rstsendthei
rpacketsalong10MbpsEt hernetli
nkstot hefi
rstrouter
.
Theroutert
hendi r
ectst
hesepacketstot he1.5Mbpsl i
nk.If,duri
ngashor tint
ervalof
ti
me,thearr
ivalr
ateofpacket
st ot
her outerexceeds1.5Mbps, congesti
onwilloccurat
ther
outeraspacketsqueueintheli
nk’soutputbufferbeforebeingtransmitt
edont othe
l
ink.
Forexampl
e,i
fHostAandBeachsendabur stoffi
vepacketsback-
to-
backatt
he
sameti
me,t
henmostoft
hesepacket
swi
l
lspendsometi
mewai t
ingi
nthequeue.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Packetswi
tchi
ng

 eachend-
enddat
ast
ream di
vi
dedi
ntopacket
s

 userA,
Bpacket
sshar
enet
wor
kresour
ces

 eachpacketusesf
ull
li
nkbandwi
dth

 r
esour
cesusedasneededr
esour
cecont
ent
ion:

 aggr
egat
eresour
cedemandcanexceedamountav
ail
abl
e

 congest
ion:
packet
squeue,
wai
tforl
i
nkuse

 stor
eandf or
ward:packetsmoveonehopatat
ime"noder
ecei
ves
complet
epacketbef
orefor
war
ding
For
war
dingTabl
esandRout
ingPr
otocol
s
Whenapacketar rivesatar outerinthenetwork,therout
erexaminesapor ti
onofthe
packet’
sdestinat
ionaddr essandf or
wardst hepackett oanadj acentrouter
.More
specif
ical
l
y,eachr outerhasaf or
wardingtablethatmapsdest i
nationaddresses(
or
port
ionsofthedestinati
onaddresses)tothatr
outer’sout
boundli
nks.
I
nter
nethasanumberofspecialr
outingpr
otocol
sthatareusedtoautomati
cal
lysett
he
f
orwardi
ngt abl
es.Arouti
ngprotocolmay,forexample,deter
minetheshort
estpath
f
rom eachroutert
oeachdesti
nat
ionanduset heshort
estpathresul
tstoconf
iguret
he
f
orwardi
ngtablesi
ntherout
ers
2.Ci
rcui
tSwi
tchi
ng
Therear etwof undamentalapproachestomov i
ngdat athroughanetworkofl i
nksand
switches:circui
tswi t
chi
ng and packetswi t
ching.In circui
t-
swi
tched networks,t
he
resources needed along a pat h( buff
ers,li
nk transmi ssi
on r
ate)to pr ov
ide for
communi cat
ion between the end sy st
ems ar er eser
v ed fort
he dur at
ion ofthe

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

communicati
onsessionbetweentheendsystems.I
npacket-swit
chednetworks,these
resour
cesarenotreser
ved;
asession’
smessagesusetheresourcesondemand, andas
aconsequence,mayhavetowait(
thati
s,queue)f
oraccesstoacommuni cat
ionlink.

 end-
endr
esour
cesr
eser
vedf
or“
cal
l
”

 l
i
nkbandwi
dth,
swi
tchcapaci
ty

 dedi
cat
edr
esour
ces:
noshar
ing

 ci
rcui
t-
li
ke(
guar
ant
eed)per
for
mance

 cal
lset
upr
equi
red

 net
wor
kresour
ces(
e.g.
,bandwi
dth)di
vi
dedi
nto“
pieces”

 pi
ecesal
l
ocat
edt
ocal
l
s

 r
esour
cepi
ecei
dlei
fnotusedbyowni
ngcal
l(noshar
ing)

 di
vi
dingl
i
nkbandwi
dthi
nto“
pieces”"f
requencydi
vi
sion"t
imedi
vi
sion
Tr
adi
ti
onal
tel
ephonenet
wor
ksar
eexampl
esofci
rcui
t-
swi
tchednet
wor
ks.
Mul
ti
plexi
ngi
nCi
rcui
t-
Swi
tchedNet
wor
ks
Acir
cui
tinalinkisimplementedwi t
heit
herfrequency-di
vi
sionmult
ipl
exi
ng(FDM)or
ti
me-
div
isi
onmulti
plexi
ng(TDM) .WithFDM,t
hef requencyspectr
um ofali
nki
sdivi
ded
upamongtheconnecti
onsestabli
shedacr
ossthel i
nk.

Asi
mpl
eci
rcui
t-
swi
tchednet
wor
kconsi
sti
ngoff
ourswi
tchesandf
ourl
i
nks

Speci
fi
call
y,theli
nkdedicat
esaf requencybandt oeachconnect
ionfort
hedur
ati
onof
theconnecti
on.Intel
ephonenet works,thi
sfrequencybandtypi
cal
lyhasawidthof4
kHz(4,
000her t
zor4,000cyclespersecond).

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Thewi dt
hofthebandiscal
led,
thebandwi
dth.FM r
adi
ost
ati
onsalsouseFDM toshare
thefrequencyspect
rum between 88 MHzand 108 MHz,wit
h each st
ati
on being
all
ocatedaspeci
fi
cfr
equencyband.
ForaTDM l
ink,t
imei
sdiv
idedint
ofr
amesoff
ixeddur
ati
on,andeachf
ramei
sdi
vi
ded
i
ntoafi
xednumberoft
imeslot
s.
Whent henetworkestabl
ishesaconnect ionacrossali
nk,thenetworkdedicatesone
ti
mesl oti
neveryfr
amet othisconnect
ion.Theseslot
sarededi
catedfort
hesol euseof
thatconnect
ion,wit
honet imesl otav
ailabl
eforuse( i
neveryfr
ame)t otransmitthe
connecti
on’
sdata.
Il
l
ustr
atesFDM andTDM foraspeci
fi
cnet workli
nksuppor t
inguptof ourcir
cui
ts.For
FDM,thefr
equencydomaini
ssegmentedintofourbands,eachofbandwi dt
h4kHz.For
TDM,thetimedomai ni
ssegmentedint
of rames,withfourt i
meslotsineachf rame;
eachcir
cui
tisassi
gnedt
hesamededicat
edsl oti
ntherevolvi
ngTDM frames.
ForTDM,t hetransmi ssi
onr ateofacir
cuitisequalt otheframerat
emulti
pli
edbythe
numberofbitsinasl ot.Forexample,i
fthelinktransmits8,000fr
amespersecondand
each sl
otconsi st
s of8 bi t
s,then t
he transmission rat
e ofa cir
cui
tis 64 kbps.
Proponentsofpacketswi t
chinghavealwaysar guedt hatcir
cui
tswit
chi
ngiswasteful
becausethededicatedcircuit
sareidl
eduri
ngsi l
entper i
ods

WithFDM,eachci
rcui
tcont
inuousl
ygetsafr
acti
onofthebandwi
dth.Wi
thTDM,each
ci
rcui
tget
salloft
hebandwi
dthperiodi
cal
l
yduri
ngbr
iefi
nter
val
softi
me(thati
s,dur
ing
sl
ots)
St
ati
sti
cal
Mul
ti
plexi
ng

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  sequenceofA&Bpacket shasnof
ixedt
imi
ngpat
ter
n"bandwi
dthshar
edon
demand:st
ati
sti
cal
mul
ti
plexi
ng.

 TDM:
eachhostget
ssamesl
oti
nrev
olv
ingTDM f
rame.
Connect
ion,
connect
ion-
lessser
vice
 dat
agr
am net
wor
kpr
ovi
desnet
wor
k-l
ayerconnect
ionl
essser
vice
 v
irt
ual
-ci
rcui
tnet
wor
kpr
ovi
desnet
wor
k-l
ayerconnect
ionser
vice
 TCP/UDP connect
on-
ori
ent
ed/connect
ionl
esst
ranspor
t-
lay
erser
vices,
but
:
 ser
vice:host
-t
o-host
 nochoi
ce:net
wor
kpr
ovi
desoneort
heot
her
 i
mpl
ement
ati
on:i
nnet
wor
kcor
e
Vi
rt
ual
cir
cui
ts
sour
ce-
to-
destpat
hbehav
esmuchl
i
ket
elephoneci
rcui
t”
 per
for
mance-
wise
 net
wor
kact
ionsal
ongsour
ce-
to-
destpat
h
 cal
lset
up,
tear
downf
oreachcal
lbef
oredat
acanf
low
 eachpacketcar
ri
esVCi
dent
if
ier(
notdest
inat
ionhostaddr
ess)
 ev
eryr
out
eronsour
ce-
destpat
hmai
ntai
ns“
stat
e”f
oreachpassi
ngconnect
ion
 l
i
nk,routerr
esources(bandwidt
h,buf
f s)maybeal
er l
ocat
edt
oVC (
dedi
cat
ed
r
esources=predi
ctabl
eservi
ce)
aVCconsi
stsof
:
1.pat
hfr
om sour
cet
odest
inat
ion

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 2.VCnumber
s,onenumberf
oreachl
i
nkal
ongpat
h
3.ent
ri
esi
nfor
war
dingt
abl
esi
nrout
ersal
ongpat
h
 packetbel
ongi
ngt
oVCcar
ri
esVCnumber(
rat
hert
handestaddr
ess)
 VCnumbercanbechangedoneachl
i
nk.
 newVCnumbercomesf
rom f
orwar
dingt
abl
e
VCf
orwar
dingt
abl
e

Vi
rt
ual
cir
cui
ts:
signal
i
ngpr
otocol
s
 usedt
oset
up,
mai
ntai
ntear
downVC
 usedi
nATM,
frame-
rel
ay,
X.25
 notusedi
ntoday
’sI
nter
net

Dat
agr
am net
wor
ks
 nocal
lset
upatnet
wor
klay
er
 r
out
ers:
nost
ateaboutend-
to-
endconnect
ions

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  nonet
wor
k-l
evel
conceptof“
connect
ion”
 packet
sfor
war
dedusi
ngdest
inat
ionhostaddr
ess

Dat
agr
am f
orwar
dingt
abl
e

Howdol
ossanddel
ayoccur
?

 packet
squeuei
nrout
erbuf
fer
s

 packetar
ri
val
rat
etol
i
nkexceedsout
putl
i
nkcapaci
ty

 packet
squeue,
wai
tfort
urn

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Thr
oughput
t
hroughput
:rat
e(bi
ts/
ti
me uni
t)atwhi
ch bi
tst
ransf
err
ed bet
ween

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 sender
/recei
ver"

 i
nst
ant
aneous:
rat
eatgi
venpoi
nti
nti
me

 av
erage:
rat
eov
erl
ongerper
iodoft
ime
Ty
pesofDel
ay

1. Pr
ocessi
ngDel
ay:
Thetimer equi
redtoexaminethepacket
’sheaderanddeter
minewher etodir
ect
thepacketi spar toftheprocessingdelay
.Thepr ocessi
ngdel aycanal so
i
ncludeotherfactors,
suchasthetimeneededtocheckforbit-
lev
elerr
orsinthe
packetthatoccurredintr
ansmitt
ingthepacket’
sbit
sfrom theupstr
eam node
torout
er.

2.Queui
ngDelay
:Atthequeue,thepacketexper
iencesaqueui
ngdel
ayasi
t
wai
tstobet
ransmit
tedont
otheli
nk.

3.Transmissi
onDel
ay:Assumingthatpacketsaretr
ansmitt
edinaf i
rst
-come-
fi
rst
-ser
vedmanner,asiscommoninpacket-swi
tchednetworks,
ourpacketcan
betransmitt
edonl
yafterallt
hepacket
st hathavearri
vedbeforei
thavebeen
tr
ansmitt
ed.

Forexample,fora10MbpsEther
netli
nk,therat
eisR=10Mbps;fora100Mbps
Ether
netl
i
nk,therat
eisR=100Mbps.Thetr
ansmissi
ondel
ayi
sL/
R.

4.Pr opagati
onDelay:Onceabi
tispushedint
ot hel
ink,i
tneedstopropagat
eto
routerB.Thet i
mer equi
redt
opr
opagatefr
om thebeginni
ngofthel
inktorout
erB
i
st hepr opagat
ion
del
ay

Packetl
oss

 queue(
akabuf
fer
)pr
ecedi
ngl
i
nki
nbuf
ferhasf
ini
tecapaci
ty

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  packetar
ri
vi
ngt
oful
lqueuedr
opped(
akal
ost
)

 l
ostpacketmayber
etr
ansmi
tt
edbypr
evi
ousnode,
bysour
ceendsy
stem,
ornot
atal
l
Eachpacketswi t
chhasmul tiplel i
nksat tachedt oit
.Foreachattachedl i
nk,t hepacket
switchhasanout putbuff er(alsocal ledanout putqueue),whichstorespacket sthatthe
routerisaboutt osendi nt
ot hatl i
nk.Theout putbuffersplayakeyr ol ei npacket
switchi
ng.Ifanar ri
vingpacketneedst obet ransmitt
edont oal i
nkbutf indst heli
nk
busywi ththet ransmi ssionofanot herpacket ,thearri
vi
ngpacketmustwai tinthe
outputbuffer.Thus,i naddi ti
ont ot hestor e-and-for
warddelays,packetssuf f
eroutput
bufferqueuingdel ays.Thesedel ay sar evariableanddependont hel ev
elofcongest i
on
i
nt henetwor k.Sincet heamountofbuf ferspacei sfi
nit
e,anar r
ivi
ngpacketmayf i
nd
thatthebuf feriscompl etel
yf ul
lwi t
hot herpacket swaiti
ngfort r
ansmi ssion.I nthi
s
case,packetl osswi l
loccur —ei thert hear ri
v i
ngpacketoroneoft heal ready-queued
packetswillbedropped.
Whyl
ayer
ing
I
nterneti
sanext r
emelycompli
catedsystem,numer
ousappli
cati
onsandprotocol
s,
v
ariousty
pesofendsyst
ems,packetswi
tches,
andvar
ioust
ypesofl
ink-
lev
elmedi
a.

 Deal
i
ngwi
thcompl
exsy
stems:

 expl
i
citstr
uctureal
l
owsident
if
icat
ion,r
elat
ionshi
pofcompl
exsy
stem’
spi
eces"
l
ayeredref
erencemodel
fordi
scussion

 modul
ari
zati
on eases mai ntenance, updat
ing of system " change of
i
mplementati
onoflayer
’sserv
icetranspar
entt
or estofsy
stem "e.
g.,changei
n
gat
eproceduredoesn’
taff
ectrestofsyst
em

 l
ayer
ingconsi
der
edhar
mful
?

Pr
otocol
Lay
eri
ng
Topr ov
idestr
ucturetot hedesignofnetworkprotocol
s,net
wor kdesi
gnersorgani
ze
pr
otocols—andthenet workhardwareandsof t
warethatimpl
ementt heprot
ocols— i
n
l
ayers.Eachprotocolbel
ongst ooneoft helayer
s.Serv
icesthatalayeroff
erstothe
l
ayeraboveso-call
edservicemodelofalayer
.
Eachlayerprovi
desi t
sserviceby( 1)performingcert
ainacti
onswithi
nt hatlayerandby
(2)usi
ngt heservi
cesoft hel ayerdirect
lybelowit.Forexample,t
heser v i
cesprovided
bylayernmayi ncluder el
i
abledel iv
er yofmessagesf rom oneedgeoft henetworkt o
theother.Thismightbei mpl ementedbyusi nganunr el
i
ableedge-to-edgemessage
deli
veryserv
iceofl ayern-1,andaddi nglayernfuncti
onali
tytodetectandr et
ransmit
l
ostmessages.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Whentakent ogether,t
heprotocol
softhevari
ouslayer
sarecal
ledtheprotocolst
ack.
TheInt
ernetprotocolstackconsi
stsoff
ivel
ayers:t
hephysi
cal
,l
ink,
network,tr
anspor
t,
andappli
cati
onlay er
s
Wetakeatop-
downappr
oach,f
ir
stcov
eri
ngt
heappl
i
cat
ionl
ayerandt
henpr
oceedi
ng
downwar
d.
Appli
cat
ion LayerThe appl i
cation layeris where networ
k appli
cati
ons and t
hei
r
appl
icat
ion-l
ayerprotocol
sr eside.The I nt
ernet
’s appli
cat
ion l
ayerincl
udes many
prot
ocols,suchastheHTTPpr otocol(whichprovi
desf orWebdocumentrequestand
tr
ansfer
),SMTP( whichprovi
desf orthetr
ansferofe-mailmessages)
,andFTP( whi
ch
prov
idesforthetr
ansferoffi
l
esbet weentwoendsy st
ems
Transpor
tLayert ransport
sappl
icat
ion-
lay
ermessagesbetweenapplicat
ionendpoi
nts.
I
nt heInter
nett herearetwot r
ansportprot
ocols,TCPandUDP,ei t
herofwhi chcan
tr
ansportappl
ication-
lay
ermessages.TCPpr ov
idesaconnect
ion-
ori
entedservi
cetoits
appli
cati
ons.
This ser
vice i
ncludes guar
anteed del
ivery ofappl i
cat
ion-
lay ermessages tot he
desti
nati
onandflowcont r
ol(
thatis,
sender /
recei
verspeedmat ching).TCPalsobreaks
l
ongmessagesi nt oshort
ersegmentsandpr ovi
desacongest ion-contr
olmechanism,
sothatasourcethrott
lesi
tst
ransmissi
onr atewhenthenetworki scongested.
TheUDPpr otocolprovi
desaconnecti
onlessservi
cetoitsappl
i
cat
ions.Thi
sisano-
fr
il
lsser
vicethatprovi
desnoreli
abi
li
ty,noflow cont
rol
,andnocongesti
oncont
rol
.a
tr
anspor
t-
layerpacketasasegment.
TheI
nter
net
’snet
wor
klay
eri
sresponsi
blef
ormov
ingnet
wor
k-l
ayerpacket
sknownas

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

datagramsfrom onehostt
oanother
.TheInter
nett
ransport
-l
ayerprot
ocol(
TCPorUDP)
i
nasour cehostpassesat r
ansport
-l
ayersegmentandadest i
nati
onaddresstothe
networklayer,j
ustasy ouwouldgivethepostalservi
ceal ett
erwi t
hadest i
nat
ion
address.
Thenetwor klay
ert henpr
ovi
destheservi
ceofdeli
ver
ingthesegmenttothet
ransport
l
ayerint hedestinati
onhost.TheInt
ernet
’snet
workl ay
erincl
udesthe IPProt
ocol,
whichdefinesthef i
eldsi
nthedatagr
am aswellashow theendsyst
emsandr outer
s
actonthesefiel
ds.
ThereisonlyoneIPpr ot
ocol,andal lInt
ernetcomponent
st hathaveanet worklayer
mustr untheIPprotocol.TheI nt
ernet’
snet wor
klayeral
socontainsrout
ingprotocols
thatdeter
minetheroutest hatdatagramst akebet
weensourcesanddestinati
ons.The
I
nt er
nethasmanyroutingpr ot
ocols
Li
nkLay er networklayerrout
esadat agram t hr
oughaser iesofr out
ersbetweent he
sourceanddest i
nati
on.Tomov eapacketf rom onenode( hostorrouter)tothenext
nodeintheroute,thenetworklayerr
eli
esont heservicesoftheli
nklayer.Inparti
cul
ar,
ateachnode,t henet worklayerpassest hedat agram downt othel i
nkl ayer
,which
del
iver
st hedatagram t
ot henextnodealongt her oute.Att
hisnextnode,thel i
nklay
er
passesthedatagram uptothenetworklayer
Physi
calLay erWhi l
ethejoboft helinklayeristomov eent i
reframesf r
om onenet wor k
el
ementt oanadj acentnet workel ement ,thejoboft hephy sicall ayeristomov et he
i
ndivi
dualbitswi t
hintheframef r
om onenodet othenext.Thepr otocolsinthi
slay erare
agai
nlinkdependentandf ur t
herdependont heactualtransmissi onmedi um ofthel ink
(f
orexampl e,twisted-
paircopperwi re,si
ngle-
modef i
beropt i
cs).Forexampl e,Ethernet
hasmanyphy sical
-lay
erpr otocols:onef ortwisted-
paircopperwi re,anotherforcoaxi al
cabl
e,anotherforf i
ber.I
neachcase, abitismov edacrosst helinki nadiffer
entway .
Encapsul
ati
on
Figureshowst hephy sicalpatht hatdatat akesdownasendi ngendsy stem’sprotocol
stack,upanddownt hepr otocolstacksofani nterv
eningl i
nk- l
ayerswitchandr outer,
andt henupt heprotocolst ackatt her eceivingendsy stem.Rout ersandl i
nk- l
ayer
switchesarebot h packetswi tches.Si milart o end systems,r out
ersand li
nk- l
ayer
switchesorganizetheirnetwor ki
nghar dwar eandsof twareint olayer
s.Butroutersand
l
ink-l
ayerswitchesdonoti mplemental loft helayersinthepr otocolstack;t
heytypicall
y
i
mpl ementonl ythebottom layers.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Hosts,
router
s,andl
ink-
layerswit
ches;
eachcont
ainsadi
ff
erentsetofl
ayer
s,r
efl
ect
ing
t
heirdi
ffer
encesinf
unctional
it
y.
Att hesendinghost,
anappl i
cat
ion-
lay
ermessageM i spassedt
othetr
anspor
tlay
er.In
thesi mplestcase,thet r
ansportlayert
akest hemessageand appendsadditi
onal
i
nf ormati
ont r
anspor
t-l
ayerheaderi
nformat
ion,Htthatwil
lbeusedbyt
herecei
ver-
side
transportl
ayer.
Theappl icat
ion-layermessageand t het ranspor t
-l
ayerheaderi nformat i
on t ogether
consti
tutethet ransport-l
ay ersegment .Thet ransport-
layersegmentt husencapsul ates
the appli
cati
on- layermessage.The added i nformat i
on mi ghti nclude i nformation
all
owingt herecei ver
-si
det ransportlayertodel i
verthemessageupt ot heappr opri
ate
appli
cati
on,ander ror-
det ectionbitsthatallowt her eceivertodetermi newhet herbitsin
themessagehav ebeenchangedi nroute.Thet ranspor tlay
erthenpassest hesegment
tothenetwor klay er,
whi chaddsnet wor k-
layerheaderi nformation(Hn)suchassour ce
and destinati
on end sy stem addr esses,cr eating a net work-l
ay erdat agr am.The
datagram ist henpassedt ot hel i
nkl ayer,whi chwi lladdit sownl i
nk-
lay erheader
i
nformationandcr eateal i
nk-layerf r
ame. Apackethast wot ypesoff ields:header
fi
eldsandapay loadf i
eld.Thepay loadistypicallyapacketf rom thelay erabov e.

Appl
i
cat
ionLay
er
I
nchoosingtheappl i
cati
onarchitectur
e,anappli
cat
iondeveloperwi
llli
kel
ydrawonone
ofthetwopr edominantarchi
tecturalpar
adigmsusedinmoder nnetworkappl
icat
ions:
thecl
ient
-ser
v erar
chit
ectur
eort hepeer-t
o-peer(
P2P)archi
tectur
e.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Cl
i
ent
-ser
verpar
adi
gm
ser
ver
:

 al
way
s-onhost

 per
manentI
Paddr
ess

 of
teni
ndat
acent
ers,
forscal
i
ng
cl
i
ent
s:

 cont
act
,communi
cat
ewi
thser
ver

 maybei
nter
mit
tent
lyconnect
ed

 mayhav
edy
nami
cIPaddr
esses

 donotcommuni
cat
edi
rect
lywi
theachot
her

 exampl
es:
HTTP,
IMAP,
FTP

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 Peer
-peerar
chi
tect
ure

 noal
way
s-onser
ver

 ar
bit
rar
yendsy
stemsdi
rect
lycommuni
cat
e

 peersr
equestser
vicef
rom ot
herpeer
s,pr
ovi
deser
vicei
nret
urnt
oot
her
peer
s
• sel
fscal
abil
i
ty–new peer
sbr
ingnew ser
vicecapaci
ty,aswel
las
newserv
icedemands

 peer
sar
eint
ermi
tt
ent
lyconnect
edandchangeI
Paddr
esses

• compl
exmanagement

 exampl
e:P2Pf
il
eshar
ing

Inthecontextofacommuni cationsessionbet weenapairofprocesses,theprocess

thatini
ti
atesthecommuni cat
ion( thatis,i
nit
iall
ycontact
stheot herprocessatt he
beginni
ng oft he sessi
on)isl abeled asthe client
.The pr
ocesst hatwai t
st o be
contact
edt obegi
nt hesessi
onist heserver

Pr
ocessescommuni
cat
ing

 pr
ocess:
progr
am r
unni
ngwi
thi
nahost

 wit
hin same host,t wo processes communi
cat
e usi
ng i
nter
-pr
ocess
communicat
ion(
def
inedbyOS)

 pr
ocessesi
ndi
ff
erenthost
scommuni
cat
ebyexchangi
ngmessages

 cl
i
entpr
ocess:
processt
hati
nit
iat
escommuni
cat
ion

 ser
verpr
ocess:
processt
hatwai
tst
obecont
act
ed
Socket
s
pr
ocesssends/
recei
vesmessagest
o/f
rom i
tssocket
,socketanal
ogoust
odoor
•sendi
ngpr
ocessshov
esmessageoutdoor
•sendingprocessrel
i
esont r
ansporti
nfr
ast
ruct
ureonot
hersi
deofdoort
odel
i
ver
messagetosocketatr
ecei
vi
ngprocess

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

•t
wosocket
sinv
olv
ed:
oneoneachsi
de

Appl
i
cat
ionpr
ocesses,
socket
s,andunder
lyi
ngt
ranspor
tpr
otocol

Addr
essi
ngpr
ocesses

 t
orecei
vemessages,
processmusthav
eident
if
ier

 hostdev
icehasuni
que32-
bitI
Paddr
ess
i
dent
if
ieri
ncl
udesbot
hIPaddr
essandpor
tnumber
sassoci
atedwi
thpr
ocessonhost
.
exampl
epor
tnumber
s:•HTTPser
ver
:80•mai
lser
ver
:25
t
osendHTTPmessaget
ogai
a.cs.
umass.
eduwebser
ver
:
•I
Paddr
ess:
128.
119.
245.
12
•por
tnumber
:80
Anappl
i
cat
ion-
lay
erpr
otocol
def
ines:

 t
ypesofmessagesexchanged,
•e.
g.,
request
,response

 messagesy
ntax:
•whatf
iel
dsi
nmessages&howf
iel
dsar
edel
i
neat
e

 messagesemant
ics•meani
ngofi
nfor
mat
ioni
nfi
elds

 r
ulesf
orwhenandhowpr
ocessessend&r
espondt
omessagesopenpr
otocol
s:

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  def
inedi
nRFCs,
ever
yonehasaccesst
opr
otocol
def
ini
ti
on

 al
l
owsf
ori
nter
oper
abi
l
ity

 e.
g.,
HTTP,
SMTPpr
opr
iet
arypr
otocol
s:§e.
g.,
Sky
pe,
Zoom

WebandHTTP
TheHy perTextTr
ansferProt
ocol(HTTP),theWeb’ sappl
icat
ion-l
ayerprotocol
,isatthe
heartoftheWeb.I ti
sdefinedin[RFC1945]and[ RFC2616].HTTPi simpl ementedin
twopr ogr
ams:acl i
entprogram andaser verprogram.Thecl i
entprogram andserver
program,executi
ngondi f
ferentendsystems,talktoeachot herbyexchangi ngHTTP
messages.

 webpageconsi
stsofobj
ect
s,eachofwhi
chcanbest
oredondi
ff
erentWeb
ser
ver
s

 Obj
ectcanbeHTMLf
il
e,JPEGi
mage,
Jav
aappl
et,
audi
ofi
l
e,…

 webpageconsistsofbaseHTML-f
il
ewhi
chi
ncl
udessev
eralr
efer
encedobj
ect
s,
eachaddr
essablebyaURL,e.
g.,

HTTPov
erv
iew
HTTP:
hyper
textt
ransf
erpr
otocol
Web’
sappl
i
cat
ion-
lay
erpr
otocol
cl
i
ent
/ser
vermodel
:
•cl
i
ent:browsert
hatr
equest
s,r
ecei
ves,(
usi
ngHTTPpr
otocol
)and“
displ
ays”
Webobject
s
•server:Web ser
versends (
usi
ng HTTP pr
otocol
)obj
ect
sinr
esponse t
o
r
equests

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 HTTPr
equest
-r
esponsebehav
ior

HTTPusesTCP:

 cl
i
enti
nit
iat
esTCPconnect
ion(
creat
essocket
)toser
ver
,por
t80

 ser
veraccept
sTCPconnect
ionf
rom cl
i
ent

 HTTP messages ( appl

i
cati
on-
lay
er pr
otocol messages) exchanged
betweenbrowser(HTTP cl
i
ent)andWebser ver(
HTTP server)§ TCP
connect
ioncl
osed
HTTPi
s“st
atel
ess”ser
vermai
ntai
nsnoi
nfor
mat
ionaboutpastcl
i
entr
equest
s
HTTPconnect
ions:
twot
ypes
Non-
per
sist
entHTTP
1.TCPconnect
ionopened
2.atmostoneobj
ectsentov
erTCPconnect
ion
3.TCPconnect
ioncl
oseddownl
oadi
ngmul
ti
pleobj
ect
srequi
redmul
ti
pleconnect
ions.
Per
sist
entHTTP

 TCPconnect
ionopenedt
oaser
ver

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  mult
ipl
eobj
ectscanbesentoversi
ngl
eTCPconnect
ionbet
weencl
i
ent
,andt
hat
ser
ver§TCPconnect
ioncl
osed

Definetheround-t
ripti
me( RTT),whi
chi st
het i
mei tt
akesforasmal lpackettotravel
fr
om clienttoserverandthenbacktot hecl
ient.TheRTTincl
udespacket -
propagati
on
delays,packetqueuing delaysinintermediat
er out
ers and swi
tches,and packet -
processingdel
ays.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Back-
of-
the-
env
elopecal
cul
ati
onf
ort
het
imeneededt
orequestandr
ecei
veanHTML
fi
l
e
HTTPwi
thPer
sist
entConnect
ions

Non-
persi
stentconnect
ionshavesomeshortcomi
ngs.Fi
rst
,abr
and-
new connect
ion
mustbeestabl
ishedandmaint
ainedf
oreachr
equest
edobj
ect.
Second,eachobj
ectsuf
fersadeli
verydelayoft
woRTTs—oneRTTt
oest
abl
i
sht
heTCP
connect
ionandoneRTTt orequestandrecei
veanobj
ect
.
Withpersist
entconnect
ions,
theserv
erleavestheTCPconnect
ionopenaftersendi
nga
response.Subsequentr
equestsandresponsesbet
weenthesameclientandservercan
besentov erthesameconnecti
on.

HTTP messagef
ormat
Ther
ear
etwot
ypesofHTTPmessages,
requestmessagesandr
esponsemessages.
 HTTPr
equestmessage:
• ASCI
I(human-
readabl
efor
mat
)

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Gener
alf
ormatofanHTTPr
equestmessage
HTTPResponseMessage
Thi
sresponsemessagecoul
dbet
her
esponset
otheexampl
erequestmessage.

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Gener
alf
ormatofanHTTPr
esponsemessage
 st
atuscodeappear
sin1stl
i
nei
nser
ver
-t
o-cl
i
entr
esponsemessage.
 somesampl
ecodes:
200OK
• r
equestsucceeded,
request
edobj
ectl
ateri
nthi
smsg

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301Mov
edPer
manent
ly
• r
equested obj
ectmov
ed,new l
ocat
ion speci
fi
ed l
ateri
nthi
s msg
(
Locati
on:)
400BadRequest
• r
equestmsgnotunder
stoodbyser
ver
404NotFound
• r
equest
eddocumentnotf
oundont
hisser
ver
505HTTPVer
sionNotSuppor
ted

Webcaches(
proxyser
ver
)
goal
:sat
isf
ycl
i
entr
equestwi
thouti
nvol
vi
ngor
igi
nser
ver
 userset
sbr
owser
:Webaccessesv
iacache
 br
owsersendsal
lHTTPr
equest
stocache
• obj
ecti
ncache:
cacher
etur
nsobj
ect
• el
secacher
equest
sobj
ectf
rom or
igi
nser
ver
,thenr
etur
nsobj
ectt
ocl
i
ent
 cacheact
sasbot
hcl
i
entandser
ver
 ser
verf
oror
igi
nal
request
ingcl
i
ent
 cl
i
entt
oor
igi
nser
ver
 t
ypi
cal
l
ycachei
sinst
all
edbyI
SP(
uni
ver
sit
y,company
,resi
dent
ial
ISP)

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Cl
i
ent
srequest
ingobj
ect
sthr
oughaWebcache

El
ect
roni
cMai
l
Thr
eemaj
orcomponent
s:
 useragent
s
 mai
lser
ver
s
 si
mpl
emai
ltr
ansf
erpr
otocol
:SMTP

UserAgent
 “
mai
lreader
”
 composi
ng,
edi
ti
ng,
readi
ngmai
lmessages
 e.
g.,
Out
look,
Thunder
bir
d,i
Phonemai
lcl
i
ent
 out
goi
ng,
incomi
ngmessagesst
oredonser
ver

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

mai
lser
ver
s:
 mai
l
boxcont
ainsi
ncomi
ngmessagesf
oruser
 messagequeueofout
goi
ng(
tobesent
)mai
lmessages
 SMTPpr
otocolbet
weenmai
lser
ver
stosendemai
lmessages
• cl
i
ent
:sendi
ngmai
lser
ver
• “
ser
ver
”:r
ecei
vi
ngmai
lser
ver
El
ect
roni
cMai
l
:SMTP
 usesTCPt
orel
i
abl
ytr
ansf
eremai
lmessagef
rom cl
i
entt
oser
ver
,por
t25
 di
rectt
ransf
er:
sendi
ngser
vert
orecei
vi
ngser
ver
 t
hreephasesoft
ransf
er
• handshaki
ng(
greet
ing)
• t
ransf
erofmessages
• cl
osur
e
 command/
responsei
nter
act
ion(
li
keHTTP)
• commands:
ASCI
Itext
• r
esponse:
stat
uscodeandphr
ase
 messagesmustbei
n7-
bitASCI

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Ahi
gh-
lev
elv
iewoft
heI
nter
nete-
mai
lsy
stem

Al
i
cesendsamessaget
oBob

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

 1)Al
i
ceusesUAt
ocomposemessage“
to”bob@someschool
.edu
2)Ali
ce’
sUAsendsmessaget
ohermai
lser
ver
;messagepl
acedi
nmessage
queue
3)cl
i
entsi
deofSMTPopensTCPconnect
ionwi
thBob’
smai
lser
ver
4)SMTPcl
i
entsendsAl
i
ce’
smessageov
ert
heTCPconnect
ion
5)Bob’
smai
lser
verpl
acest
hemessagei
nBob’
smai
l
box
6)Bobi
nvokeshi
suseragentt
oreadmessage

 SMTPusesper
sist
entconnect
ions
 SMTPr
equi
resmessage(
header&body
)tobei
n7-
bitASCI
I
 SMTPser
verusesCRLF.
CRLFt
odet
ermi
neendofmessage
compar
isonwi
thHTTP:
 HTTP:
pul
l
 SMTP:
push
 bot
hhav
eASCI
Icommand/
responsei
nter
act
ion,
stat
uscodes
 HTTP:
eachobj
ectencapsul
atedi
nit
sownr
esponsemessage
 SMTP:
mul
ti
pleobj
ect
ssenti
nmul
ti
par
tmessage
Mai
lmessagef
ormat

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 Mai
laccesspr
otocol
s
 SMTP:
del
i
ver
y/st
oraget
orecei
ver
’sser
ver
 mai
laccesspr
otocol
:ret
ri
eval
from ser
ver
• POP:
PostOf
fi
cePr
otocol
[RFC1939]
:aut
hor
izat
ion,
downl
oad
• I
MAP:InternetMailAccessPr
otocol[
RFC1730]
:mor
efeat
ures,i
ncl
udi
ng
mani
pulati
onofstoredmessagesonserv
er
• HTTP:
gmai
l
,Hot
mai
l
,Yahoo!Mai
l
,et
c.

E-
mai
lpr
otocol
sandt
hei
rcommuni
cat
ingent
it
ies
POP3pr
otocol
POP3i
sanext
remel
ysi
mpl
emai
laccesspr
otocol
.
POP3beginswhent heuseragent(t
heclient
)opensaTCPconnecti
ontothe
mailser
ver(
theser
ver)onport110.Wit
htheTCPconnect
ionest
abl
i
shed,POP3

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

pr
ogr
essest
hrought
hreephases:
aut
hor
izat
ion,
transact
ion,
andupdat
e.
Duri
ngt hef i
rstphase,authori
zation,t heuseragentsendsauser nameanda
password( inthecl ear
)t o authenticatetheuser .During thesecond phase,
tr
ansaction,t
heuseragentr etri
evesmessages;al sodur ingthisphase,theuser
agentcanmar kmessagesf ordeletion,removedel et
ionmar ks,andobtainmail
stat
ist
ics.Thet hi
rdphase,updat e,occur saftertheclienthasi ssuedthequit
command,endi ngthePOP3sessi on;att histime,themai lserverdeletesthe
messagest hatweremar kedfordeletion.
DuringaPOP3sessi onbetweenauseragentandt hemai lserver,t
hePOP3
servermaint
ainssomestateinformat
ion;inpart
icular,itkeepstrackofwhich
usermessageshav ebeenmar keddel
eted.Howev er
,t hePOP3ser verdoesnot
carryst
ateinfor
mationacrossPOP3sessi ons.Thisl ackofst at
ei nf
ormat
ion
acrosssessi
onsgreatl
ysi
mplif
iesthei
mplementationofaPOP3ser ver.

I
MAP
Wit hPOP3access, onceBobhasdownl oadedhi smessagest ot hel ocal machi ne,
hecancr eat emai lfol der sandmov et hedownl oadedmessagesi ntot hef older s.
Bobcant hendel etemessages,mov emessagesacr ossf older s,andsear chf or
messages( bysendernameorsubj ect ).Butt hispar adi gm—namel y,folder sand
messagesi nt hel ocalmachi ne—posesapr oblem f ort henomadi cuser ,who
woul dpr efert omai ntainaf ol derhi er archyonar emot eser vert hatcanbe
accessedf rom anycomput er.Thi si snotpossi blewit hPOP3—t hePOP3pr otocol
doesnotpr ovideanymeansf orausert ocr eater emot ef older sandassi gn
messagest of older s.To sol v et hisandot herpr obl ems,t heI MAP pr ot ocol,
def i
nedi n[ RFC3501] ,wasi nvent ed.Li kePOP3,I MAPi samai laccesspr ot ocol.
Ithasmanymor ef eat urest hanPOP3,buti tisal sosi gni
ficantlymor ecompl ex.
(Andt hust hecl ientandser v ersi dei mpl ement ati
onsar esi gni fi
cant l
ymor e
compl ex.)AnI MAPser verwi llassoci ateeachmessagewi t
haf older;whena
messagef irstar rivesatt heser v er,iti sassoci atedwi tht her ecipient’sI NBOX
folder.Ther ecipientcant henmov ethemessagei nt
oanew, user -createdf older,
readt hemessage,del etet hemessage,andsoon.TheI MAPpr ot ocolpr ov i
des
commandst oal l
owuser st ocr eat efol der sandmov emessagesf rom onef older
toanot her .I MAPal sopr ovi
descommandst hatal low user st osear chr emot e
foldersf ormessagesmat chingspeci fi
ccr iteri
a.Not et hat,unli
kePOP3, anI MAP
serv ermai ntainsuserst ateinf ormat ionacr ossI MAPsessi ons—f orexampl e,the
namesoft hef older sandwhi chmessagesar eassoci atedwi thwhi chf older s.
Anot heri mpor tantf eat ureofI MAPi st hati thascommandst hatper mi tauser
agentt oobt aincomponent sofmessages.Forexampl e,auseragentcanobt ain
j
ustt hemessageheaderofamessageorj ustonepar tofamul t
ipartMI ME
message.Thi sf eat urei susef ulwhent herei sal ow- bandwi dthconnect ion( for
exampl e,asl ow- speedmodem l ink)bet weent heuseragentandi tsmai lser ver.
Wit hal owbandwi dthconnect ion,t heusermaynotwantt odownl oadal loft he
messagesi ni t
smai lbox, par t
icul arlyav oi dingl ongmessagest hatmi ghtcont ain,

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 f
orex
ampl
e,anaudi
oorv
ideocl
i
p.
DNS:
Domai
nNameSy
stem
Therearetwoway stoidenti
fyahost —byahostnameandbyanI Paddr
ess.People
pref
ert he more mnemonic hostname i
dent
if
ier
,whil
erout
ers pref
erfi
xed-
lengt
h,
hi
erarchi
cal
lyst
ruct
uredI
Paddr esses.
Dir
ect oryservi
cethatt r
anslat
eshost namest oIPaddr
esses.Thi
sist hemaintaskof
theI nternet
’sdomai nnamesy stem (DNS).TheDNS is(1)adi str
ibut
eddatabase
i
mpl ement edinahi erarchyofDNSser vers,and(
2)anappli
cati
on-
layerprot
ocolt
hat
all
owshost stoquer
yt hedistr
ibuteddatabase.
DNS i
s commonlyempl
oyed byot herappli
cat
ion-
layerprot
ocols—incl
udi
ng HTTP,
SMTP,andFTP—t
otr
ansl
ateuser
-suppli
edhost
namest oIPaddresses.
DNSprovidesaf
ewot
heri
mpor
tantser
vicesi
naddi
ti
ont
otr
ansl
ati
nghost
namest
oIP
addr
esses:
•Hostali
asi
ng.Ahostwi thacompl i
cat
edhostnamecanhav eoneormor eali
asnames.
Forexample,ahost namesuchasr el
ay1.
west-coast
.enterpr
ise.com coul
dhav e,say
,
two al
iases such as enterpr
ise.
com and www. enterpri
se.
com.I nt hi
s case,the
host
namer el
ay1.westcoast
.ent
erpr
ise.
com i
ssaidtobeacanoni calhost
name.

 Mailser veraliasing.Forobv ious reasons,i ti

s hi ghl
ydesirablethate-mail
addressesbemnemoni c.Forexampl e,i
fBobhasanaccountwi t
hHot mail
,Bob’s
e-mailaddressmi ghtbeassi mpleasbob@hot mail
.com.Howev er,t
hehostname
oftheHot mailmai lser
verismor ecomplicatedandmuchl essmnemoni ct han
simplyhot mail.
com ( f
orexampl e,thecanonicalhost namemi ghtbesomet hing
l
ikerelay1.west-coast.
hotmail
.com) .DNScanbei nvokedbyamai lappl
i
cati
ont o
obtai
nt hecanoni calhostnamef orasuppl i
edaliashostnameaswel lastheI P
addressoft hehost .

 Loaddistr
ibut
ion.DNSisal
sousedt
operfor
mloaddi
str
ibut
ionamongr
epl
i
cat
ed
serv
ers,suchasrepli
cat
edWebserv
ers.
Whynotcent
ral
i
zeDNS?

 si
ngl
epoi
ntoff
ail
ure

 t
raf
fi
cvol
ume

 di
stantcent
ral
i
zeddat
abase

 mai
ntenance
ADi
str
ibut
ed,
Hier
archi
cal
Dat
abase
I
nordertodealwit
ht heissueofscal
e,theDNSusesal ar
genumberofser
ver
s,
or
gani
zedi
nahier
archi
calf
ashionanddi
str
ibut
edar
oundt
heworl
d.

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Ther
earethr
eeclassesofDNSserv
ers—r
ootDNSser
vers,top-
lev
eldomai
n(TLD)DNS
ser
vers,
andaut
horit
ati
veDNSser
vers—or
gani
zedi
nahierar
chyasshowninFi
gure.

Hi
erar
chyofDNSser
ver
s
Cl
i
entwant
sIPaddr
essf
orwww.
amazon.
com;
1stappr
oxi
mat
ion:

 cl
i
entquer
iesr
ootser
vert
ofi
nd.
com DNSser
ver

 cl
i
entquer
ies.
com DNSser
vert
ogetamazon.
com DNSser
ver

 cl
i
entquer
iesamazon.
com DNSser
vert
ogetI
Paddr
essf
orwww.
amazon.
com

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RootDNSserv
ers.IntheInter
netther
eare13r
ootDNSser
ver
s(l
abel
edAt
hroughM)
,
mostofwhi
charelocatedinNort
hAmer i
ca.
Top-l
eveldomai
n( TLD)server
s.Theseser
ver
sareresponsi
blef ort
op-
lev
eldomai
ns
suchascom, or
g,net,
edu,andgov,andal
loft
hecount
rytop-
leveldomai
nssuchasuk,
fr
,ca,andjp.
Authori
tati
veDNSser v
ers.Ever
yorgani
zationwi t
hpubli
clyaccessi
blehosts(suchas
Web ser versandmailserv
ers)ontheInternetmustprovidepubli
clyaccessi
bleDNS
recor
dst hatmapthenamesofthosehoststoI Paddr
esses.

Therei
sanotheri
mpor t
antt
ypeofDNSservercal
l
edthelocalDNSserver
.AlocalDNS
serv
erdoesnotst
rict
lybel
ongtothehi
erar
chyofser
ver
sbuti snev
ert
helesscent
ralt
o
theDNSarchit
ect
ure.

 whenhostmakesDNSquer
y,i
tissentt
oit
slocal
DNSser
ver
• Local
DNSser
verr
etur
nsr
epl
y,answer
ing:
• fr
om i
tsl
ocalcacheofr
ecentname-
to-
addr
esst
ransl
ati
onpai
rs(
possi
blyoutof
dat
e!)
• f
orwar
dingr
equesti
ntoDNShi
erar
chyf
orr
esol
uti
on
• eachI
SPhasl
ocal
DNSnameser
ver
;tof
indy
our
s:
• MacOS:
%scut
il-
-dns
• Wi
ndows:
>ipconf
ig/
all

 l
ocal
DNSser
verdoesn’
tst
ri
ctl
ybel
ongt
ohi
erar
chy

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

Exampl
e:hostatengi
neer
ing.
nyu.
edu
want
sIPaddr
essf
orgai
a.cs.
umass.
edu
I
ter
atedquer
y:

 cont
act
edser
verr
epl
i
eswi
thnameofser
vert
ocont
act

 “
Idon’
tknowt
hisname,
butaskt
hisser
ver
”

Recur
siv
eQuer
y
Exampl
e:hostatengi
neer
ing.
nyu.
edu
want
sIPaddr
essf
orgai
a.cs.
umass.
edu

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Downloaded from Ktunotes.in
I
nter
act
ionoft
hev
ari
ousDNSser
ver
s

DNSRecor
ds
DNS:
dist
ri
but
eddat
abasest
ori
ngr
esour
cer
ecor
ds(
RR)
RRf
ormat
:(name,
val
ue,
type,
ttl
)

t
ype=A

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in

  namei
shost
name

 v
aluei
sIPaddr
ess

t
ype=NS

 namei
sdomai
n(e.
g.,
foo.
com)

 v
aluei
shost
nameofaut
hor
it
ati
venameser
verf
ort
hisdomai
n

t
ype=CNAME

 namei
sal
i
asnamef
orsome“
canoni
cal
”

 (
ther
eal
)name

 www.
i
bm.
com i
sreal
l
yser
ver
east
.backup2.
ibm.
com

 v
aluei
scanoni
cal
name
t
ype=MX

 v
aluei
snameofSMTPmai
lser
verassoci
atedwi
thname
DNSquer
yandr
epl
ymessages,
bot
hhav
esamef
ormat
:

DNSmessagef
ormat

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I
nser
ti
ngRecor
dsi
ntot
heDNSDat
abase
exampl
e:newst
art
up“
Net
wor
kUt
opi
a”
r
egi
sternamenet
wor
kupt
opi
a.com atDNSr
egi
str
ar(
e.g.
,Net
wor
kSol
uti
ons)
• pr
ovide names,I
P addr
esses of aut
hor
it
ati
ve name ser
ver (
pri
mar
y and
secondary)
• regi
strar inser
ts NS,A RRs int
o .com TLD serv
er:(networkut
opi
a.com,
dns1.
networkutopia.
com,NS)(
dns1.
net
workut
opi
a.com,
212.
212.
212.1,A)
cr
eat
eaut
hor
it
ati
veser
verl
ocal
l
ywi
thI
Paddr
ess212.
212.
212.
1
• t
ypeAr
ecor
dforwww.
net
wor
kupt
opi
a.com
• t
ypeMXr
ecor
dfornet
wor
kut
opi
a.com

Downloaded from Ktunotes.in