SCIENCE

Part - I

Grade 9

Educational Publications Department

First Print 2017

Second Print 2018

Third Print 2019

All Rights Reserved

ISBN 978-955-25-0162-3

Published by Educational Publications Department

Printed by PrintXcel Private Limited
164/4/A, Bakmeegahawewa Road, Pore,
Athurugiriya.

ii
 The National Anthem of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Matha

Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Sundara siri barinee, surendi athi sobamana Lanka
Dhanya dhanaya neka mal palaturu piri jaya bhoomiya ramya
Apa hata sepa siri setha sadana jeewanaye matha
Piliganu mena apa bhakthi pooja Namo Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Oba we apa vidya
Obamaya apa sathya
Oba we apa shakthi
Apa hada thula bhakthi
Oba apa aloke
Apage anuprane
Oba apa jeevana we
Apa mukthiya oba we
Nava jeevana demine, nithina apa pubudukaran matha
Gnana veerya vadawamina regena yanu mana jaya bhoomi kara
Eka mavakage daru kela bevina
Yamu yamu vee nopama
Prema vada sema bheda durerada
Namo, Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha

iii
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v
 Foreword

The educational objectives of the contemporary world are becoming more

complex along with the economic, social, cultural and technological development.
The learning and teaching process too is changing in relation to human experiences,
technological differences, research and new indices. Therefore, it is required to
produce the textbook by including subject related information according to the
objectives in the syllabus in order to maintain the teaching process by organizing
learning experiences that suit to the learner needs. The textbook is not merely
a learning tool for the learner. It is a blessing that contributes to obtain a higher
education along with a development of conduct and attitudes, to develop values and
to obtain learning experiences.

The government in its realization of the concept of free education has offered you
all the textbooks from grades 1-11. I would like to remind you that you should make
the maximum use of these textbooks and protect them well. I sincerely hope that this
textbook would assist you to obtain the expertise to become a virtuous citizen with
a complete personality who would be a valuable asset to the country.

I would like to bestow my sincere thanks on the members of the editorial and writer
boards as well as on the staff of the Educational Publications Department who have
strived to offer this textbook to you.

W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka,
Commissioner General of Educational Publications,
Educational Publications Department,
Isurupaya,
Battaramulla.
2019.04.10

vi
Monitoring and Supervision
W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka - Commissioner General of Educational Publications
Educational Publications Department
Direction
W. A. Nirmala Piyaseeli - Commissioner of Educational Publications
(Development)
Educational Publications Department
Co-ordination
K. D. Bandula Kumara - Deputy Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
W. Suvendra Shyamaleen Jayawardhana - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
Y. M. Priyangika Kumari Yapa - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
G. M. A. Dinushi N. Muhandiram - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
Panel of Editors
1. Prof. Mangala Ganehiarachchi - Head, Department of Zoology
University of Kelaniya
2. Prof. Nilwala Kottegoda - Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry
University of Sri Jayewardenepura
3. Dr. M. K. Jayananda - Senior Lecturer
Department of Physical Science
University of Colombo
4. M. P. Vipulasena - Director (Science)
Ministry of Education
5. R. S. J. P. Uduporuwa - Director (Science)
National Institute of Education
6. Ashoka De Silva - Senior Lecturer
National Institute of Education
7. K. V. Nandani Sriyalatha - Commissioner (retired)
Educational Publications Department
8. P. Atchuthan - Assistant Lecturer
National Institute of Education
9. V. Rajudevan - Assistant Lecturer
National Institute of Education
10. K. D. Bandula Kumara - Deputy Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
11. W. Suvendra Shyamaleen - Assistant Commissioner
Jayawardhana Educational Publications Department
12. Y. M. Priyangika Kumari Yapa - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department

vii
Panel of Writers
1. Dr. K. Ariyasinghe - Professional Science Writer
2. S. M. Saluwadana - Science Co-ordinator (retired)
Dept. of Provincial Education (North Central)
3. L. Gamini Jayasooriya - In-Service Advisor (Science)
Divisional Education Office, Wennappuwa
4. W. G. A. Ravindra Veragoda - Teacher Service
Sri Rahula National School, Alawwa
5. Muditha Athukorala - Teacher Service
Prajapathi Girl's School, Horana
6. T. Indika Krishantha Nawarathne - Teacher Service
Nalanda College, Colombo 10
7. R. M. P. Bandara - Teacher Service
Neluwa National School, Neluwa
8. H. T. C. Gamini Jayarathne - In-Service Advisor (retired)
9. A. M. T. Pigera - Assistant Director of Education (retired)
10. M. A. P. Munasinghe - Chief Project Officer (retired)
National Insitute of Education
11. Suyama Kottegoda - Teacher Service
Bandaragama Central College, Bandaragama
12. K. Shanthakumar - In-Service Advisor (Science)
Zonal Education Office, Haliela
13. J. Emanuvel - Principal
St. Anthony's Boys' School, Colombo 13
14. M. M. F. Rafaka - Deputy Principal
Muslim Ladies College, Colombo 04
15. M. M. S. Zareena - Teacher Service
Budurdeen Mahmood Ladies College, Kandy
16. T. Balakumaran Teacher Service (retired)

Language Editing and Proof Reading

1. M. R. S. K. Ganegoda - Teacher Service (retired)
2. Anupa Madupani Weerarathne - Assistant Director
Ministry of Education
Cover Page, Illustrations and Page
Layout
Malaka Lalanajeewa - Graphic Designer

Technical Assistance
1. Abisheka Ranasinghege - Educational Publications Department
2. M. D. Tharindu Samarasinghe - Educational Publications Department

viii
 Introduction

This textbook was compiled by the Educational Publications Department in accordance

with the syllabus prepared by the National Institute of Education for the use of Grade 9
students in the Sri Lankan school system with effect from 2018.
An effort has made here to arrange the subject content to suit the national educational
goals, common national competencies, the objectives of teaching science and the content
of the syllabus.
The subject of science directs the student towards a more active learning process in a manner
as to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for a developmental scientific thought.
In the compilation of this textbook, subject content is largely arranged based on experiences
of daily life. It has contributed to prove the fact that the subject of science is very much
closer to the day to day life.
The compilation of this textbook based on activities is a distinctive feature. The activities are
prepared based on the scientific method in order to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes.
Activities that can be performed individually at home as well as in school are incorporated
here. We believe that learning through activities would contribute to create a liking and an
interest in the child towards learning science.
At the end of each chapter, a summary, a series of exercises and a glossary were included. It
enables the student to identify the important details of the chapter as well as to self evaluate
the achievement of learning outcomes.
For the purpose of directing the student to study further about the subject matter, more
information is included in the "For extra knowledge". It is given only to broaden the subject
area of the child and certainly not to ask questions at term tests.
Assignments and projects are given with the purpose of directing the student towards
an explorative study. It enables the students to develop the higher order skills such as
application, analysis and synthesis of the concepts achieved from the lesson.
We strongly believe that the duty of the teachers who teach science is to direct the student
for self learning instead of teaching the student using traditional teaching methods. This
textbook can be utilized by the teachers as a learning tool to execute their teaching role
properly.
We would like to bestow our sincere thanks on Chief project officer D. M. Wijesinghe and
science teacher (Visakha Vidyalaya) S. M. Sanjeewa.
We kindly request you to forward your comments and suggestions on this textbook to the
Educational Publications Department.

Board of Writers and Editors

ix
x
 Contents
Page
1. Applications of Micro-organisms 01
1.1 Micro-organisms 01
1.2 Environments and substrates of micro-organisms 03
1.3 Effects of micro-organisms 04

2. Eye and Ear 16

2.1 Structure and function of the human eye 16
2.2 Defects of vision 22
2.3 Eye diseases 29
2.4 Structure and function of the human ear 31
2.5 Defects of ear 33

3. Nature and Properties of Matter 38

3.1 Elements 39
3.2 Compounds 44
3.3 Mixtures 46

4. Basic Concepts Associated with Force 52

4.1 Force 52
4.2 Magnitude of force 53
4.3 Direction of force and point of application 54
4.4 Graphical representation of force 56

5. Pressure Exerted by Solid 60

5.1 Pressure 60
5.2 Factors affecting the pressure 61
5.3 Units of pressure 66
5.4 Changing the factors affecting pressure as needed 67

xi
6. The Human Circulatory System 72
6.1 Structure of the human heart 72
6.2 Arteries, veins and capillaries 73
6.3 Components of blood and their functions 75
6.4 Blood transfusion 76

7. Plant Growth Substances 83

7.1 Introduction to plant growth substances 83
7.2 Uses of artificial growth substances 86

8. Support and Movements of Organisms 89

8.1 Support and movements of animals 89
8.2 Bones, muscles and joints 90
8.3 Support and movements of plants 92

9. The Evolutionary Process 98

9.1 Origin of the Earth 98
9.2 Origin of life on the Earth 99
9.3 Evolution 102
9.4 Importance of evolution in bio-diversity 107

Cover Page :- Human heart and a magnified DNA helix.

xii
1 Applications of
Micro-organisms
1.1 Micro-organisms
Recall what you have learnt about micro-organisms in grade 8. You have learnt
micro-organisms are unicellular or multicellular organisms which cannot be seen
clearly with the naked eye. Do assignment 1.1 using the previous knowledge.

Assignment 1.1

² Prepare a list of the groups of micro-organisms you know and write names of
micro-organisms belong to each group.

Micro-organisms live in our environment as well as in our body.

Most micro-organisms are favourable to humans and other living beings, but some
are harmful.
Micro-organisms are a wide spread and common species category of living
organisms on Earth. They are a group of living organisms with a simple structure.
They grow fast and have high rate of reproduction.
Micro-organisms have the ability to adapt for different environmental conditions
and modes of nutrition.
Unicellular and some of the multicellular organisms can be seen in
micro-organism category.
These micro-organisms can be categorized into groups as bacteria, fungi, algae and
protozoa. Viruses which are a group in between the living and non-living are also
studied under micro-organisms.

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 1

Algae ² Unicellular or multicellular ² Chlamydomonas
² Filamentous or thallus body ² Spirogyra
forms
² Diatoms
² Microscopic alga floating
on the water surfaces are
called phytoplanktons
Chlamydomonas
² Possess chlorophyll
and have the ability of
photosynthesis
² Algal varieties such as Ulva
are visible to the naked eye
Spirogyra

Diatoms
Viruses ² Electron microscopic ² Influenza virus
² Display both living and ² HIV
non-living characteristics
² Ebola virus
² Multiply only inside the
living cells ² Dengue virus
² No cellular organization
² They do not show the living
characteristics such as
respiration and growth
* Several enlarged diagrams of microbes are given in the above table. Memorization of the
scientific names is not needed.

1.2 Environments and substrates of micro-organisms

Micro-organisms live within all the eco systems on the Earth where other living
organisms survive. Microbial world spreads among soil, water and for about up to
6 km of the atmosphere. These organisms survive even on and within the body of
plants and animals. Meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, human skin, mouth, alimentary
canal and urinary tract are some specific substrates that micro-organisms grow.
Microbes can survive even under extreme environmental conditions. Hot water
springs, salt marshes, liquids such as petrol and diesel are some such environments.

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 3

1.3 Effects of micro-organisms
Micro-organisms have been used in different industries by human from the past.
Micro-organisms are beneficial for the environmental equilibrium. But, they can
also be harmful to human because some of them act as pathogens and spoil food.

1.3.1 Beneficial effects of micro-organisms

Micro-organisms are used in agriculture, medicine, conservation of environment
and in different kinds of industries in seek of economical advantages and for
research purposes. Here we will investigate how they are being used in different
fields.
Applications of micro-organisms in agriculture
² Gene technology
In agriculture, crop harvest is enhanced and
enriched by producing drought-resistant
and pest-resistant crops and crops with
high nutrients and taste, with the aid of
micro-organisms. Further, biological
pesticides and weedicides are developed Golden Rice Normal Rice
using micro-organisms. Figure 1.1

Genes of the bacterium Erwinia uredovora is used in developing golden rice

enriched with vitamin A (figure 1.1).
Genes of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is muted in Zea maize genome to
produce toxins to crop pests.

² Nitrogen fixation
Even though 78% of Nitrogen exists naturally in the
atmosphere, plants have a limited ability to absorb it
directly. But Rhizobium, a type of bacteria that lives
in the nodules of legumes such as beans and peas
has the ability to absorb atmospheric Nitrogen
directly. This process is known as Nitrogen fixation.
Commercially produced Rhizobium is used in
cultivation lands in order to increase the yield of
legumes. Figure 1.2 - Nodules of legumes

Azotobacter, a free living Nitrogen fixing bacteria, is directly added to the cultivation
lands. They are known as bio fertilizers. Bio fertilizers are the substances which
make the soil rich with nutrients by using micro-organisms.

4 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms

² Producing compost
Compost is prepared by rapid decomposition of
organic matter by micro-organisms. Compost
adds mineral to the soil systematically and
makes favourable conditions for plants to
grow. The organic matter in compost are often
decomposed by bacteria and fungi.

² Bio-pesticides Figure 1.3 - Producing compost by using

organic matter
Some of the micro-organisms can be used as
bio pesticides to control insect pests that cause damage to the crops.
e.g. The fungus Alternaria is used to combat the aquatic weed, salvinia.

Applications of micro-organisms in medicine

Use of micro-organisms to treat the diseases caused by another micro-organism
is very common in medicine. Micro-organisms are used to produce antibiotics,
vaccines and anti-toxins.

² Producing antibiotics
Chemicals produced in the body of a
microbe to destroy or sabotage another
micro-organism are known as antibiotics.
Fungi and bacteria are used to produce
antibiotics. Antibiotics can kill bacteria and
fungi but they do not fight against infections
Figure 1.4 - Some antibiotics
caused by viruses.
Although, antibiotics are not much harmful to human they can cause side effects if
used without medical advice.
Penicillin, Amoxicillin, Tetracycline and Erythromycin are used against bacterial
infections while Griseofulvin is used against fungal infections.

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 5

 For extra knowledge
² The antibiotic Penicillin was discovered by the Scottish
scientist Alexander Fleming.
² It is produced using the fungus Penicillium notatum.

Alexander Fleming

² Producing vaccines
A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease causing
micro-organism; and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe
or from its toxins.
² Vaccines made from weakened microbes
e.g. Polio, Tuberculosis, Measles
² Vaccines made from killed microbes
e.g. Cholera, Influenza, Typhoid
² Vaccines made from toxins of microbes
e.g. Tetanus, Diphtheria
² Vaccines made from body parts of microbes using genetic engineering
e.g. Hepatitis B

Assignment 1.2
Collect information about the immunization programmes conducted in Sri Lanka.
Display the collected information in a wallpaper in the classroom.
² Producing anti toxins
Bio-chemical substances produced by pathogenic bacteria which harm the host’s
activity are known as toxins. Anti-toxins are synthesized using these toxins by
removing its toxic components.
e.g. Tetanus vaccine
Applications of micro-organisms in industries
Various strains of microbes are used for research and economic benefits. Using
micro-organisms in industrial activities for economic benefits is known as
Industrial Microbiology.
6 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms
Micro-organisms are commonly used in following large scale and small scale
industries.
² Producing dairy products (yoghurt, curd, cheese, butter)
² Producing biogas
² Metal extraction
² Products based on plant fibres
² Producing alcohol
² Producing vinegar
² Bakery industry

For extra knowledge

Industry Micro-organisms used
Producing alcohol Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Producing vinegar Acetobacter aceti
Bakery industry Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Producing dairy products Lactobacillus bulgaricus
(yoghurt, curd, cheese, butter) Streptococcus thermophilus
Producing biogas Methanococcus, Methanobacterium
Products based of plant fibres Bacillus corchorus, Bacillus comesii
Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans
Metal extraction
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans

² Producing biogas
A mixture containing organic materials such
as straw, cow dung and water is used to
produce biogas. Anaerobic bacteria such as
Methanococcus react on these organic surfaces
and produce biogas. Biogas mainly consists of
Methane gas. Therefore, it can be used as an
energy source.

² Metal extraction Figure 1.5 - Producing biogas

The most simple and effective technology used for the metal extraction from low
grade ores, by the use of microbes, is known as bio-leaching. Uranium and Copper
are such two metals that are extracted by bio-leaching.

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 7

² Milk based products
Let us do activity 1.1 to demonstrate the production of yoghurt.

Activity 1.1
You will need :- Pure cows’ milk, yoghurt sample for culture, sugar, gelatin, a pan
to boil milk, some plastic cups, a thermometer

Method :-
² Heat cows’ milk for 15-30 minutes in a temperature between 88 0 C - 95 0 C.
² Remove the cream.
² Add sugar and gelatin as required.
² Add culture youghurt sample to the milk in small amount in 60 0C temperature
and mix well.
² Put the mixture into plastic cups.
² Keep the mixture for 6 - 7 hours in the temperature between 40 0 C - 45 0 C.
² Cover the cups and keep in the refrigerator (under 4 0 C).

Step - I Step - II Step - III

Gelatin Sugar
88 - 95 0C
Cream

Milk Milk

Cooling
Step - VII
Heat for 15-30 min

Step - IV Step - V &VI

40 - 45 0C
60 0C Extract

Milk

Incubating for 6-7 hours Refrigeration under 4 0C

Figure 1.6

8 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms

When boiling, unfavourable bacteria in milk get
destroyed. Lactobacillus and Streptococcus are
used as culture in producing yoghurt. They turn
Lactose into Lactic acid. Since it creates an acidic
medium, growth of other micro-organisms get
retarded and enhance preservation. Refrigerating
further retards bacterial growth.
Figure 1.7 - Dairy products
(yoghurt, curd, cheese, butter)

² Products based on plant fibres

Plant fibres are used for various products and
these fibres are separated by using bacteria.
Coconut, hemp, palmyrah and agave plants are
used to get fibre. The compound pectate which
is among the fibres keep them bound together.
The Pectinase enzyme which is produced by
the relevant bacteria helps to separate these
fibres by digesting pectate.
Figure 1.8 - Crushing coconut husks

Applications of micro-organisms in environmental conservation

Micro-organisms are commonly used for environmental conservation. The
technology used to remove environmental pollutants using micro-organisms is
known as bio-remediation.
Following are some instances where bio-remediation is applied.
² Microbes are used to decompose the organic waste matter in polluted water.
² Pseudomonas; a kind of a bacteria which is released on to the ocean water for
the decomposition of oil layers on the ocean. An enzyme released by these
micro-organisms decomposes the hydrocarbons in oil.
² Heavy metals such as Chromium (Cr), Lead (Pb) and Mercury (Hg) are released
to the environment from different industries. This polluted water is sent through
a tower which contains bacteria to remove these toxic heavy metals from water.
² In producing bio-degradable plastics (plastics that are decomposed by bacteria)

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 9

We have discussed the favourable impacts of micro-organisms. Based on the
following features, micro-organisms are used in economically important large-scale
productions.
² Their biological processes occur very rapidly as their growth rate and metabolic
rate is high.
² Various strains/varieties of microbes exist that are capable of acting and
multiplying on various substances.
² Since micro-organisms possess simple genes, they can be easily used for
genetic engineering. Hence, microbes are often used for modern genetic
engineering.
² The majority of micro-organisms can be obtained at very low rates or free of
charge from the environment to use in industries.
² Though, large amount of energy is required for other industries, a small
amount of energy is required for industries using microbes.
² Though, most of the industries cause heavy environmental pollution and
serious environmental deterioration, the industries with microbes cause
minimal environmental damages.

Assignment 1.3
Gather information regarding the applications of micro-organisms in environmental
conservation. Prepare an article to present in the wallpaper.

1.3.2 Adverse effects of micro-organisms

Causing diseases for man, plants and animals that are economically important
for man, food spoilage and economical damage to non-living surfaces are several
adverse effects of microbes. Biological weapons are another instance where man
uses microbes adversely.
Causing diseases
Bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa are the groups of micro-organisms that cause
diseases. A micro-organism that has the potential to cause a disease is called a
pathogen. Mosquitoes and flies are vectors which carry the pathogen to the host.
Host is an organism, who provides its body inside or outside as the substrate to
growth of the pathogen.
e.g. Viruses act as the pathogen for Dengue disease, while mosquitoes are the
vectors. Symptoms appear on man, who is the host.
10 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms
² Diseases caused by micro-organisms to human
Microbial infections spread by air, water, food, contact, vectors etc. Pathogenic
micro-organisms cause different infections to human beings through various
methods. Information of such infections is given in table 1.2.
Table 1.2 - Information of diseases caused by micro-organisms to human
Way the pathogen enters
Pathogen Disease Method of spread
the body
Through respiratory
Cold Air
system
Through the skin by
Dengue Mosquito vectors
Viruses mosquito bites
Blood and other fluids of Through sexual contacts
AIDS
an infected person or blood transfusion
Through respiratory
Tuberculosis Air
system
Bacteria
Polluted food and Through digestive system
Typhoid fever
vectors such as housefly with food
Through the skin by
Malaria Mosquito (vectors)
mosquito bite
Amoebic Through digestive
Protozoa Polluted water and food
dysentery system
Through open wounds on
Leishmaniasis Vectors such as sandfly
the skin
Pityriasis Contact of an infected
person or through clothes Through skin
Fungi Rashes of an infected person
* The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis is used as a biological control to destroy the larval
stages of dengue mosquitoes.

For extra knowledge

Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by a protozoan. It is
spread by the bite of Sandfly which acts as the vector.
The protozoan can enter through skin ulcers. Then, it
infects the skin, mouth and nasal path. Skin ulcers,
fever, reducing red blood cells and enlarging liver are
symptoms of leishmaniasis.
Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 11
 ² Diseases caused by micro-organisms to plants
Some of the diseases caused by micro-organisms to plants are given below.

Powdery mildew disease

Powdery mildew is a disease caused by a fungus. The leaves, stem, flowers and
fruits of the plant are affected by this disease. Appearing of white or gray colour
powdery material is the main symptom of infected parts. This disease can damage
every part of the tree (figure 1.9).

Late blight
Potato plant is commonly affected by this disease which is caused by a fungus.
Brown spots can be seen on the leaves and later they turn into black. Then, the
whole tree gets affected by the disease (figure 1.10).

Wilting
Fungi or bacteria cause this disease. The xylem of the plants which transports
water throughout the tree gets affected from this disease. Later the xylem does not
function properly due to damage. Therefore, the whole plant gets withered due to
poor supply of water (figure 1.11).

Figure 1.9 - Grapes with powdery Figure 1.10 - Potato

wx.udr frda.plant
hg with Figure 1.11 - Tomato plant
mildew disease late blight
m;%with
úÑ;% frda.hg f.dÿre
bacterial wilt fld< fl
f.dÿre jQ w¾;dm,a jQ mefmd,a Ydlhla f.dÿre j
Ydlhla
Food spoilage caused by micro-organisms
1'11 rEmh
Micro-organisms multiply on food as food has the necessary factors for the growth
of micro-organisms. Micro-organisms convert the components of the food into
unfavourable materials or they add toxic materials to food. Due to this reason the
nature of the food is changed. The change of physical and chemical nature of food
makes the food unfit for consumption. This process is known as food spoilage.
(You have learnt about food spoilage such as fermentation of carbohydrates,
putrefaction of proteins and rancidity of lipids in grade 8).

12 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms

 Summary
² Micro-organisms are unicellular or multicellular organisms which cannot be
seen clearly with the naked eye.
² The main micro-organism categories are bacteria, fungi, algae and protozoa.
² Viruses have living and non-living characteristics but, they are also studied
in microbiology.
² Micro-organisms live within all the eco-systems with favourable
environmental conditions and even under the extreme environmental conditions.
² Micro-organisms are used in various fields such as agriculture, medicine,
industries and for environmental conservation as well.
² Food spoilage, diseases, damage done to the economically important surfaces
and use of micro-organisms as biological weapons are some adverse effects
of micro-organisms.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. A group of autotrophic micro-organisms is,
1. viruses 2. fungi 3. algae 4. protozoa
2. Toxic chemicals produced in the body of a microbe to destroy or sabotage
an another micro-organism is called as,
1. antibodies 2. anti nutrients 3. antiseptics 4. antibiotics
3. Some characteristics of viruses are given below.
a. No cellular organization
b. Multiply only in living cells
c. Do not show the living characteristics such as respiration and growth
The correct statements of the above are;
1. a and b 2. a and c 3. b and c 4. a, b and c
4. A disease caused by bacteria is,
1. Malaria 2. Tuberculosis 3. Rabies 4. Ebola
5. The technology used to remove the environmental pollutants by applying
micro-organisms is known as,
1. bio-control 2. bio-degradation
3. bio-remediation 4. bio-leaching
02) State whether the following statements are true (√) or false (x).
1. Antibiotics are any chemical substance that is used to destroy or
deactivate micro-organisms. ( )
2. The vaccine given for tetanus contains weakened bacterial toxins. ( )
14 Science | Applications of Micro-organisms
 3. Viruses are pathogens that display both living and non-living
characteristics. ( )
Most microbes in the environment are unfavourable to living
4. ( )
beings.
5. Rhizobium bacteria found in the root nodules of legume plants fix
atmospheric nitrogen. ( )

03) Answer the following questions.

1. Name three industries based on microbial activity.
2. Explain two instances where micro-oraganisms are used in the medical field.
3. Mention three instances where microbes are used in environmental conservation.
4. Write three good health habits that could minimize infections caused by
micro-organisms.
5. State three strategies used in agriculture to minimize infections caused by
micro-organisms.

Technical Terms
Micro-organism - laIqø Ôúhd - ~sn[Q
Microbiology - laIqø Ôj úoHdj - ~sq°›¯À
Substrate - Wmia;rh - R̨£øh
Industrial microbiology - ld¾ñl laIqø Ôj úoHdj - øPzöuõÈß•øÓ ~sq°›¯À
Nitrogen fixation - khsg%cka ;sr lsÍu - ø|uμ\ß £vzuÀ
Organic food - ldnksl wdydr - ÷\uÚ EnÄ
Bio pesticides - ffcj m<sfndaOkdYl - E°›¯Ø ¥øh |õ]ÛPÒ
Antibiotics - m%;sÔjl - ~sq°ºU öPõÀ¼PÒ
Biogas - Ôj jdhqj - E°º Áõ²
Bio-leaching - ffcj laISrKh - E°›¯À }º•øÓ¯›¨¦
Bio-remediation - ffcj m%;sl¾uKh - E°›¯À £›P›¨¦
Food spoilage - wdydr krla ùu - EnÄ £ÊuøhuÀ
Biological weapons - ffcj ridhksl wú - E°›¯À B²u[PÒ
Immunization - m%;sYla;slrKh - }º¨¥hÚ©õUPÀ
Genes - cdk - £μ®£øμ¯»SPÒ
Antitoxins - m%;sOQ,l - öuõm]öÚv›
Bio-degradation - ffcj ydhkh - E°›¯À Ÿv¯õP ¤›¢uÈøP¯øhUTi¯
Pathogen - jHdêcklhd - ÷|õ¯õUQ
Vector - jdylhd - ÷|õ´U PõÂ
Host - Odrlhd - ¸¢x ÁÇ[Q

Science | Applications of Micro-organisms 15

The table 2.1 shows the information about the main parts of the eye.

Table 2.1 - Information about the major parts of the human eye
Structural Part Information
Sclerotic layer • Tough, white outer most layer of the eye
• Light do not penetrate through it.
Cornea • The sclerotic layer in front of the iris becomes thin,
transparent and forms the cornea
Choroid • Inside the sclerotic layer is the choroid
• Supplies blood to the eye
Retina • Inside the Choroid layer is the retina
• The light sensitive rod cells and cone cells are located in
this layer.
Aqueous humour • A transparent watery liquid.
• Fills the space between the lens and cornea.
Lens • Transparent biconvex lens that has the ability to change its
curvature
• Focuses the images on retina.
Iris • Controls the amount of light entering the eye
Pupil • The hole in the centre of the iris.
• It allows light to enter and pass through the lens.
Ciliary muscle • Supports to hold the lens
• Helps to change the curvature of the lens, when necessary.
Vitreous humour • A transparent Jelly-like substance, which fills the rear
cavity of the lens.
• Helps to maintain the spherical shape of the eye.
Fovea/Yellow spot • The sensitive part of the retina, where the sharp images
formed.
Blind spot • The area of the retina, where light sensitive cells are not
located.
• Though, light is focused no vision is possible.
Optic nerve • The nerve that connects the eye and the brain.
• Convey the visual stimulus from the retina to the brain for
the interpretation of the image.

18 Science | Eye and Ear

Let us see how the eye perceives visionary senses.
Let us inquire the way that our eye functions to give us sight. To see an object clearly,
light rays must be entered to the eye from the object. The rays refract through the
lens and converge on to the retina, forming an inverted image. Then, the nerve
endings on the retina get stimulated and send the message about the image to the
brain through optic nerve. Optical area of brain interpret it as an upright image.
Eye lens is convex. Let us engage in the activity 2.2 to study the refraction of light
through convex and concave lenses.

Activity 2.2
You will need :- A convex lens, a concave lens, a parallel beam of light made
by using a torch or by reflecting the sunlight using a mirror, a
comb
Method :-
² Let the parallel beam of light fall on the convex lens and observe the refracted
rays.
² Let the parallel beam of light fall on the concave lens and observe the refracted
rays.
² Draw the path of the light in both situations in your note book.

The path of a parallel beam of light directed towards a convex lens after refracting
through the lens is depicted in the figure 2.5. After refraction the light rays get
converged to a point.
Focus

Focal length
Figure 2.5 - Refraction of parallel beam of light through convex lens

The point that collects light rays in front of a convex lens is called the focal point
of the lens. The distance between lens and focus is focal length.

Science | Eye and Ear 19

A parallel beam of light falls on a concave lens after refraction through the lens get
diverged as in the figure 2.6.
Focal length
Focus

Figure 2.6 - Refraction of parallel beam of light through concave lens

After the refraction, the light rays can be observed to be diverged, as shown in
figure 2.6. Here the rays after refraction appear to come from a point called focus.
An image of an close object forms far from the convex lens, while far object forms
an image, close to the lens. Let us engage in activity 2.3 to study this concept.

Activity 2.3
You will need :- A convex lens, a candle, a box of matches, lens holder, a screen
(you can prepare a screen by covering a lens holder or a small
box with a white paper)
Method :-
² Fix the convex lens to the lens holder. Using the lens get a clear image of a
distant object on the screen.
² Light the candle in front of the lens and get a clear image on the screen.
² Measure the distance between the lens and the image ( image distance) in both
cases, and compare.

You can confirm that the image distance is more when the object is located close by
than it is located far away.
But, considering the eye, the distance from the lens to the retina (image distance)
cannot be changed. Then, how can we clearly see the objects close by and far
away? The lens of the eye has the ability to increase or decrease its curvature to the
required size.
Let us do the activity 2.4 to study about the image formation of a distant object and
nearby object without changing the image distance.
20 Science | Eye and Ear
 Activity 2.4
You will need :- A convex lens with a less curvature, another convex lens with
a higher curvature, candle, lens holder, screen
Method-
² Fix the convex lens with less
curvature to the lens holder
and get a clear image of a
distant object on to the screen
(figure 2.7 a). Figure 2.7 a
² Fix the convex lens with a
higher curvature to the lens
holder without changing the
distance between the lens and
the screen. Now get a clear
image of the lit candle on to
the screen (figure 2.7 b). Figure 2.7 b

The focal length is comparatively

high in low-convex lenses (lens
with a less curvature) while the
focal length is relatively low
in higher convex lenses (lenses
Figure 2.8 a - Convex Figure 2.8 b - Convex lens
with a higher curvature). lens with less curvature with high curvature
Figure 2.8

According to the activity 2.4 it can be concluded as follows.

To get a clear image without changing the image distance,
² The curvature of the eye lens should be reduced for a distant object.
² The curvature of the eye lens should be increased for a close object.

Assignment 2.1
Make a water lens using necessary items.
By increasing or decreasing the curvature of the lens, get clear images of a lit
candle placed in different places, without changing the image distance.

Science | Eye and Ear 21

 ² Ray diagram for an image formed from a far object on the retina of eye
(figure 2.9).
The rays that reach from the far object, can be considered as parallel rays.

Figure 2.9

The rays that reach the eye from the far object, get refracted through the lens and
converged onto the retina making an image on it.

² Ray diagram for an image formed from a close object on the retina of eye
(figure 2.10).
The rays that reach from the close object, can be considered as diverged rays.

Figure 2.10

The rays that reach the eye from the close object, get refracted through the lens and
converged onto the retina making an image on it.

2.2 Defects of vision

Two eye defects can be identified in vision, when the eye ball becomes short or long
and when eye is unable to adjust the focal length of its lens to the desired level.
² Long sight (hypermetropia)
² Short sight (myopia)

22 Science | Eye and Ear

Long sight (hypermetropia)
A person having this defect is able to see far objects clearly, but close objects
become unclear. This happens because of the inability to increase the curvature of
the eye lens or the eye ball being too short. This defect can be corrected by using
a convex lens.
Let us look at how the vision of a person suffering from long sight takes place.

² The person can focus the rays

coming from a distant object on the
retina to form a sharp image. So, that
he can see distant objects clearly
(figure 2.11).
Figure 2.11

² The light rays from the nearby

object cannot be brought to
focus on the retina to give a
distinct image. In this case the
image is formed behind the
retina, as the rays get focused
behind the retina (figure 2.12). Figure 2.12

Correcting the long sight

² This defect can be corrected by using a convex meniscus lens. The convex
meniscus lens receives the light rays and converge them. The eye lens converges
the rays again to focus the image at the retina.

Figure 2.13 - Long sight and its correction

Let us do the activity 2.5 to understand what happens after long sight is corrected.

Science | Eye and Ear 23

 Activity 2.5
You will need :- Two convex lenses, a candle, a screen
Method :-
² Using one convex lens
get a clear image of a
distant object on the
screen.
Figure 2.14 a

² Get a clear image of a

somewhat far object on
the screen.

Figure 2.14 b d

² Light the candle in front

of the lens without
changing the distance
between the lens and
the screen. Observe the d
blurred image. Figure 2.14 c

² Place the other convex

lens between the first
lens and the screen.
Move it until a clear
image of the candle is
focused on the screen. d
Figure 2.14 d

From the activity 2.5 you can understand that, when nearby objects cannot be seen
clearly, convex lenses can be used to make the image clear.

24 Science | Eye and Ear

Short sight (myopia)
A person sees nearby objects clearly while distant objects appear blurred. This
defect arises because of the inability to reduce the curvature of the eye lens or due
to the elongation of the eye ball. This defect can be corrected by using a concave
lens.

Let us look at how the vision of a person suffering from short sight takes place.
² The rays coming from close objects
can be focused on the retina. So,
the close objects can be seen clearly
(figure 2.15).

Figure 2.15

² The rays coming from distant objects

are focused in front of the retina. So,
the image of a distant object is formed
in front of the retina and cannot be seen
clearly (figure 2.16).
Figure 2.16

Correcting the short sight

² This defect can be corrected by using concave meniscus lenses. The rays from
the object are diverged through the concave meniscus lens and the eye lens
converge them to a point on retina to make the image clear.

Figure 2.17 - Short sight and its correction

Let us do the activity 2.6 to understand what happens after correcting the short
sight.
Science | Eye and Ear 25
 Activity 2.6
You will need :- A convex lens, a concave lens, candle, screen
Method :-
² Light the candle in front
of the convex lens and
get a clear image of it
on the screen.

Figure 2.18 a d

² When the candle is kept far away without changing the distance between
the lens and the screen (distance “d”), we can get a blurred image of a
distant object on the screen.

Figure 2.18 b d
² Place a concave lens in front of the convex lens and move it till a clear
image of the candle is formed on the screen.

d
Figure 2.18 c

From the activity 2.6 it can be understood that when distant objects cannot be seen
clearly, concave lenses can be used to get a clear image of a distant object.

Binocular vision and stereoscopic vision

The eyes of human, monkey, 'Rilava'/'Mandi', chimpanzee, gorilla and loris are
located in front position of the skull (figure 2.19). So, there is a greater chance of
seeing the same area with both eyes.

26 Science | Eye and Ear

 Human Monkey 'Rilava' / 'Mandi'

Chimpanzee Gorilla Loris

Figure 2.19
Mammals such as cattle, dog, tiger have no ability to look at the same area using
both eyes (figure 2.20). But, they have the ability to look more areas separately
using the each eye.

Cattle Dog Tiger

Figure 2.20

The ability to maintain visual focus on an object with both eyes creating a single
visual image, is known as binocular vision. The human has a broader range of a
binocular vision.

The range of binocular vision of man The range of binocular vision of dog
Figure 2.21

Science | Eye and Ear 27

Let us do the activity 2.7 to identify your range of binocular vision.

Activity 2.7
Method :-
² Keep the face straight and look forward.
² Do the following things without moving the face.
² Stretch your hands and fold your fingers.
² Straighten the thumb right upwards.
² Close your left eye and move your left hand in the horizontal plane to the left
until you cannot see the thumb.
² Keep the left hand in the same position and close your right eye. Now move
your right hand in the horizontal plane to your right until you can’t see the
thumb.
² Now look at both thumbs using the both eyes.

Your eyes can see the objects which lie in the range of the stretched hands. It is your
binocular range. But, when both eyes are open, the objects seen to the left of the left
hand can be seen only by the left eye. Similarly the objects to the right of the right
hand can be seen only by the right eye.

Due to the binocular vision human has got the stereoscopic vision and the ability
to determine the distance of an object. stereoscopic vision means the ability of eye
to determine the depth of an object or the height of it. Let us do the activity 2.8 to
study this further.

Activity 2.8
You will need :- A ball point pen
Method :-
² Hold the clip of the pen keeping its hole upwards in a distance when you
stretch the hands to your front.
² Close one eye and insert the pen into the clip.
² Insert the pen again into the clip using both eyes.
² Compare the difference of ease, in both situations.

It is easier to insert the pen into the clip by seeing through both eyes rather than
seeing through one eye. This is because of the stereoscopic vision of the eye.
28 Science | Eye and Ear
2.3 Eye diseases
Two common eye diseases identified at present are;
² Cataract
² Glaucoma

Cataract
A cataract is a cloudiness or opacity in normally transparent crystalline lens of the
eye. It happens because of the denaturing of proteins in the eye lens. Then, eye lens
turns in to milky colour.

The lens of a healthy eye is transparent The lens of a diseased eye is not transparent
Figure 2.22

Cataract prevents the light rays coming from an object focusing properly on the
retina. Then, all the objects are seen blurred.

A lens of a healthy eye A lens of a diseased eye

Figure 2.23

Science | Eye and Ear 29

 A healthy eye sees an object clearly The diseased eye sees the objects blurred
Figure 2.24
Generally, cataract may occur with age and genetic factors. It is believed that ultra
violet rays reach the Earth through holes of the ozone layer affect towards the
occurrence of cataracts in eye.
Glaucoma
Glaucoma is a disease that gradually reduces the visual range of the eye and leads
to blindness due to the damage of the optic nerve. By detecting at the first stage
further increase of glaucoma can be controlled. Glaucoma is usually the result of
high blood pressure inside the eye. A person with diabetes has an increased risk of
developing glaucoma. The damage caused to the eye from this disease cannot be
reversed again.
The figures A, B, C and D shows how a glaucoma patient loses his vision gradually.

A B

C D

A - healthy eye sees the objects clearly

B - first stage of glaucoma
C - middle stage of glaucoma
D - final stage of glaucoma (leads to vision loss or blindness)
Figure 2.25

30 Science | Eye and Ear

Eye infections
In addition to above mentioned diseases, eyes
can be infected by viruses. Reddening of eye and
secretion of tears are the symptoms. The disease
spreads through insects ('Konduruwa') and by
contact. This condition is known as "sore eyes".
It can be cured by medical treatments (figure 2.26).

Precautionary measures should be followed to

prevent health problems and possible defects of Figure 2.26
the eye. Such precautions are given below.

² Protect your eyes from harmful light rays

² Do not look at the sun directly at a solar eclipse and necessary safety methods
should be used to look at the sun in such situations
² Be sure to wear safety glasses when do welding
² Do not use eye drops or any other liquids into the eye without medical advice
² Do not use someone else’s spectacles
² When using sun glasses follow medical advices
² Should care for personal hygiene
² Do not watch television or use computers continuously and follow relevant
precautionary measures.

2.4 Structure and function of the human ear

Audio sensory organ of the body is the ear. Let us take a look at the structure of the ear.

Activity 2.9
You will need :- A model of the
human ear in the
laboratory or a
diagram
Method :-
² Observe the model or the
diagram well.
² Identify the parts of the human
ear.
² Get the help of a named diagram
of the human ear. Figure 2.27 - A model of the human ear

Science | Eye and Ear 31

 A diagram of the human ear is given by figure 2.28.
Outer ear Middle ear Inner ear

Pinna
Ossicles Semi-circular canals

Auditory nerve

Cochlea

External
auditory canal
Tympanic
membrane
Eustachian tube
Figure 2.28
Information about the major parts of the human ear is given in the table 2.2.
Table 2.2 - Information about the major parts of the human ear
Area Part of the organ Information
Pinna/ear lobe ² A cartilaginous organ
² Directs sound waves towards the auditory canal
Outer
External auditory canal ² Directs the sound to tympanic membrane
ear
Tympanic membrane ² Vibrates in response to the sound wave and acquires
the auditory senses
Ossicles ² Three bones named malleus, incus and stapes
² Transmit sound related vibration to the cochlea
Middle
Eustachian tube ² An open tube connected to pharynx
ear
² Controls the pressure on either sides of the tympanic
membrane
Cochlea ² The nerve endings of the auditory nerve is connected
to cochlea
² Transmit auditory senses to the auditory nerve
Inner Auditory nerve ² Take auditory senses to the relevant part of the
ear brain
² That sound is interpreted by the relevant part of the
brain
Semi-circular canals ² Contribute to maintain the balance of body

32 Science | Eye and Ear

Necessary precautions should be taken to protect
the ear.
² Avoid inserting foreign objects into the ear
² Refrain exposing to loud noises
² Do not put any medicines for the ear without
medical advice
² Avoid diving in deep waters without wearing
safety equipment (As pressure is very high in deep
Figure 2.30
water)
² Avoid slapping on the ear and dragging by the ear lobe

Assignment 2.2
y Using suitable materials, make a model of a stethoscope.

Figure 2.31

Assignment 2.3
y Prepare ten short questions on eye and ear to conduct a quiz competition.

For extra knowledge

Jet Engine Sound pressure level dB(A)

Threshold of pain

Jackhammer
Live rock music

Heavy truck
Street Traffic

Business office
Conversational speech

Living room

Bedroom
Woodland

34 Science | Eye and Ear

 Summary
² Optical sensory organ of the body is the eye.
² Images that are real, inverted and smaller than the object formed on the retina
are interpreted by the brain. This is known as vision.
² Binocular vision of human is important to determine the distance of an object
and stereoscopic vision.
² The most common defects of vision are long sight and short sight.
² Long sight can be corrected by using a convex lens while short sight can be
corrected by using a concave lens.
² Most frequent eye diseases at present are cataract and glaucoma.
² To maintain a healthy vision for a long period of time, necessary precautions
should be taken to protect the eye.
² Audio sensory organ of the body is the ear.
² Sound waves vibrate the tympanic membrane and the cochlea in the ear. This
results the stimulation of the nerve endings at the cochlea.
² This auditory impulse is carried to the brain by the auditory nerve and the
relevant part of the brain interpret the sound. This is known as hearing.
² The semi-circular canals contribute to maintain the balance of the body.
² Hardening of ossicles, impaired hearing and deafness are some disorders of
hearing.
² The range of audibility of the human ear is between 20 Hz - 20 000 Hz.
² The sounds of higher intensities may damage the ear.
² Necessary precautions must be followed to protect the ear.
Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The part that an image focuses on the human eye is,
1. Vitreous humour 2. Eye lens
3. Iris 4. Retina
2. The defect that close objects can be seen clearly, but distant objects can be
seen blurred is,
1. Long sight 2. Glaucoma
3. Cataract 4. Short sight
3. The organ in the ear that maintain the balance of body is,
1. Cochlea 2. External auditory canal
3. Ossicles 4. Semi-circular canals
Science | Eye and Ear 35
 4. Following are some statements that a student wrote about the ear and its
functions.
a. Ear lobes are cartilaginous.
b. Cochlea transmits auditory senses to the auditory nerve.
c. Ossicles are located in the external auditory canal.
1. a and b only 2. b and c only
3. a and c only 4. a, b and c all
5. The range of audibility of the human ear is,
1. 2 Hz - 20 000 Hz 2. 20 Hz - 20 000 Hz
3. 20 Hz - 200 000 Hz 4. 200 Hz - 20 000 Hz

02) Following figure shows the structure of the human eye.

H A

G B

F I
C
E D

Write down the names and functions of each part in the eye denoted by English
letters A to H.

36 Science | Eye and Ear

03) Using given English letters, mention the path of the auditory impulse that
start from ear to the brain.
E G
H
F

A
K

B C

Technical Terms
Long sight - ÿr oDIaál;ajh - ÷\´ø©¨ £õºøÁ
Short sight - wúÿr oDIaál;ajh - Asø©¨ £õºøÁ
Binocular vision - oaúfka;%sl oDIaáh - C¸ÂȨ£õºøÁ
Stereoscopic vision - ;%sudK oDIaáh - •¨£›©õÚ¨ £õºøÁ
Retina - oDIaáú;dkh - ÂÈzvøμ
Optic nerve - oDIaál iakdhqj - £õºøÁ |쮦
Cornea - iajÉph - ÂÈöÁs£h»®
Iris - ;drduKav,h - PvμõÎ
Pupil - lKsksldj - Ps©o
Fovea - ly ,mh - ©g\Îh®
Blind spot - wkaO ìkaÿj - S¸mih®
Convex lens - W;a;, ldph - SÂÄ ÂÀø»
Concave lens - wj;, ldph - SÈÄ ÂÀø»
Cataract - wefia iqo - PmPõ\®
Glaucoma - .aÆfldaudj - SÐU÷Põ©õ
Tympanic membrane - l¾Kmgy mg,h - ö\¨£øÓ ö©ß\ÆÄ
Cochlea - l¾K ixLh - |zøua_¸Ò
Ossicles - l¾K wiaÓld - ö\Âa ]ØöÓߦPÒ
Eustachian tube - hqiafÜlSh kd<h - Fz÷uUQ¯õÂß SÇõ´
Auditory nerve - Y%jK iakdhqj - ö\Â|쮦
Semi-circular canals - w¾O pl%dldr kd< - Aøμ ÁmhUPõÀÁõ´

Science | Eye and Ear 37

3 Nature and
Properties of Matter
Recall what you have learnt about the properties of matter in grade 8. You may
call back to your mind how matter was classified as pure substances and non-pure
substances (mixtures). Based on that knowledge engage in the activity 3.1.

Activity 3.1
Classify and tabulate the substances given below as pure substances and mixtures.
air, drinking water, aluminium, silver, copper, salt solution, distilled water,
carbon, sulphur, zinc, copper sulphate, sodium chloride

Matter that contain only one constituent with specific properties are called pure
substances. Accordingly, aluminium, silver, copper, distilled water, carbon, sulphur,
zinc, copper sulphate and sodium chloride belong to the class of pure substances.
Matter that contain two or more constituents are known as mixtures. Hence, air,
drinking water and salt solution can be named as mixtures.
In grade 8 you have learnt that pure substances can be further classified as elements
and compounds. To strengthen that knowledge further, involve in the activity 3.2.

Activity 3.2
Classify and tabulate the following pure substances as elements and compounds.
sulphur, glucose, chlorine, sodium chloride, silver, copper, copper sulphate, zinc

The pure substances with specific properties which, cannot be further divided by
either physical or chemical methods into substances with different properties, are
called elements. Accordingly iron, sulphur, chlorine, silver, zinc and copper belong
to elements. There are about 120 elements have been discovered upto now.

38 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

 Copper Iron Sulphur Mercury

Carbon Aluminium Silver Chlorine

Figure 3.1- Some common elements

The compounds are pure substances with specific properties, formed by the
chemical combination of two or more elements in a fixed ratio. Thus, sodium
chloride, copper sulphate and glucose belong to the class of compounds. In nature,
there are very large number of compounds, which occur from the combination of
various elements in various forms.

Glucose Copper sulphate Sodium chloride

Figure 3.2 - Some common compounds

3.1 Elements
3.1.1 Symbols for elements
We know that, in various instances we use various symbols to facilitate
communication. Symbols are also used to indicate elements. All countries in the
world use these internationally accepted symbols to indicate elements.

Very often, English name of the element is used as the base for these symbols. In
such case the first letter of the name of the element is used as the symbol. When a
single letter is used as the symbol, compulsorily it should be a capital letter. Table
3.1 presents some examples.
Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 39
 Table 3.1
Element Symbol
Carbon C
Oxygen O
Sulphur S
When the names of several elements commence in the same letter, the next letter
or another letter in the name is added to the symbol. In that, the second letter is a
simple letter. Table 3.2 gives some examples.

Table 3.2
Element Symbol
Chlorine Cl
Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al

In some elements, the symbol originates in its Latin name. Table 3.3 lists some
examples for such symbols.
Table 3.3
English name Latin Name Symbol
Sodium Natrium Na
Copper Cuprum Cu
Lead Plumbum Pb
Gold Aurum Au
Mercury Hydrargyrum Hg
Iron Ferrum Fe
Silver Argentum Ag

Table 3.4 illustrates names of several elements and their symbols.

Table 3.4

Element Symbol Element Symbol

Hydrogen H Magnesium Mg
Carbon C Zinc Zn
Oxygen O Silicon Si
Nitrogen N Phosphorous P
Sulphur S Argon Ar
Chlorine Cl Calcium Ca
Aluminium Al Iodine I

40 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

3.1.2 Building units of elements
You have learnt that, matter is composed of particles. These
particles cannot be observed by the naked eye or even by
the powerful microscopes. These very small particles are
called atoms.
John Dalton (1766 - 1844) was the first scientist to use the
term atom for the smallest, indivisible particle from which
the matter is made. The English name 'atom' for this particle
has originated from the Greek word 'atomos' meaning,
Figure 3.3 - John Dalton
"cannot be divided further."
An element is composed of the atoms of the same type. The atoms which, form
different elements are different to each other. For example, the element iron is formed
from iron atoms. Aluminium is formed from aluminium atoms. The structures of
aluminium atoms and iron atoms differ from each other.
The units formed by the combination of one or more atoms of the same type or one
or more atoms of different types are called molecules.
Under normal conditions, the element oxygen exists as oxygen molecules composed
of two oxygen atoms. The smallest form in which oxygen can exist independently
is a molecule. Some examples for the elements which can exist as molecules are
given in table 3.5.
Table 3.5
Symbol of the
Element
molecule
Oxygen (O) O2 O O H H
Nitrogen (N) N2
Cl2 Figure 3.4 - Figure 3.5 -
Chlorine (Cl) A representation A representation
Hydrogen (H) H2 of an Oxygen molecule of a Hydrogen molecule

Fluorine (F) F2

Since the above molecules are formed by the atoms of the same elements they are
known as homo-atomic molecules.
Therefore, elements are composed either, from atoms of the same kind or from
molecules formed by combining those same kind of atoms. Thus, they cannot be
further divided into simple substances chemically.
Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 41
Atomic number (Z)
The number of protons present in the nucleus of a given atom of an element is
called the atomic number. It is generally designated by the symbol Z. The atomic
number or the number of protons in the nucleus is a unique property of the element.
As an atom is electrically neutral, number of protons and number of electrons are
equal. The atomic numbers of some elements are given in table 3.7.

Table 3.7 – Atomic number of atoms of some elements

Element Number of Protons Number of Electrons Atomic Number
Carbon (C) 6 6 6
Nitrogen (N) 7 7 7
Oxygen (O) 8 8 8
Fluorine (F) 9 9 9
Neon (Ne) 10 10 10
Sodium (Na) 11 11 11

Mass number (A)

The sum of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of a given atom of an
element, is called the mass number of the atom of that element. The mass number
is represented by the symbol A.

Table 3.8 - Mass number of atoms of some elements

Element Number of protons Number of Neutrons Mass number
(p) (n) (p + n)
N 7 7 14
O 8 8 16
F 9 10 19
Na 11 12 23
Cl 17 18 35
There is a standard method of representing atomic number and mass number of an
atom. This standard method is, writing atomic number at the left hand side bottom
end and mass number at the left hand side top end of the symbol of the atom. The
information related to an atom of element sodium (Na) is given below.
Sum of protons and neutrons
23
11 Na
(Mass number)
Number of protons
(Atomic number)

Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 43

3.2 Compounds
Compounds are formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements
in a certain ratio. Some of those compounds exist in nature as molecules. Since
those molecules contain atoms that are different from one another, they are called
hetero-atomic molecules.
e.g. A Hydrogen chloride molecule is formed by the combination of
one hydrogen atom and one chlorine atom.

H Cl H Cl
Hydrogen atom Chlorine atom Hydrogen chloride molecule (compound)
Figure 3.8 - Illustration of the formation of a hydrogen chloride molecule

Thus, a main difference between elements and compounds

is that an element is composed of the atoms of the same
kind while a compound is formed from atoms belonging
O
to two or more kinds of elements.
e.g. A water molecule is formed by the
H H
Figure 3.9 - Water molecule
combination of an oxygen atom and two
hydrogen atoms. This is illustrated by figure 3.9.

Assignment 3.1
Using various materials create models for several homo-atomic and hetero-atomic
molecules. Display the models you made in the classroom.

A carbon dioxide molecule is formed by the

combination of a carbon atom and two oxygen
atoms. This is shown by figure 3.10.
O C O
Figure 3.10 - Carbon dioxide molecule

H H
C A methane molecule is formed by the combination
of a carbon atom with four hydrogen atoms. This is
illustrated by figure 3.11.
H H
Figure 3.11 - Methane molecule

44 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

An ammonia molecule is formed by the combination H
of a nitrogen atom with three hydrogen atoms. This is
illustrated by figure 3.12. N
There are specific chemical symbols for compounds
also. These symbols are known as chemical formula of H H
compounds. You will study them in higher grades. Figure 3.12 - Ammonia
molecule
Table 3.9
Compound Chemical formula Elements contained
of the compound
(Building unit of the
compound)
Water H2O H and O
Glucose C6H12O6 C, H and O
Methane CH4 C and H
Carbon dioxide CO2 C and O
Sodium chloride (Common salt) NaCl Na and Cl
Copper sulphate CuSO4 Cu, S and O
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Ca, C and O

The elements contained in the smallest unit that form a compound, cannot show the
properties of that compound.
The different compounds formed by even the same set of elements have different
chemical properties.
e.g. 1: Same compounds formed by the set of elements C, H are given below.
y Methane (a component of biogas) - CH4
y Hexane (a solvent) - C6H14
y Benzene (a solvent) - C6H6
y Acetylene (a gas burnt to generate heat essential for welding metals) - C2H2
y Ethene (a gaseous raw material needed to make polythene) - C2H4
e.g. 2 : Given below are some compounds formed by the set of elements
C, H, O
y Glucose (a simple sugar) - C6H12O6
y Acetic acid (contained in vinegar) - CH3COOH
y Ethanol (contained in alcoholic beverages) - C2H5OH
y Dimethyl ether (an anaesthetic) - CH3OCH3
y Sucrose (contained in sugar cane) - C12H22O11
Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 45
3.3 Mixtures
Next, let us study about the non-pure substances (mixtures).
Pay your attention to sea water. Various salts and various gases are dissolved in it.
That means, it contains several constituents. Therefore, sea water is a mixture. In
natural environment mostly we come across mixtures and not pure substances. Air,
soil, river water and rocks around us are all mixtures. Yoghurt, ice cream and fruit
salad we eat are also mixtures. The drinks such as tea, coffee and soft drinks too
are mixtures.

Fruit salad Coffee Ice cream

Figure 3.13 - Some mixtures

Mixtures are formed when two or more pure substances get mixed. The pure
substances in a mixture are called as constituents.
Let us identify constituents in some mixtures. Let us study table 3.10.

Table 3.10 - Mixtures and their constituents

Mixture Constituents
Air nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, water vapour
Sea water water, salts, dissolved oxygen, dissolved carbon dioxide
Cake mixture sugar, flour, water, colouring, butter, eggs
Crude oil diesel, petrol, kerosene, tar

The specific feature of a mixture is that, its constituents can be separated by

physical methods. When rice is mixed with sand they can be separated by sifting
using the sifting bowl. So, sifting is a physical method of separating constituents
in a mixture. Let us involve in activity 3.3 to study about the physical methods of
separating constituents in a mixture.

46 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

 Activity 3.3
² You are provided with the following mixtures. Suggest suitable methods for
separating the constituents in those mixtures.
1. A mixture of sugar and sand
2. A mixture of salt and water
3. A mixture of iron powder and sulphur powder
4. A mixture of rice and sand
5. A mixture of chaff and stone
² Describe how the constituents of the mixtures are separated.

Given below are some physical methods of separating constituents in a mixture and
some instances in which they are used. They will be studied in detail in grade 11.

Panning - Separating sand from rice, Separating gems from ores

Winnowing - Separating chaff from rice
Floating on water - Separating sterile seeds from seed paddy
Sifting - Separating gravel from sand
Evaporation - Obtaining salt from sea water
Fractional distillation - Separating various fuels from crude oil
Steam distillation - Separating cinnamon oil from cinnamon leaves
Crystallization - Separating sugar from cane sugar syrup
Uses of magnets - Separating some minerals from mineral sands

Figure 3.14 - Gem mining Figure 3.15 - Winnowing paddy

Assignment 3.2
Prepare a chart to show the physical methods used to separate constituents of a
mixture and the instance in which those methods are used.

Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 47

According to that, mixtures can be described as follows.
A matter which consists of two or more constituents which can be separated by
physical methods are called mixtures.
According to the nature, mixtures can be divided into two categories.
1. Homogeneous mixtures 2. Heterogeneous mixtures

Homogeneous mixtures
Let us involve in activity 3.4 to study about homogeneous mixtures.

Activity 3.4
1. Weigh about 2 g of salt, add it to a beaker containing 500 ml of water, mix
well with a glass rod and allow to stand for a few minutes.
2. Observe carefully.

You will be able to see that properties like colour and transparency are alike
throughout the mixture. The mixtures with a uniform composition right throughout
the mixture are called homogeneous mixtures.
e.g. Salt solution, sugar solution, sea water

Heterogeneous mixtures
Dissolve a little clay in water, allows to stand from some time and observe. If you
observe carefully you may be able to see that the colour and transparency of the
mixture is different from place to place.
The mixtures in which the composition is not uniform throughout the mixture are
known as heterogeneous mixtures.
e.g. Muddy water, mortar mixture, ice cream, fruit salad

Assignment 3.3
² Prepare mixtures by mixing each of the following with small amount of water
and observe these mixtures.
salt, soap, copper sulphate, limestone, washing blue, chilli powder
² Record the observations
² Classify the mixtures you have prepared as homogeneous and heterogeneous.

48 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

 Summary
² Matter can be classified as pure substances and non-pure substances (mixtures).
² Pure substances can be further classified as elements and compounds.
² The pure substances which bear specific properties and cannot be further
divided into substances with different properties by physical or chemical
methods are called elements.
² The pure substances which have specific properties and are formed by the
chemical combination of two or more elements in a definite ratio are termed
as compounds.
² Atoms and molecules are the building units of elements.
² Homo-atomic molecules are formed by the combination of two or more
atoms of the same kind whereas hetero-atomic molecules are formed by the
combination of two or more atoms of different kinds.
² The atom consists of subatomic particles.
² Electrons, protons and neutrons are the subatomic particles in an atom.
² An atom comprises a large empty space and a positively charged nucleus at
the centre of it.
² Protons and neutrons are contained in the nucleus. Electrons move around the
nucleus.
² The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic number
of that element. It is a unique property for that element.
² The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the
mass number.
² Mixtures are matter consisting of two or more pure constituents that can be
separated by physical methods.
² Mixtures can be classified as homogeneous mixtures and heterogeneous
mixtures.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The number of protons, neutrons and electrons in the 35 Cl atom respectively are,
17
1. 17, 18, 18 2. 17, 18, 17 3. 17, 17, 18 4. 17, 17, 17

2. Of the following statements given about the atom, select the false statement.
1. Atoms are the building units of matter.
2. A large portion of an atom is empty space.
3. There is a positively charged nucleus at the center of an atom.
4. An atom cannot be further divided.

Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 49

 3. A unique property for a certain atom is,
1. its atomic number
2. the number of neutrons in the nucleus
3. its mass number
4. the sum of the number of neutrons and protons

4. Which of the following contains matter belonging to the same set?

1. sodium, carbon, oxygen 2. oxygen, water, air,
3. water, carbon, sodium 4. air, carbon, oxygen
5. Of the following statements given about the element nitrogen, select the false
statement.
1. Nitrogen is a pure substance.
2. Nitrogen molecules are the building units of nitrogen.
3. Nitrogen molecule is formed by the combination of a large number of
nitrogen atoms.
4. Nitrogen is a constituent of air.

6. Of the following substances given, the pure substance is,

1. air 2. salt solution
3. vinegar 4. copper sulphate
02) Fill in the blanks considering proton and neutron amounts of particular
elements.
Element Number of Number of Atomic Mass number
protons neutrons number
Sodium 11 ...................... ...................... 23
Calcium ...................... 20 20 ......................
Iron ...................... ...................... 26 56
Sulphur ...................... 16 16 ......................
Bromine 35 ...................... ...................... 80

03) Indicate whether the mixtures given below are homogeneous or heterogeneous.

1. Tea 2. Sea sand 3. Rice mixed with

chaff
4. Vinegar 5. Copper sulphate solution

50 Science | Nature and Properties of Matter

04) Copy the following figure on classification of matter in your book and fill
in the blanks.
Matter

Mixtures

Compounds

05) Give short answers.

1. Name three pure elements and three pure compounds.
2. Write the formulae of three compounds which you know and name the
elements in them.
3. Write the chemical symbols and names of five elements symbolized by a
single letter.
4. Write the chemical symbols and names of five elements symbolized by two
letters.

Technical Terms
Atom - mrudKqj - Aq
Molecule - wKqj - ‰»UTÖ
Matter - mod¾:h - @©mhµ
Elements - uQ,øjH - ‰»P[PÒ
Nucleus - kHIaáh - P¸
Proton - fm%dafgdak - ¦÷µõzuß
Electron - bf,lafg%dak - C»zvµß
Neutron - kshqfg%dak - {²zvµß
Homogeneous mixture - iucd;sh ñY%Kh - HPÂÚU P»øÁ
Heterogeneous mixture - úIucd;sh ñY%Kh - £À¼ÚU P»øÁ
Compounds - ixfhda. - ÷\ºøÁPÒ
Atomic number - mrudKql l%udxlh - AqöÁs
Mass number - ialkaO l%udxlh - voöÁs
Homo-atomic molecules - iumrudKql wKq - HPÂÚ Aq‰»UTÖPÒ
Hetero-atomic molecules - úIumrudKql wKq - £À¼Ú Aq‰»UTÖPÒ

Science | Nature and Properties of Matter 51

4 Basic Concepts
Associated with Force
4.1 Force
Let us consider situations like lifting an object, pushing a table, opening or closing
a door or hitting a ball (figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1
In such instances what we do is, pulling or pushing the object. Such a pulling or
pushing is called a force, simply a force means a pull or a push.
When we push a book on the table, it moves. A ball moves faster if we kick it. But,
you can not push and move a wall. A single person cannot push and move a bus or
a lorry. Thus, it is clear that, sometimes we can move an object by applying a force
and sometimes a force cannot result any motion.
When you catch a ball that comes towards you, a force is applied to stop it. When
you hit a ball with a bat, you apply a force to change the direction and the speed of
the ball.

You can press a ball by keeping it on the ground and tread on it. Here, you change
the shape of the ball by applying a force.

Accordingly, by applying a force;

² object at rest can be moved.
² object in motion can be stopped.
² the speed of motion can be changed.
² the direction of motion can be changed.
² the shape of object can be changed.
52 Science | Basic Concepts Associated with Force
 Activity 4.2
You will need :- A wooden block, few tintex nails, some thread
Method :-
² Fix a nail at the mid point on one side of the
wooden block. Tie a piece of thread to the nail
(figure 4.7), so that the thread is leaning on
Figure 4.7
the block.

(a) (c)
(b)
Figure 4.7 - The wooden block on the table viewed from the top
² Place the wooden block on the table as in figure 4.7 (a), and pull it by the
thread, keeping the thread horizontally. Observe the direction of motion of the
wooden block.
² Then, change the direction of the thread to a side, while keeping it horizontally
as in figure 4.7 (b) and draw. Observe the direction of motion of the wooden
block.
You can observe that the wooden block moves in the direction of pull as in the
figure 4.7 (a) of the above activity. When the direction of pulling is changed as in
figure 4.7 (b), the direction of motion of the wooden block changes as shown in
figure 4.7 (c).
Thus, it can be concluded as follows.
² The force acts to the direction of pulling, along the thread.
² The object moves along the direction of force exerted.

Activity 4.3
You will need:- A wooden block, a circular wooden disc, few tintex nails, some
thread
C
Method :- A
B
² Fix tintex nails to the points A, B and C on the upper
surface of the wooden block as shown in figure 4.8.
² Fix a nail to the center of the wooden disc as shown in
figure 4.9. Figure 4.8

² Now tie a piece of thread to the nail A of the wooden block and pull the thread,
keeping it horizontally. Observe the direction of motion of the wooden block .

Science | Basic Concepts Associated with Force 55

Moreover the length of the straight line drawn to denote the force of 10 N on X
should be twice as long as the one drawn to denote the force of 5 N on Y.
In our day-to-day life, we apply forces on various objects. When we write with a
pen, we have to apply forces to move the pen on the sheet of paper. When walking,
forces are applied on the floor by our feet. When playing cricket, forces are applied
on the ball by hitting the bat. To move the bat, the player has to apply force on the
bat.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.11

We have to make an effort to do these types of work. Most of the time, we apply
forces in the easiest way to reduce effort. For example, let us consider the figure
4.11 (a). A person drawing a loaded cart is shown there. He applies a horizontal
force, because the cart should be moved horizontally. But, the person has to bend
and pull with a difficulty to maintain the horizontal force. This difficulty can easily
be overcome by drawing the cart to a direction shown in figure 4.11 (b). Although
the force is not applied horizontally, the cart moves to the direction we want. What
we do here is changing the direction of force to make the work easy.

(a) (b)
Figure 4.12

A person pushing a loaded cart is shown in the figure 4.12 (a). The person has to
bend and push it with difficulty. To ease the work, a wooden or metal handle can be
fitted to the cart and the point where the force is applied (point of application) can
be changed (figure 4.12 (b)).
In our day-to-day life, we select the way of applying forces in such a way, that the
work is handled easier. What is applied here is not merely the scientific knowledge,
but our practical experiences also contribute a lot. But, if there is some knowledge
about forces, our tasks can be fulfilled easier.
Science | Basic Concepts Associated with Force 57
 Summary
² Force is a pull or a push.
² When a force is applied,
■ an object at rest can be moved.
■ an object in motion can be stopped.
■ the speed of motion can be changed.
■ the direction of motion can be changed.
■ the shape of an object can be changed.
² Standard unit of measuring force is Newton (N).
² Newton spring balance is used to measure the magnitude of a force.
² Force has a direction and a magnitude. Therefore, force is a vector quantity.
² The point on which the force is acting on the object is known as the point of
application of the force.
² Day-to-day life activities can be done easily by changing the direction and
the point of application of a force.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The weight of an object is a force. What is the unit of measurement of weight?
1. kg 2. kg s 3. N 4. N s
2. Force is considered as a vector quantity, because it has,
1. a magnitude. 2. a point of application.
3. a direction. 4. a magnitude and a direction.
3. A force can be graphically represented by a straight line. Consider the following
statements in this regard.
a. The magnitude of force is denoted by the length of the straight line.
b. The direction of force is denoted by the arrow head on the line.
c. The point of application of the force is indicated by the mid point of
the straight line.
The true statements are;
1. a and b only 2. a and c only
3. b and c only 4. a, b, and c all

58 Science | Basic Concepts Associated with Force

5 Pressure Exerted by Solid
5.1 Pressure
You may have experienced that, when the strap of your school bag is narrow, it is
uncomfortable to the shoulder. When it is broad it is not that uncomfortable.

(a) A child bearing a bag with a (b) A child bearing a bag with a
narrow strap uncomfortably broad strap easily
Figure 5.1

There are two school bags of equal weight. The shoulder strap of one of them is
narrow and that of the other one is broad. Though, the strap is narrow or broad, the
force exerted by the weight of school bag is the same. But, when the strap of it is
narrow, the contact area is less, and when it is broad that area is more.

Thus it is clear that, though the force is the same, the pressure against the shoulder
differs with the area of contact of the strap.
Consider two bags having the straps of the same breadth and different weights of
books. The bag with more weight gives more press against the shoulder.

(a) A child bearing a light-weight bag (b) A child bearing a heavy bag
easily uneasily
Figure 5.2

60 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

The force exerted by the weight of the school bag, is distributed through out the
area of contact. It is the distributed force, that is felt by the shoulder.
When the strap of the bag is broad, the force is distributed over a large area. Hence,
the pressure felt by the shoulder is less. In these instances, it is useful to know the
force exerted over a unit area.
The force exerted over a unit area is known as the pressure.
5.2 Factors affecting the pressure
Let us do activity 5.1 to study the factors affecting the pressure.
Activity 5.1
You will need :- several cakes of soap, thin metal wire, several bags of sand
with the weight of 10 N each, a piece of plank which is longer
than the length of the cake of soap and similar in breadth of the
same, a stop watch
Cake of Table
Method :- soap
² Place the cake of soap on Plank
the plank which is kept Wire
Table
on two tables as shown in
the figure 5.3.
² Hang one sand bag on the
Sand
wire which is sent round bag
the cake of soap. Observe Figure 5.3
what happens.
² Increase the number of sand bags one by one using a new cake of soap in each
instance. Measure the time taken to pass the metal wire through each cake of soap.
² Tabulate your readings as shown below.
Table 5.1
Instance No. of sand bags Weight of sand Time taken to cut through
hung bags (N) the cake of soap (s)
01 01 10 -
02 02 20
03
04

In the activity 5.1, sometimes one sand bag will not be enough for the wire to cut
through the cake of soap. If it is so, the reason is that the force exerted by the weight
of one sand bag is not enough to cut the cake of soap. When the number of sand
bags are being increased, time taken for the wire to cut through the cake of soap
becomes less.
Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 61
Two facts are revealed by this activity. They are;
▪ Force affects the pressure exerted on a solid object.
▪ Pressure increases with the increase of force.
These facts are confirmed by the activity 5.2.
Activity 5.2
You will need :- cm
15 20 cm
a piece of plank with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 1 cm,
a piece of plank with the size of 20 cm × 15 cm × 1 cm,
a wooden block with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm, 15
a piece of sponge with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm, 10
four 1” nails, a ruler of 15cm or a scale, weight of 2 kg, 5 15 cm
0
weight of 5 kg, a hammer, a Newton spring balance
10 cm
Method :- Figure 5.4 a
² Fix the planks of the sizes 20 cm × 15 cm × 1 cm and
15 cm × 10 cm × 1 cm as shown in the figure 5.4 a,
with nails. Paste the scale of 15 cm along the 20 cm 15
long vertical side of the plank. 10 Piece of sponge
² Place the piece of sponge on the horizontal plank as 5
shown in the figure 5.4 b.
0
² Note down the reading of the scale, which is relevant
to the upper horizontal edge of the piece of sponge. Figure 5.4 b

² Weigh the wooden block of 15 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm using the Newton spring

balance.
² Now, place this wooden block on the piece of sponge, 15
as shown in figure 5.4 c. Note down the new reading of Wooden Block
10
scale at the upper edge of the piece of sponge.
² Then place the weight of 5

Weight of 2 kg 2 kg on the wooden block 0

15 as shown in figure 5.4 d and
take the reading of the upper Figure 5.4 c
10

edge of the piece of sponge as before.

5
² Next, remove the weight of 2 kg and place the weight
0
of 5 kg on the wooden block and take the reading.
Figure 5.4 d ² Tabulate the readings, you obtained as below in the
table 5.2.

62 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

 Table 5.2
Instance Force exerted on Reading at the upper Reduction of the
the piece of sponge edge of the piece of height of sponge
(N) sponge (cm) (cm)
Sponge only

Wooden block on
the sponge
Wooden block and
weight of 2 kg on
the sponge
Wooden block and
weight of 5 kg on
the sponge

In every instance of the above activity, the area of the wooden block, in contact
with the piece of sponge is the same. The force exerted on the piece of sponge is
increased gradually. Accordingly, the contraction of the sponge is also increased.
Thus, it is clear that the pressure on the piece of sponge is increased gradually.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the pressure increases with the increase of force.

Activity 5.3
You will need :- a cake of soap, a piece of thin wire with the diameter of 0.2 mm,
a piece of thick wire with the diameter of 1.5 mm, a sand bag
of the weight of 20N, a piece of plank which is similar in
breadth to the cake of soap
Method :-
² Place the piece of plank Cake of Table
between two table-tops soap

and keep the cake of soap Plank

Wire
on the plank as shown in Table
the figure 5.5.
² Send the thick wire
round the cake of soap Sand
and hang the sand bag bag

of 20 N weight. Observe Figure 5.5

what happens.
² Remove the thick wire and repeat the above step using the thin wire. Observe
what happens again.
² What can be concluded according to the observations you made?
Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 63
In the activity 5.3 above, same weight is used in both instances; with the thick wire
as well as with the thin wire. Hence, the force exerted on the cake of soap is same
in both instances. But, the cake of soap is cut through easily when the thin wire is
used. The reason for this is that, the force acted on unit area of the cake of soap is
greater when the thin wire is used. That means, the pressure is greater when thin
wire is used, than when the thick wire is used. Cutting through the cake of soap is
easier when more pressure is exerted.
The manner the pressure changes according to the area on which force is acted, can
be understood further by doing the activity 5.4.

Activity 5.4
You will need :-
a piece of plank with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 1 cm, 10 cm

cm
15
a piece of plank with the size of 20 cm × 15 cm × 1 cm,

15
a wooden block (A) with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm, 10 5 cm
a piece of sponge (B) with the size of 15 cm × 10 cm × 5 cm, 5
a piece of sponge (C) with the size of 15 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm, 0
a piece of sponge (D) with the size of 10 cm × 5 cm × 5 cm, Figure 5.6 a
four 1” nails, a scale of 15 cm, a hammer, a Newton spring balance
Method :-
² Weigh the wooden block using the spring balance. 15 cm

² Paste the scale of 15 cm on to the L shaped frame made 15

as in the activity 5.2. 10 5 cm
10 cm
² Now place the sponge B on the plank. Note down the 5
reading of the scale relevant to the upper horizontal 0
edge of the sponge.
Figure 5.6 b
² Then place the 15 cm × 10 cm surface of the wooden
block on the sponge as shown in figure 5.6 a.
² Note down the new reading of the scale relevant to the upper horizontal
edge of the sponge.
² Now remove the sponge B and place the sponge C on the plank as shown
in figure 5.6 b (place the 15 cm × 5 cm surface horizontally). Note down
the reading of the scale relevant to the upper horizontal edge of the sponge.
² Then place the 15 cm × 5 cm surface of the wooden block on the sponge.
Note down the reading of the scale relevant to the upper horizontal edge of
the sponge.

64 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

 ² Now remove the sponge C and place the sponge D on the plank (place the
10 cm × 5 cm surface horizontally). Note down the reading relevant to the
upper horizontal edge.
² Then place the 10 cm × 5 cm surface of the wooden block on the
10 cm × 5 cm surface of the sponge. Now take the reading of the upper
edge of the sponge.
² Tabulate your readings as below.
Table 5.3
Instance Force exerted Contact surface Height of Reduction of
on the surface area (cm2) the sponge the height of
(N) (cm) sponge (cm)
Sponge B only

When wooden
block contacts
its 15 cm × 10
cm surface
Sponge C only
When wooden
block contacts
its 15 cm × 5 cm
surface
Sponge D only

When wooden
block contacts
its 10 cm × 5 cm
surface
² What is the conclusion that can be made according to the observations?

During this activity, same wooden block is kept on all sponges. Therefore, the force
exerted on all different sponges is the same. But, the contact area of the wooden
block on each piece of sponge is changed.

Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 65

When the contact area is large, the contraction of the sponge is less and when that
area is less, the contraction of sponge is higher.
Therefore, it is clear that the pressure is less, when the contact area is high and
vice-versa.
Accordingly, it can be concluded as follows.
² The pressure exerted by a solid object on a solid surface depends on the surface
area on which the force is acting.
² Higher the surface area on which the force is acting, pressure become low.
² Lower the surface area on which the force is acting, pressure become high.
According to the above activities it is confirmed that the pressure exerted by a solid
object on a solid surface depends on two factors. They are;
1. Perpendicular force acting on the surface
2. Surface area on which the force is acting
Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force acting normally on an unit area.
Pressure exerted by a solid object on a solid surface can be calculated according to
the following formula.

Perpendicular force (F)

Pressure (P) = Surface area on which the force is acting (A)

5.3 Units of pressure

Units of pressure can be deduced by using the above relationship of pressure. The
standard unit of measuring force is N (Newton) and the standard unit of measuring
surface area is m2 (square metre).

Pressure Perpendicular force

=
Surface area on which the force is acting
Pressure = N
m2
= N m-2 (Newton per square meter)

66 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

The standard unit of measuring pressure is N m-2. It is also known as Pascal (Pa).
In honour of the French mathematician Blaise Pascal, unit of pressure was named
after him.
1 N m-2 = 1 Pa

Let us pay our attention to the solved problems on pressure.

Solved What is the pressure exerted on a surface of 2 m2, when a
example 1: normal force of 300 N is acting on it?
Perpendicular force
Pressure =
Surface area on which the force is acting
300 N
=
2 m2
= 150 N m-2 or 150 Pa

Solved
example 2: Weight of a cubic box is 400 N.
It is kept on a horizontal plane
surface. Pressure exerted by the
box on the surface is 200 Pa.
What is the contact area of the surface of the box?
Perpendicular force
Pressure =
Surface area
Perpendicular force
Surface area = Pressure
400 N
Surface area = 200 N m-2
Surface area = 2 m2

5.4 Changing the factors affecting pressure as needed

When cutting something it is easier if the knife is well

sharpened. When sharpening, the knife-edge becomes
very thin. It can exert a high pressure on the object. So,
the object can be cut thinner and easier (figure 5.7).

Figure 5.7

Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 67

The bottom of the skates used by skiers is made
sharp like a knife-edge (figure 5.8). Because of
this, a high pressure is exerted on ice, when the
skier is skating. That high pressure makes the ice
liquify and form a slippery surface.
Figure 5.8

Roads can be easily damaged because of the

high pressure exerted by heavily loaded trucks
and container carriers. To avoid this, such
vehicles are made with a large number of wheels
(figure 5.9). Then, the contact area with the
road is increased and the pressure is decreased.
Hence, the damages to the roads are minimized. Figure 5.9

Assignment 5.1
In our day-to-day activities, we have to increase or decrease pressure. One way
of doing this is the change of surface area. List such instances and explain them
scientifically.

Summary
² Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force acting on an unit area.
² The pressure exerted by a solid object on a solid surface depends on two
factors. They are,
• Perpendicular force acting on the surface
• Surface area on which the force is acting
² Perpendicular force (F)
Pressure (P) =
Surface area (A)

² The unit of measuring pressure is N m-2 / N/m2 or Pascal (Pa).

² Pressure can be increased or decreased by manipulating the factors which
affect on pressure.

68 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.

1. What is the unit of measuring pressure?

1. N m2 2. N m 3. N m-1 4. N m-2

2. What is the unit of measuring pressure, that indicates a specific name?

1.Newton 2. Joule 3. Pascal 4. Watt

3. Consider the following statements of pressure.

Perpendicular force
a. Pressure is equal to the ratio, Surface area
b. Pressure increases when perpendicular force is increased.
c. Pressure increases when surface area is increased.
Which of the above statements are true?
1. a and b only 2. a and c only
3. b and c only 4. a, b and c all

4. A perpendicular force of 60 N was applied on an area of 3 m2. What is the

pressure exerted on the surface?

2' 3 m 3' 60 N
2
1' 1 4' 60 N « 3 m2
60 N « 3 m2 60 N 3 m2

5. The pressure was 50 Pa, when a perpendicular force was applied on a surface
area of 2.5 m2. The force applied was;

1' 1 N 2' 1 N 3' 20 N 4' 125 N

25 20

Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 69

 06. In which of these instances, the devices are applied to decrease pressure?

1 2

3 4
02) Answer the following questions.
1. (a) What are the units of pressure?
(b) Mention the factors affecting pressure.
(c) Write down a relationship for pressure in terms of those factors.
2. (a) Write two examples where the factor, area is practically used to increase
pressure.
(b) Mention two examples where the factor, area is practically used to
decrease pressure.
(c) State two examples where the factor, perpendicular force is practically
used to increase pressure.
03) The length, breadth and height of the A
1m
cuboid shown in the figure are 2 m, B
1 m and 1 m respectively. Its weight is C
400 N. 1m
(a) The cuboid is kept on a horizontal 2m
surface as shown in the figure. How
much is the pressure acting on the surface?
(b) While the cuboid is in the position as in part (a), an object weighing 150 N
is kept on it. Then, what is the pressure acting on the horizontal surface?
(c) The object weighing 150 N is removed and the cuboid is kept
to contact its surface B with the horizontal surface. Then, what is the
pressure exerted on the horizontal surface?

70 Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid

04) (a) The figure shows a machine used in the
construction of roads. Clarify how the factors
affecting pressure are changed, to change the
pressure exerted by this machine on the road.
(b) Living being show various natural adaptations
to increase pressure. Give 2 examples for such
instances.
(c) Living being show various natural adaptations to decrease pressure.
Give 2 examples for such instances.

Technical Terms
Pressure - mSvkh - A•UP®
Perpendicular force - wNs,ïn n,h - ö\[Szx Âø\
Surface area - mDIaG j¾.M,h - ÷©Ø£μ¨¤ß £μ¨£ÍÄ
Pascal - meial,a - £ìPõÀ

Science | Pressure Exerted by Solid 71

² The heart has four chambers. The upper chambers are called atria and the lower
chambers are called ventricles.
³ Left atrium ³ Right atrium
³ Left ventricle ³ Right ventricle
² There are two valves between the atria and ventricles.
³ Bicuspid valve is in between the left atrium and left ventricle.
³ Tricuspid valve is in between the right atrium and right ventricle.
² There are two main arteries connected to the ventricles.
³ Aorta starts from the left ventricle.
³ Pulmonary artery starts from the right ventricle.
² There are semi lunar valves at the starting points of the main arteries.
³ Aortic semi lunar valve is at the starting point of the aorta.
³ Pulmonary semi lunar valve is at the starting point of the pulmonary artery.
² Main veins are connected to the atria.
³ The superior vena cava and inferior vena cava open to the right atrium.
³ Left and right pulmonary veins open to the left artrium.

Assignment 6.1
² Construct a model of the heart to show the structure of the heart.

6.2 Arteries, veins and capillaries

The blood vessels that take blood away from the heart are known as arteries while,
the vessels that take the blood towards the heart are known as veins. Main arteries
starting from the heart divide into branches.
² The pulmonary artery which starts from the heart transport blood to lungs.
Aorta supply blood to the other organs. Within an organ an artery further
divides into arterioles and then into capillaries.
² The capillaries join together to form venules and venules join together to form
veins.
² Pulmonary veins starting from the lungs take the blood to left atrium.
² Veins from the organs above the heart join the superior vena cava and veins
from the organs below the heart join the inferior vena cava. Both the superior
and inferior vena cava open into the right atrium.

Science | The Human Circulatory System 73

6.3 Components of blood and their functions
Although you see blood as a red fluid, only 55% of its value is in liquid form.
This liquid part is called as the plasma. The other 45% of its volume consists of
corpuscles which is in solid form.
Blood

Corpuscles Plasma

Red blood White blood Platelets Things Things

Water soluble in insoluble in
cells cells water water
Figure 6.5

A microscopic observation of a blood sample shows three types of corpuscles.

y Red blood cells/ erythrocytes
y White blood cells/ leukocytes
y Platelets
Erythrocytes and leukocytes are cells while the platelets are cell fragments.

Functions of blood
Red blood cells/ erythrocytes
Red blood cells contain a red pigment which is called haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
carries oxygen from lungs to the body cells and also gives blood its red colour.

White blood cells/ leukocytes

White blood cells defend the body by destroying pathogens and producing
antibodies. White blood cells are categorized into neutrophils, eosinophils,
basophils, lymphocytes and monocytes.

Platelets
Platelets help in the clotting process of blood at a bleeding site. Some virus infections
cause a rapid decline in a platelet percentage. e.g. Dengue, Leptospirosis

Plasma
The main function of the plasma is transporting substances dissolved in it.

Science | The Human Circulatory System 75

 Some examples are given below;
² It transports the digestive products, minerals and vitamins to the cells.
² It transports the excretory products during biochemical reactions within
the cells to the excretory organs.
² Plasma transports hormones, proteins, enzymes and gases to the relevant
parts of the body.
6.4 Blood transfusion
The transfer of blood from one individual to another is known as blood transfusion.
The person who donates blood is called the donor and the person who receives is
called the recipient. However, blood transfusion is not possible between any two
individuals.
For a transfusion to take place, compatibility
of the blood group and the Rhesus factor
between the donor and the recipient is
compulsory.
Compatibility of the blood group
There are four blood groups as A, B, AB Figure 6.6
and O depending on the protein components
present in blood cells.
Compatibility of blood groups in transfusion is represented in the table 6.1.
(√ represent positive compatibility of blood group while « represent lack of
compatibility of blood group)
Table 6.1- Compatibility of blood group

Recipient
D Blood type A B AB O
o A √ « √ «
n B « √ √ «
o AB « « √ «
r
O √ √ √ √
According to the table, blood group AB can receive blood from all other blood
groups. Therefore, blood group AB is called the universal recipient.
Blood group O can donate to all the other blood groups. Therefore, blood group O
is called the universal donor.
76 Science | The Human Circulatory System
Information in the table 6.1 can be illustrated as in figure 6.7.

Donor A B AB O

Recipient A AB B AB AB A B AB O
Figure 6.7 - Compatibility of blood group

For a blood transfusion, not only the blood group, but also the Rhesus factor (Rh
factor) must be compatible.
Compatibility of Rhesus factor
If the Rhesus factor is present in one’s blood it is considered as Rh+ and if Rhesus
factor is absent, it is considered as Rh-. The recipients who are Rh+ can receive both
Rh+ and Rh- blood. However, the Rh- recipients can receive Rh- blood only. The
table 6.2 shows the compatibility of blood with Rhesus factor.
(√ represent positive compatibility of blood with Rhesus factor while « represent
negative compatibility of blood with Rhesus factor
Table 6.2 - Compatibility of Rhesus factor

Recipient
D Rh+ Rh-
o
n Rh+ √ «
o
r Rh- √ √

The figure 6.8 represents the same facts in table 6.2. Rh- Rh+

Hence both the blood group and the Rhesus factor

have to be matched to donate blood. Both the blood Rh- Rh+ Rh+
group and Rhesus factor are considered when
Figure 6.8 - Compatibility of
expressing the blood group of an individual. Rhesus factor
e.g. A+, A-, B+, B-, AB+, AB-, O+, O -

The National Blood Transfer Service (NBTS) has a list of other qualifications a
donor must fulfill. A donor has to complete the Blood Donor Declaration correctly
and hand it over to the NBTS before donating blood. Blood donor declaration and
donation record is given in the extra knowledge frame.
Science | The Human Circulatory System 77
 For extra knowledge

78 Science | The Human Circulatory System

 MEDICAL ASSESSMENT

REGISTRATION

BLOOD COLLECTION

Blood agglutination
Clumping of the transfused blood particles in the body of the recipient is called
agglutination.
This happens when the blood groups of donor and recipient are incompatible.
Blood clotting/ coagulation is an important process that prevents excessive bleeding
when there is an injury or internal bleeding. This coagulation mechanism differs
from the coagulation mechanism of agglutination.
When there is an injury or bleeding, the platelets at the damaged blood vessels
breakdown and the resulting chemical process forms a blood clot to stop bleeding.

Maintaining a proper functioning of the blood circulatory system is vital for a

healthy life of a person.
Science | The Human Circulatory System 79
Some favourable habits to maintain healthy blood circulation system
² Maintain mentally less stressful lifestyle
² Engage in physical exercises daily
² Maintain the correct Body Mass Index (BMI) value according to height and
weight, with a healthy diet.
² Reduce salt consumption
² Control conditions like high blood pressure and diabetes
² Add more vegetables and fruits to meals
² Reduce consumption of fatty foods
² Refrain from smoking and liquor
² Have more concern if there is a family history of heart attacks, high blood
pressure and diabetes

Assignment 6.3
² Collect newspaper cuttings about the good health habits that should be
followed to maintain a healthy blood circulatory system.
² Share that knowledge with your classmates.

Summary
² The human heart has four chambers.
² The upper chambers are the right atrium and left atrium and the lower
chambers are the right ventricle and left ventricle.
² Aorta is connected to the left ventricle while pulmonary artery is connected
to the right ventricle.
² Left and right pulmonary veins are connected to the left atrium while superior
vena cava and inferior vena cava are connected to the right atrium.
² Semi lunar valves are at the beginning of main arteries.
² Bicuspid valve is between the left ventricle and left atrium.
² Tricuspid valve is between the right atrium and right ventricle.
² The blood vessels that take the blood away from the heart are arteries and
the vessels that take the blood towards the heart are veins.
² An artery ends up with a capillary and a vein starts with a capillary.
² The main functions of blood are transportation and protection.

80 Science | The Human Circulatory System

² Depending on the protein components in blood cells, there are four blood
groups as A, B, AB and O.
² Compatibility of the blood group and the Rhesus factor between the donor
and the recipient is important for blood transfusion.
² AB is the universal recipient and O is the universal donor.
² Clumping of the transfused blood particles in the body of the recipient is
known as blood agglutination.
² The mechanism of blood coagulation during an injury differs from the
mechanism of blood coagulation in the process of agglutination.
² There is a list of qualifications a blood donor must fulfill.
² It is vital to maintain a proper functioning blood circulatory system as to lead
a healthy life.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. Aorta starts from,
1. left ventricle 2. right ventricle
3. left atrium 4. right atrium
2. What are the blood types that can be transfused to a person with the
blood group B
1. A and B 2. A and O 3. O and B 4. A and AB
3. The universal donor and the universal recipient are,
1. A and O 2. A and B 3. O and AB 4. AB and O
4. Following are some ideas given by a student about blood transfusion.
a. Compatibility of blood group is compulsory.
b. Rh- blood can be transfused to a person with Rh+.
c. Only Rh- blood can be transfused to a person with Rh-.
The correct statements are,
1. a and b only 2. b and c only
3. a and c only 4. a, b and c all
5. During an internal bleeding the blood cells that help for blood coagulation
are,
1. Red blood cells 2. White blood cells
3. Platelets 4. Plasma

Science | The Human Circulatory System 81

 6. Followings are some ideas given by a student about the functions of blood.
a. Carries oxygen to the body cells
b. Kill pathogenic micro-organisms
c. Agglutination occurs when transferring blood
1. a and b only 2. b and c only
3. a and c only 4. a, b and c all

02) Give short answers. 1

1. Use only the numbers in the figure 4
when you answer the given questions
related to the human heart.
5
3 7
2
a. What are the two veins that open
to the right atrium? 6
b. Write the numbers of bicuspid 8 10
valve and tricuspid valve. 9
c. Write down the names of the 11 12
four chambers and the relevant 13 14
numbers
2. Write five good habits that help in
maintaining a healthy circulatory
system.

Technical Terms
Blood circulatory system - reêr ixirK moaO;sh - S¸va _Ø÷Óõmhz öuõSv
Blood groups - reêr .K - S¸v ÁøPPÒ
Blood transfusion - reêr mdrú,hkh - S¸vU SÖUS¨ £õ´a\À
Universal donor - id¾j odhlhd - \µ“Á ÁÇ[Q
Universal recipient - id¾j m%;s.%dylhd - \µ“Á Áõ[Q
Rhesus factor - Íiia idOlh - Ÿéì Põµo
Agglutination - Yaf,aIKh - J¸[öPõmhÀ

82 Science | The Human Circulatory System

7
Plant Growth
Substances
7.1 Introduction to plant growth substances
You know that air, water, light and minerals
are essential for plant growth. It has been
discovered that some chemical substances also
affect towards the plant growth.
Have you ever thought how does a stem of
a plant grows upwards and its roots grow
downwards after the seed germination?
Observe the figures 7.1 a and 7.1 b .
Figure 7.1 a Figure 7.1 b
Have you ever thought how does a stem of a
plant grows upwards and its roots grow downwards even the plant pot falls down?
Let us do the activity 7.1 to study about it.

Activity 7.1
You will need :- Two similar potted plants
Method:-
y Cut and remove the apex of one plant. Then,
measure the heights of both plants.
y Supply same environmental conditions for both
plants and measure their heights daily for a week.
Figure 7.2

You will observe that the plant with the apex grows and its height increases while
the height of the plant without the apex does not change. So, we can guess that there
is an effect of the apex on plants to increase their height. Let us do the activity 7.2
to find out more about it.

Activity 7.2
You will need :- Two similar potted plants, a box covered with a black paper
Method:-
y Cut and remove the apex of one plant.
y Place the two plants inside the box in a way that both plants get light only
from one direction.

Science | Plant Growth Substances 83

Auxins, produced in the apex diffuse downwards. It speeds up the growth of new
cells and the shoot of the plant grows upwards. IAA (Indole Acetic Acid) is a natural
growth substance found in plants.
Auxin concentrate more in the side of plant where intensity of light fall is low and
auxin concentrate less in the other side of the plant. Auxin move to the darker side
of the plant, causing the cells there to grow longer than corresponding cells on the
other side of the plant. This causes a curving
of the plant stem tip towards the light. This
is known as positive phototropic movement.
Auxin also inhibit the growth of lateral buds
(figure 7.5).
Pruning of plant apex is practised in
horticuture to maintain bushy plants.

Figure 7.5 - Growth of lateral buds in

Pomegranate plant
Gibberellins
Gibberellin promotes mainly the elongation
of the stem and growth of the fruits.
Cytokinins

Cytokinin accelerates the cell division. So,

the growth of flowers, leaves, fruits and
roots get accelerated. They stimulate seed Figure 7.7 -
germination and delay plant ageing. Increasing the rate
of rooting in plants
Figure 7.6 - Growth of using Cytokinin
Cabbage plant due to
gibberellin

For extra knowledge

Abscisic acid is a plant growth substance. It is a chemical substance that cause
closing of stomata when the plant experiences shortage of water. Thus, it
decreases transpiration.
Ethene is a simple organic compound which produces in low amounts in plants.
It is necessary for ripening of fruits. In ripening, starch stored in plants converted
to sugar. If a plant is damaged, ethene released to the wound area and a new
tissue forms to recover the wound.

Science | Plant Growth Substances 85

What is the reason for falling leaves and fruits when matured?
When you observe a stalk of a naturally fallen leaf and a stalk of a broken leaf,
it would be clear to you that, the naturally fallen leaf stalk has a clear abscission
layer. The reason for making an abscission layer is, the reduction results in the
amount of growth substances in fruits and leaves with their maturity. As a result,
fruit fall and leaf fall take place in plants.

7.2 Uses of artificial growth substances

Artificial growth substances are widely used in horticulture and growing ornamental
plants. Some of these are given in the table 7.1.

Table 7.1
Artificial growth substances Uses
2,4 DPA
(2,4 Dichloro Phenoxyacetic Acid)
As a broad leaf weedicide for paddy fields
2,4,5 TPA
(2,4,5 Trichloro Phenoxyacetic Acid)
(IAA) Indole Acetic Acid To induce root formation of stem cuttings,
(IBA) Indole Butyric Acid To grow fruits quickly
To prevent pre-mature fruit drop, To induce
(NAA) Naphthalene Acetic Acid
flowering in pine apple in off-seasons

Cytocell To get mango fruits in the off-season

Assignment 7.1
² Collect information about the instances that artificial growth substances are
used.
² If possible arrange a visit to a plant nursery where artificial growth substances
are used.
² Collect information about the use of artificial growth substances and prepare
a report.

86 Science | Plant Growth Substances

 Assignment 7.2
Prepare a collection of flower plants by the root induction of their stem
cuttings using artificial growth substances. Plant them to beautify your school
environment.

Summary
² The organic substances that influence some physiological processes during
the growth of a plant are known as growth substances.
² Some growth substances promote the growth while some inhibit the growth
of plants.
² Auxin, Gibberellin and Cytokinin are some examples for growth promoting
substances.
² Artificial growth substances and inhibitors are used for agricultural purposes.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The figure shows the growth of a plant close to a window.
What can be there in the side to which its apex has grown?
1. light 2. water
3. soil 4. air
2. An artificial growth substance that is used to encourage root
formation of a stem cutting is,
1. Indole Acetic Acid
2. 2, 4 Dichloro Phenoxyacetic Acid
3. Naphthalene Acetic Acid
4. 2, 4, 5 Trichloro Phenoxyacetic Acid
3. Select the incorrect statement regarding growth substances.
1. organic substances which control physiological activities in plants
2. growth substances can be artificially synthesized for use
3. some are used for inducing fruit formation
4. stimulate the growth only

Science | Plant Growth Substances 87

 4. Three artificially synthesized growth substances are given below.
a. Indole Acetic Acid
b. Indole Butyric Acid
c. Napthalene Acetic Acid
Which of these are useful in initiating roots ?
1. a and b only 2. a and c only
3. b and c only 4. a, b and c all
5. What is the artificial substance used to prevent pre-mature fruit drop and to
induce flowering in pine apple in off seasons?
1. 2,4 DPA 2. IAA 3. IBA 4. NAA
02) Chemical substances and their effect for plant growth is mentioned in
A and B colomns. Match A and B correctly.
A B
a. Auxins cell division
b. Cytokinins cell elongation
b. Gibberellins stem elongation

03) State three instances where artificial growth substances are used in
agriculture. Give one example for each.

Technical Terms
uõÁμ Áͺa]a^μõUQ¨
Plant growth substances - Ydl j¾Ol øjH -
£uõºzu[PÒ
Growth promoters - j¾Okh W;af;ackh lrk øjH - Áͺa] ysiPÒ
Growth inhibitors - j¾Okh ksfYaOkh lrk øjH - Áͺa] {÷μõvPÒ
Seed germination - îc m%frdayKh - Âzx •øÍzuÀ
Plant ageing - Ydl úhm;a ùu - uõÁμ[PÒ Á¯uõuÀ
Phototropic movements - m%Ndj¾;S p,k - JÎzv¸¨£Áø\Ä
Stem elongation - Ydl l|kaj, Èla ùu - usk }m]¯øhuÀ
ö\¯ØøP Áͺa]¨
Artificial growth substances - lD;%su j¾Ol øjH -
£uõºzu[PÒ

88 Science | Plant Growth Substances

Elastic band A represents the biceps muscle in the elbow joint. When biceps muscle
is contracted the hands bends and lifts up.
Elastic band B represents the triceps muscle in the elbow joint. When triceps muscle
is contracted the hand is stretched. Then, the biceps muscle comes to its original
resting position.

8.3 Support and movements of plants

Support of plants
Just like in animals, tissues are present within plants for the purpose of mechanical
support. Figure 8.5 shows the garden Balsam plant. You may have noticed on sunny
days these plants get withered and the stem is bent down. This is due to lack of
water supply to the plant.
To keep non-woody plants erect and alive it is vital to have water inside the plant,
where as woody plants can be kept erect in low water percentages due to presence
of various chemical substances such as cellulose, lignin deposited in the walls in
heartwood of the plant. They give rigidity to the plant (figure 8.6).

Figure 8.5 - Non-woody plant (Balsam) Figure 8.6 - Woody plant (Mango)

Movements of plants
Growth of a part in a plant as a response to a stimulus or change of the location due
to a turgor change , is known as a movement of a plant. These responses can be
catogorized into two main groups as,
² Tropic movements
² Nastic movements
Tropic movements
Tropic movements are growth or movements that occur due to a direct influence
between the direction of stimulus and direction of response. Tropic movements
occur due to the effect of growth substances. Response may be towards or away
from the stimulus. Positive tropism occurs towards the stimulus. Negative tropism
occurs away from the stimulus.

92 Science | Support and Movements of Organisms

Some of tropic movements are described below.
y Positive geotropism -
roots growing towards the ground
y Negative geotropism -
stem of the plant growing away from the ground
y Positive phototropism -
stem growing towards the light
y Positive hydrotropism -
roots moving towards the water source
y Positive chemotropism -
growth of the pollen along the tube towards
the ovule
y Positive thigmotropism - coiling of tendrils in Passion fruit with the
support
Let us do activity 8.3 to study about tropic movements.

Activity 8.3
You will need:- Two pots, s ome green
gram seeds
Method :-
y Plant 5 soaked seeds in each pot.
y After seed germination, keep one
healthy plant in each pot and uproot
all the other plants.
y Keep one pot vertical and the other
toppled down as in the figure 8.7. Figure 8.7

y Observe the growth pattern of root and shoot after one week.
y Identify and study tropic movements.

In both pots, roots grow towards ground.

That means movement of a plant root is
positive geotropic, and movement of a
plant shoot is negative geotropic (figure
8.8), as it move.

Figure 8.8

Science | Support and Movements of Organisms 93

Nastic movements
In nastic movements, response of the direction
does not depend on the direction of stimulus
(The direction of these movements are specific).
Response is always towards a specific direction;
irrespective of the direction of stimulus. This
reaction is not related with growth substances
triggered by external stimulus. Most of them are
movements due to turgor change. In legume
plants, a structure called pulvinus is located as a
swelling at the base of the petiole or leaflet. It
contains parenchyma cells, which move Figure 8.9 - Shrinking of Mimosa leaves
according to the changes in turgor pressure.
Some of nastic movements are as follows.
² Nyctinastic movements - sleeping or shrinking of leaves of 'Kathurumurunga'
/ 'Agaththi', tamarind, Mimosa and 'Nelli' / 'Nellikkai' leaves when dark falls
² Haptonastic movement - sleeping or shrinking of Mimosa leaves, when the
stimulus is touched
² Seismonastic movement - exhibiting sleeping movement during a shock
² Photonastic movement - blooming of flowers with the sunrise
Let us do the activity 8.4 to study about responses of plant parts

Activity 8.4
You will need :- Mimosa plants
Method :-
y Touch the leaves of a Mimosa plant.
y Make a vibration without touching the leaves.
y Report your observations.
y Report if there are any special features in the plants responsible for these
movements.
When you touch a Mimosa plant the leaves show the
sleep movement. It is a haptonastic movement. When
you create a vibration without touching, the leaves of
the Mimosa plant show the sleep movement. It is a
seismonastic movement.
The pulvinus located at each leaflet and petiole base pulvinus
help for these movements of the plant. Pvlvini are
also present in plants showing sleeping movement at Figure 8.10 - Place where the
dust with the decrease of sunlight. pulvini are located
e.g. 'Kathurumurunga', Tamarind, 'Nelli'
94 Science | Support and Movements of Organisms
 For extra knowledge
Tactic movements
In addition to tropic movements and nastic movements there is a type of movement
known as tactic, which is related with the direction of stimulus. In tactic movement,
the whole organism responds to the stimulus.
e.g. Small Algal Species like Chlamydomonas

In-situ Conservation
Although plants show movements they cannot locomote like animals. Animals can
avoid external hazards by locomotion.
Plants grow in a habitat, where all necessary external factors needed to growth
are present. Hence, plants can get destroyed in its habitat due to external hazards.
Therefore, it is essential to conserve plants in their own habitat. Conservation of
an organism, in its living environment is known as in-situ conservation. Strictly
reserved forests which protect indigenous plants like ebony, satinwood, vitex are
examples for in-situ conservation. These species of organisms can also be protected
by conserving sensitive zones of environment.

Figure 8.11 - 'Vilpattu' reserve

Science | Support and Movements of Organisms 95

 Summary
² Animals use pseudopodia, cilia, flagella and muscles for their locomotion.
² Chordates use bones and muscles connected to the bones for movements.
² For a movement to take place, muscles must have the ability to contract,
stretch and recoil to their original resting length after stretched or contracted.
² Skeletal system and the muscles give the body a shape and rigidity.
² Even though plants do not show locomotion, they show movements.
² Movements of plants are categorized as tropic movements and nastic
movements.
² Conservation of an organism in its living environment, is known as in-situ
conservation.

Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The appendage used by the snail for its locomotion is,
1. flagella 2. pseudopodia 3. cilia 4. muscular foot
2. What helps to maintain rigidity of non-woody plants ?
1. Water 2. Air
3. Different deposited materials 4. Plant nutrients
3. Human movements need,
1. only the bones.
2. only the muscles.
3. both bones and muscles.
4. none of above.
4. The leaves of Mimosa plant show sleep movement when touched. This
movement is known as,
1. haptonastic movement 2. nyctinastic movement
3. photonastic movement 4. positive geotropic movement
5. The growth of the stem towards the light is a,
1. positive phototropic movement 2. negative geotropic movement
3. haptonastic movement 4. nyctinastic movement

96 Science | Support and Movements of Organisms

6. A tropic movement is,
1. a movement with a response directed towards the direction of the stimulus
2. a movement with a response directed opposite direction of the stimulus
3. a movement with a response independent of the direction of the stimulus
4. a movement with a response directed towards or opposite the stimulus
7. The figure shows the demonstration of,
1. positive geotropic movement
2. positive phototropic movement
3. hydrotropic movement
4. haptonastic movement

02) Following figures show some activities and their observations used to
demonstrate the plant movements. Write the name of the movement
demonstrated in each activity.

a. Before After b.

c. d.

Technical Terms
Support - ikaOdrKh - uõ[SuÀ
Tropic movements - wdj¾;S p,k - v¸¨£ Aø\Ä
Nastic movements - ikakuk p,k - •ßÛø» Aø\Ä
Tactic movements - id¾jir p,k - Cμ\øn Aø\Ä
In-situ conservation - ia:dkSh ixrlaIKh - EÒ{ø»U Põ¨¦

Science | Support and Movements of Organisms 97

9 The Evolutionary
Process
Diversity of living organisms in our environment is a result of the evolutionary
process. When studying about the evolution it is important to consider about the
origin of the universe and origin of the life.
In the past, there were many beliefs about the origin of the universe.
9.1 Origin of the Earth
It is believed that the origin of the Earth took place about 4.5 billion years ago.
Nebular theory is the first scientific explanation of the origin of the solar system.
According to this theory, small particles of materials in the universe drew together
by the force of gravity, clumped up, and the galaxies, the sun and other planets were
formed.
Big Bang theory can be considered as the modern theory about the origin of the
Earth. According to this theory, universe was an energy source with a great energy.
A giant explosion took place in it and large clouds of dust particles were created.
These dust particles clumped up together and the galaxies were created. It is said in
the big bang theory that, our solar system was created in the galaxy known as the
milky way galaxy.

Figure 9.1 - Illustration of the Big Bang

Initially the Earth had been a very hot object and its volcanic activities were high.
The Earth got gradually cooled and less volatile metals with high density formed
the core of the Earth. It is believed that, Earth's crust was created later, by light
silicon rocks.

98 Science | The Evolutionary Process

Various types of elements at the centre of the Earth reacted with each other and
different types of gases were formed. At first the atmosphere of the Earth had gases
such as Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4) and Hydrogen sulphide (H2S). The
absence of Oxygen (O2) in the early atmosphere is a significant fact.
Initially, the extreme heat of the Earth caused evaporation of water on the planet.
This evaporated water got condensed and clouds were formed. Water droplets in
these clouds joined together and dropped onto the Earth as rain. There had been
continuous heavy rains on the Earth for many years. This rain water which was rich
with minerals, collected in lower lands and oceans were formed.

Figure 9.2 - Illustrations of primitive Earth

9.2 Origin of life on the Earth

There are many beliefs and theories on origin of life on the Earth. It is believed that,
about 3.5 billion years ago life originated on the Earth.
Let us consider some theories about origin of life on the Earth.
Theory of special creation
According to this theory, all living organisms on Earth were created by a super
natural power. Since there is no scientific evidence to prove this theory, scientist do
not pay attention to it.
Spontaneous generation theory
This theory states that life was originated from non-living things in a spontaneous
manner.
e.g.
y Rats who born from pieces of clothes
y Maggots who born from rotten meat
y Weevils who born from decayed wood
The Spontaneous generation theory has been effectively disproved by the
experiments conducted by the scientist Louis Pasteur.
Science | The Evolutionary Process 99
 For extra knowledge

Louis Pasteur prepared an experiment to

prove that spontaneous generation theory
is not an acceptable theory.
y Similar amounts of sterilized nutritional
media was added to two similar swan neck
flasks. No growth of living organisms was Louis Pasteur
observed.
y After about one year neck of the one flask was broken and taken away.
y Microbial growth was visible in the flask without the neck and no life appeared
in the other flask.
y As the conclusion, it was stated that living organisms do not generate
spontaneously. This was accepted as true in 1862.

No growth of
Heating micro-organisms

Neck of the flask was Growth of

Heating broken micro-organisms
The experiment which proved the non-applicability of the spontaneous generation theory

Cosmozoic theory
This theory suggests that, the living materials might have got established on Earth
from a fallen meteor with living organisms or by space crafts from other planets.
This theory has not been proved scientifically.
Theory of biochemical evolution
This theory confirms that, at the beginning of the Earth, the gases in the atmosphere
reacted with each other and the ingredients that make life possible were formed.
It is believed that the energy required for this was supplied by electric discharges
during lightning, eruption of volcanoes and by the ultra violet radiation of the sun.
These materials dissolved in rain water and collected in oceans. This mixture was
known as the primordial soup.

100 Science | The Evolutionary Process

The first living cell or the pre-cell appeared as a result of a bio chemical reaction in
primordial soup. The first organism was unicellular and was considered anaerobic
and heterotrophic.
Scientists have experimentally shown that the first living cell was created by the
primordial soup.

For extra knowledge

The two scientists Haldane and Oparin

put forwarded the biochemical evolution
theory about the origin of life. This theory
was scientifically proved by Stanley Miller
by conducting scientific investigations in
laboratory.
Stanley Miller

The first form of life on the Earth is considered to be a simple unicellular bacterium.
Then, the first photosynthetic organisms, unicellular algae were formed. After that,
an atmosphere containing gaseous oxygen was formed.
Many changes took place for a long time period within the body of unicellular
organisms and multicellular organisms were born. Gradually, tissues, organs and
systems were specialized within these multicellular organisms and the world of
animals and plants were created.
Cnidarians, some annelids and some arthropods are considered as the first
multicellular organisms.
The fish are considered as the first type of vertebrates, and amphibians originated
from fish. Amphibians can be regarded as the first vertebrates that entered into
terrestrial environment. Reptiles evolved as a result of gradual evolutionary changes
occurred in amphibians. The reptiles are completely adapted to the terrestrial life
than amphibians. It is believed that birds and mammals evolved from reptiles during
evolution.
The evolution of human took place about 12 million years ago. Modern human
originated about 5 million (5 000 000) years ago.
The world of plants evolved by the gradual changes resulted in photosynthetic algae
on the oceans. First, less developed plants originated which, was then followed by
non-flowering plants and flowering plants at last.

Science | The Evolutionary Process 101

Accordingly, evolution of life has occurred at different times with several changes.
In order to understand that process, study the figure 9.3.

Figure 9.3

9.3 Evolution
Various changes in the natural environment can have an impact on the existence of
life.
Life’s existence is confirmed by changes that occur gradually in living organisms in
relation to continuous changes in the environment.

102 Science | The Evolutionary Process

 Figure 9.5 - Mammoth Figure 9.6 - Dinosaur

Let us do the activity 9.1 to create a model fossil

Activity 9.1
You will need:- Kaolin/clay, plaster of Paris, binder glue, 2 yoghurt cups, a
spoon, shapes of animals (an oyster shell, fern leaf) a pair of
scissors
Method:-
² Fill half of a one yoghurt cup with clay. Place the shell or the leaf on it and
press. When the print of the shell or the leaf is marked on clay, remove the
shell or the leaf.
² Put some plaster of paris into the other yoghurt cup. Add some water and
prepare a plaster. Carefully pour the prepared plaster or binder glue on to the
prints on the clay. Keep for about 2 hours to dry.
² Then, cut the yoghurt cup with the scissors and take out the clay lump out of
the plaster or binder glue.
² Observe the model fossils on the surface of the clay lump and plaster made
with plaster of paris.

Step I Step II Step III Step IV

Figure 9.7 - How to create a model fossil

104 Science | The Evolutionary Process

9.4 Importance of evolution in bio-diversity
There is a competition among animals for the limited resources in the environment.
The creatures who succeed, will be naturally selected and be established in the
environment. These selected organisms become pioneers in the environment and
their population increases. These creatures have created a large bio-diversity in the
natural environment. In the process of evolution, novel species can also be evolved
from former species. This is known as speciation and this process broadens the
biodiversity further.
For extra knowledge
Charles Darwin is considered
as the father of evolution.
He put forwarded the
Natural selection theory
which is a scientifically
accepted theory about
Charles Darwin
evolution.

Assignment 9.2
Prepare a booklet by collecting information on the evidence found in Sri Lanka,
about human evolution.
Use the evidence found at "Batadombalena" in "Kuruwita", "Pahiyangala" cave
in "Bulathsinhala", "Ibbankatuwa", "Rawana" falls and "Pomparippu". Include
the facts about the "Balangoda Man" too.

Summary
² Origin of the Earth took place about 4.5 billion years ago and origin of life
took place 3.5 billion years ago.
² “Origination of life is a result of a process of bio-chemical reactions” is the
theory that is accepted today.
² Life originated from a unicellular organism that lived in the sea and developed
into multicellular organisms.
² Gradual development of the simple organisms to modern complex organisms
is called the evolution.
² Fossil records are the main detailed evidence of evolution.
² Animals that do not undergo evolutionary process are known as living fossils.
² Horse is an organism with complete fossil evidence about its evolution.
² Important evidences about evolution of the mankind were found in Sri Lanka.

Science | The Evolutionary Process 107

 Exercise
01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The correct sentences about the origin of the Earth is,
a. It is considered that, origin of the Earth took place 4.5 billion
years ago.
b. The first scientific theory about the origin of the universe is
Nebular theory.
c. Big Bang theory is considered as a modern theory on origin of
the Earth.
1. a and b 2. a and c 3. b and c 4. a, b and c all
2. The false statement about the early Earth is,
1. As there was oxygen in the atmosphere, there was life on the Earth.
2. Gases such as carbon dioxide and methane were formed as a result of
the reactions between elements.
3. Heavy rain fell down on the Earth for many years.
4. The rain water rich with minerals was collected to form oceans.
3. Today’s accepted theory on origin of life on the Earth is the,
1. Theory of special creation
2. Spontaneous generation theory
3. Cosmozoic theory
4. Theory of bio-chemical evolution
4. The true statement on the origin of life is,
a. First living organism on Earth was a unicellular algae.
b. Multicellular organisms were originated from the evolution of
unicellular organisms.
c. Origin of modern human took place 4.5 billion years ago.
1. a and b 2. a and c 3. b and c 4. a, b and c all
02) State whether the following statements are true (√) or false (x).
1. The first originated organism on primordial soup was a
unicellular bacterium. ( )
2. Gradual development of modern complex organisms from simple
organisms is known as evolution. ( )
3. To come to a conclusion on biological evolution, only fossil
evidence is sufficient. ( )
4. Lingula is a living fossil found in Sri Lanka. ( )
5. The process of evolution too contribute towards the bio-diversity. ( )

108 Science | The Evolutionary Process

 03) Give short answers.
1. Write two examples for living fossils.
2. Simply describe the contribution of fossils to study the evolutionary process.
3. Write five places in Sri Lanka that give evidence on evolution of the mankind.
4. Write a modification on feet of horse occurred during its evolution.
5. Write three examples for organisms who became extinct from the Earth but
whose fossils were found.

Technical Terms
Big Bang theory - uyd msmsreï jdoh - ö£¸öÁi¨¦U öPõÒøP
Bio-diversity - ffcj úúO;ajh - E°º¨£ÀÁøPø©
Primordial soup - wdÈ iQmh - BvUTÌ
Bio-chemical evolution - ffcj ridhksl mßKduh - E°›μ\õ¯ÚU Tº¨¦
Spontaneous ußÛaø\¨ ¤Ó¨£õUPU
- iajhx isoaO ckkjdoh -
generation theory öPõÒøP
Fossil - fmdis,h - E°ºa _Ák
Living fossil - Ôjudk fmdis,h - ÁõÊ® E°ºa_Ák
Theory of natural C¯ØøPz ÷uºÄU
- iajdNdúl jrK jdoh -
selection öPõÒøP
Speciation - úfYaI m%dma;sh - CÚ©õuÀ

Science | The Evolutionary Process 109

 SCIENCE
Part - II

Grade 9

Educational Publications Department

First Print 2017

Second Print 2018

Third Print 2019

All Rights Reserved

ISBN 978-955-25-0163-0

Published by : The Educational Publications Department

Printed by : R.S. Printek (Pvt) Ltd.
No. 765/2, Waduwegama Road, Malwana.

ii
The National Anthem of Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka Matha

Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Sundara siri barinee, surendi athi sobamana Lanka
Dhanya dhanaya neka mal palaturu piri jaya bhoomiya ramya
Apa hata sepa siri setha sadana jeewanaye matha
Piliganu mena apa bhakthi pooja Namo Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha
Oba we apa vidya
Obamaya apa sathya
Oba we apa shakthi
Apa hada thula bhakthi
Oba apa aloke
Apage anuprane
Oba apa jeevana we
Apa mukthiya oba we
Nava jeevana demine, nithina apa pubudukaran matha
Gnana veerya vadawamina regena yanu mana jaya bhoomi kara
Eka mavakage daru kela bevina
Yamu yamu vee nopama
Prema vada sema bheda durerada
Namo Namo Matha
Apa Sri Lanka Namo Namo Namo Namo Matha

iii
wms fjuq tl ujlf. orefjda
tl ksjfiys fjfikd
tl mdge;s tl reêrh fõ
wm lh ;=< ÿjkd

tneúks wms fjuq fidhqre fidhqßfhda

tl f,i tys jefvkd
Ôj;a jk wm fuu ksjfia
fid¢k isáh hq;= fõ

ieug u fu;a lreKd .=fKkS

fj<S iu.s oñkS
rka ñKs uq;= fkd j th u h iem;d
lsis l, fkdu Èrkd

wdkkao iurfldaka

xu jha; kf;fs; ehkhNthk;

xd;Nw ehk; thOk; ,y;yk;
ed;Nw clypy; XLk;
xd;Nw ek; FUjp epwk;

mjdhy; rNfhjuu; ehkhNthk;

xd;wha; thOk; tsUk; ehk;
ed;wha; ,t; ,y;ypdpNy
eyNk tho;jy; Ntz;Lkd;Nwh

ahtUk; md;G fUizAld;

xw;Wik rpwf;f tho;e;jpLjy;
nghd;Dk; kzpAk; Kj;Jky;y - mJNt
ahd;W kopahr; nry;tkd;Nwh.

Mde;j rkuf;Nfhd;
ftpijapd; ngau;g;G.

iv
 Being innovative, changing with right knowledge
BeBeing
a light to the country
innovative, as well
changing asright
with to theknowledge,
world.
Be a light to the country as well as to the world.

Message from the Hon. Minister of Education

Message from the Hon. Minister of Education
The past two decades have been significant in the world history due to changes
that took place in technology. The present students face a lot of new challenges along
The past two decades have been significant in the world history due to changes that took
with the rapid development of Information Technology, communication and other
place in technology. The present students face a lot of new challenges along with the rapid
related fields.
development The mannerTechnology,
of Information of career opportunities
communication areandliable to change
other related specifically
fields. The mannerinof
career opportunities are liable to change specifically in the near future. In such anintellectual
the near future. In such an environment, with a new technological and environment,
society,
with a newthousands
technologicalof innovative career
and intellectual opportunities
society, thousands of would be career
innovative created. To win
opportunities
those challenges, it is the responsibility of the Sri Lankan government and
would be created. To win those challenges, it is the responsibility of Sri Lankan Government myself,
and
as the Minister of Education, to empower you
myself, as the Minister of Education, to empower you all. all.

This
This book
book is aisproduct
a product of education.
of free free education. Your
Your aim mustaim be must
to use be
thistobook
use properly
this bookand
properly and acquire the necessary knowledge out of it. The government
acquire the necessary knowledge out of it. The government in turn is able to provide free in turn is
able to provide
textbooks free
to you, as textbooks
a result to you, as aand
of the commitment result of ofthe
labour commitment
your and labour of
parents and elders.
your parents and elders.
Since we have understood that the education is crucial in deciding the future of a country,
Since we
the government hashave
takenunderstood that the
steps to change education
curriculum is crucial
to suit in deciding
the rapid changes ofthe the
future of a country,
technological the government
world. Hence, you have tohas takenyourselves
dedicate steps to change curriculum
to become to citizens.
productive suit the I
rapid changes of the technological world. Hence, you have to dedicate yourselves
believe that the knowledge this book provides will suffice your aim.
to become productive citizens. I believe that the knowledge this book provides will
sufficeItyour aim.duty to give a proper value to the money spent by the government on your
is your
education. Also you should understand that education determines your future. Make sure that
you reach the optimum social stratum through education.
It is your duty to give a proper value to the money spent by the government
on your education. Also you should understand that education determines your
I congratulate you to enjoy the benefits of free education and bloom as an honoured
future. Make sure that you reach the optimum social stratum through education.
citizen who takes the name of Sri Lanka to the world.

I congratulate you to enjoy the benefits of free education and bloom as an

honoured citizen who takes the name of Sri Lanka to the world.

Akila Viraj Kariyawasam


Minister of Education
Akila Viraj Kariyawasam

Minister of Education

v
 Foreword

The educational objectives of the contemporary world

are becoming more complex along with the economic, social, cultural and
technological development. The learning and teaching process too is changing
in relation to human experiences, technological differences, research and
new indices. Therefore, it is required to produce the textbook by including
subject related information according to the objectives in the syllabus in
order to maintain the teaching process by organizing learning experiences
that suit to the learner needs. The textbook is not merely a learning tool for
the learner. It is a blessing that contributes to obtain a higher education along
with a development of conduct and attitudes, to develop values and to obtain
learning experiences.

The government in its realization of the concept of free

education has offered you all the textbooks from grades 1-11. I would like
to remind you that you should make the maximum use of these textbooks
and protect them well. I sincerely hope that this textbook would assist you to
obtain the expertise to become a virtuous citizen with a complete personality
who would be a valuable asset to the country.

I would like to bestow my sincere thanks on the members

of the editorial and writer boards as well as on the staff of the Educational
Publications Department who have strived to offer this textbook to you.

W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka,
Commissioner General of Educational Publications,
Educational Publications Department,
Isurupaya,
Battaramulla.
2019.04.10

vi
Monitoring and Supervision
W. M. Jayantha Wickramanayaka - Commissioner General
Educational Publications Department
Direction
W. A. Nirmala Piyaseeli - Commissioner (Development)
Educational Publications Department
Co-ordination
K. D. Bandula Kumara - Deputy Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
W. Suvendra Shyamaleen Jayawardhana - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
Y. M. Priyangika Kumari Yapa - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
G. M. A. Dinushi N. Muhandiram - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
Panel of Editors
1. Prof. Mangala Ganehiarachchi - Head, Department of Zoology,
University of Kelaniya
2. Prof. Nilwala Kottegoda - Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry,
University of Sri Jayawardanapura
3. Dr. M. K. Jayananda - Senior Lecturer
Department of Physical Science
University of Colombo
4. M. P. Vipulasena - Director (Science)
Ministry of Education
5. R. S. J. P. Uduporuwa - Senior Lecturer
National Institute of Education
6. Ashoka De Silva - Senior Lecturer
National Institute of Education
7. K. V. Nandani Sriyalatha - Commissioner (retired)
Educational Publications Department
8. P. Atchuthan - Assistant Lecturer
National Institute of Education
9. V. Rajudevan - Assistant Lecturer
National Institute of Education
10. K. D. Bandula Kumara - Deputy Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
11. W. Suvendra Shyamaleen Jayawardhana - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
12. Y. M. Priyangika Kumari Yapa - Assistant Commissioner
Educational Publications Department
vii
Panel of Writers
1. Dr. K. Ariyasinghe - Professional Science Writer

2. S. M. Saluwadana - Science Co-ordinator

Dept. of Provincial Education (North Central)
3. L. Gamini Jayasooriya - In-Service Advisor (Science)
Divisional Education Office, Wennappuwa
4. W. G. A. Ravindra Veragoda - Teacher Service
Sri Rahula National School, Alawwa
5. Muditha Athukorala - Teacher Service
Prajapathi Girl's School, Horana
6. R. M .P. Bandara - Teacher Service
Neluwa National School, Neluwa
7. H. T. C. Gamini Jayarathne - In-Service Advisor (retired)

8. T. Indika Krishantha Nawarathne - Teacher Service

Nalanda College, Colombo 10
9. A. M. T. Pigera - Assistant Director of Education (retired)

10. M. A. P. Munasinghe - Project Officer (retired)

National Insitute of Education
11. Suyama Kottegoda - Teacher Service
Bandaragama Central College, Bandaragama
12. K. Shanthakumar - In-Service Advisor (Science)
Zonal Education Office, Haliela
13. J. Emanuvel - Principal
St. Anthony's Boys' School, Colombo 13
14. M. M. F. Rafaka - Deputy Principal
Muslim Ladies College, Colombo 04
15. M. M. S. Zareena - Teacher Service
Budurdeen Mahmood Ladies College, Kandy
16. T. Balakumaran - Teacher Service (retired)
Language Editing and Proof Reading
1. M. R. S. K. Ganegoda - Teacher Service (retired)
2. Anupa Madupani Weerarathne - Assistant Director
Ministry of Education
Cover Page, Illustrations and Page Layout
Malaka Lalanajeewa - Graphic Designer
Technical Assistance
1. Abisheka Ranasinghege - Educational Publications Department
2. M. D. Tharindu Samarasinghe - Educational Publications Department
viii
 Introduction

This textbook was compiled by the Educational Publications Department in accordance

with the syllabus prepared by the National Institute of Education for the use of Grade 9
students in the Sri Lankan school system with effect from 2018.
An effort has made here to arrange the subject content to suit the national educational
goals, common national competencies, the objectives of teaching science and the
content of the syllabus.
The subject of science directs the student towards a more active learning process in
a manner as to develop knowledge, skills and attitudes needed for a developmental
scientific thought.
In the compilation of this textbook, subject content is largely arranged based on
experiences of daily life. It has contributed to prove the fact that the subject of science is
very much closer to the day to day life.
The compilation of this textbook based on activities is a distinctive feature. The activities
are prepared based on the scientific method in order to develop knowledge, skills and
attitudes. Activities that can be performed individually at home as well as in school
are incorporated here. We believe that learning through activities would contribute to
create a liking and an interest in the child towards learning science.
At the end of each chapter, a summary, a series of exercises and a glossary were included.
It enables the student to identify the important details of the chapter as well as to self
evaluate the achievement of learning outcomes.
For the purpose of directing the student to study further about the subject matter, more
information is included in the "For extra knowledge". It is given only to broaden the
subject area of the child and certainly not to ask questions at term tests.
Assignments and projects are given with the purpose of directing the student towards
an explorative study. It enables the students to develop the higher order skills such as
application, analysis and synthesis of the concepts achieved from the lesson.
We strongly believe that the duty of the teachers who teach science is to direct the student
for self learning instead of teaching the student using traditional teaching methods. This
textbook can be utilized by the teachers as a learning tool to execute their teaching role
properly.
We would like to bestow our sincere thanks on the professional writer Dr. K. Ariyasinghe.
We kindly request you to forward your comments and suggestions on this textbook to
the Educational Publications Department.

Board of Writers and Editors

ix
x
 Contents
Page
10. Electrolysis 01
10.1 Electrolysis 01
10.2 Changes caused in a solution by an electric current 02
10.3 Electroplating 05

11. Density 10
11.1 Introduction to density 10
11.2 Units of density 11
11.3 Hydrometers 13

12. Bio-diversity 19
12.1 Introduction to bio-diversity 19
12.2 Importance of bio-diversity 22
12.3 Threats to bio-diversity 23
12.4 Important features of ecosystems 25
12.5 Natural ecosystems and built environment 29

13. Artificial Environment and Green Concept 42

13.1 Artificial environment and green concept 42
13.2 Agricultural process 44
13.3 Industrial process 50

14. Reflection and Refraction of Waves 58

14.1 Reflection of light 58
14.2 Sound 69
14.3 Refraction of light 75

xi
15. Simple Machines 84
15.1 Lever 86
15.2 Inclined plane 93
15.3 Wheel and axle 95
15.4 Pulleys 97

16. Nanotechnology and its Applications 103

16.1 Nanometer 104
16.2 Nanotechnology 105
16.3 Applications of nanotechnology 112
16.4 Future condition that may arise because of nanotechnology 115

17. Lightning Accidents 119

17.1 How lightning occurs 120
17.2 Prevention of lightning accidents 125

18. Natural Disasters 129

18.1 Cyclones 129
18.2 Earthquakes 134
18.3 Tsunami 141
18.4 Wild fires 145
18.5 The relationship between increase in global warming 146
and natural disasters

19. Sustainable Use of Natural Resources 152

19.1 Water 153
19.2 Minerals and rocks 155
19.3 Trees 161

Cover Page :- Represents Green Concept

xii
10 Electrolysis
10.1 Electrolysis
There was a news item of a woman who has been cooking food keeping an
aluminum pan on a electric leaky hot plate was struck with an electric shock when
she was pouring coconut milk into the curry. She had got the shock even though
she was not touching the pan. How would this have happened? The leaking electric
current should have passed through coconut milk and entered the woman's body.
Your elders must have told you that connecting electric plugs with wet hands is
dangerous. The reason for the electric leaks stated above should be the conduction
of electricity through a liquid medium.

Let us do activity 10.1 to find out whether electricity is conducted through any
substance in liquid state.

Activity 10.1
You will need :- A beaker, two carbon rods, an ammeter, two dry cells (1.5
V), connecting wires, kerosene, salt solution, acidified water,
copper sulphate solution, distilled water
+ -
Method:-
A
² Connect the ammeter and the two dry cells
to the two carbon rods as shown in the figure. Carbon rods
10.1. Dip the two carbon rods partially in
the liquid/solution.
² Pour the liquids/solutions given above into Liquid or Solution
the beaker.
² Observe whether there is a deflection in the
ammeter.
Figure 10.1
² Tabulate your observation.

It is seen here that the ammeter deflects only when some liquids/solutions are used.

Science | Electrolysis 1
 Table 10.1
Liquids/solution causing a Liquids/solutions not causing
deflection in the ammeter a deflection in the ammeter
Salt solution Kerosene
Copper sulphate solution Distilled water
Acidified water

Indicator of the ammeter deflects when a current passes through it. Therefore, a
current has passed through the solutions resulting a deflection in the ammeter. The
solutions of salt, copper sulphate and acidified water, all contain mobile ions. These
solutions conduct electricity through these mobile ions. Liquids or solutions which
conduct electricity are called electrolytes.
Since kerosene and distilled water do not conduct electricity, they do not bring about
a deflection in the ammeter. Such liquids/solutions do not conduct electricity as
they do not contain mobile ions. Liquids/solutions which do not conduct electricity
are referred to as non-electrolytes.
Compounds such as sodium chloride and copper sulphate are known as ionic
compounds. They exist in the solid state. They are made up of oppositely charged
ions formed by the relevant atoms. You will be able to learn more about them in
grade 10.
Although, there are ions in solid ionic compounds they cannot move freely.
Hence, those compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state. But, if an
ionic compound is dissolved in water to give an aqueous solution, the ions in it
become mobile. Thus, aqueous solutions of ionic compounds are good conductors
of electricity.
When an ionic solid is heated and brought to the liquid state, it is called a fused
substance. Ions in a fused liquid also can move. Accordingly, Ionic compounds
conduct electricity in the fused state.

10.2 Changes caused in a solution by an electric current

When electricity is conducted through an electrolyte, the conductors through which
the electric current enters the electrolyte and exits are called electrodes. In the
activity 10.1 above the electric current enters the solution by one carbon electrode
and exits from the solution through the other carbon electrode.

2 Science | Electrolysis
Let us engage in activity 10.2 to study the changes brought about in a solution by
an electric current.

Activity 10.2
+ -
You will need :- [A beaker, an ammeter,
A
connecting wires,
copper sulphate
+ - Negative
solution, carbon Positive electrode
electrode
electrodes, two dry
Carbon electrodes
cells (1.5 V)]
Copper sulphate
Method:-
solution
² Set up apparatus as shown in the
figure 10.2 and pass electricity
through the copper sulphate solution. Figure 10.2

² Note down your observations.

The electrode connected to the positive terminal of the external supply of electricity
is called the positive electrode. The electrode connected to the negative terminal
of the external supply of electricity is called the negative electrode. In the above
activity it can be observed the deposition of a reddish brown substance at the
negative electrode and the liberation of gas bubbles at the positive electrode. A
gradual decrease in the blue colour can also be observed in the solution. Hence, it
is clear that the compounds contained in the beaker undergo a chemical change.
This chemical change is caused by the electric current passed through the solution.
Here, copper is deposited on the negative electrode and oxygen gas is liberated at
the positive electrode. Copper sulphate undergoing the chemical change has turned
into copper, a simpler substance. The chemical change effected by passing an
electric current through an electrolyte is known as electrolysis. During this process,
the electrolyte is converted into more simpler components.
A substance that doesn't react chemically with the electrolyte referred as inert
electrodes. Carbon (graphite) and platinum electrodes are such examples.

Electrolysis of acidulated water

By activity 10.2, we learnt that in an electrolysis, an electrolyte is converted into
more simpler products. To explore more about this, let us find out the products of
the electrolysis of acidulated water. For this let us go ahead with activity 10.3.

Science | Electrolysis 3
 Activity 10.3
You will need :- Distilled water with a few drops of a dilute sulphuric acid, a 9 V
battery, two carbon rods, a plastic container, connecting wires,
two test tubes. O H
2 2

Test tubes
Method:- Carbon
² Make two holes on the bottom of a rods
Plastic
plastic container. Pass two carbon container
rods through these holes and seal the Acidulated
holes with a substance such as wax. water
² Add acidulated water into the (+) (-)
+ -
container and arrange the apparatus
9V
as shown in Figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3
² Observe well
² Record observations.

In this activity, it can be observed that gas bubbles evolve at the electrodes. The
gases evolved get collected in the test tubes. The volume of the gas collected at the
negative electrode is approximately twice the volume of the gas collected at the
positive electrode.
It can be examined that hydrogen gas (H2) evolves at the negative electrode and
oxygen gas (O2) evolves at the positive electrode.
If the gas evolved at the positive electrode is collected and tested with a glowing
splint is put into it, the splint reignites. This verifies that the gas evolved at the
positive electrode is oxygen. Similarly, if the gas evolved at the negative electrode
is separated and a lighted splint is put into it, the gas burns with a squeaky "pop"
sound. This confirms that the gas evolved at the negative electrode is hydrogen.

Thus, during electrolysis, water is splitted into more simpler substances, hydrogen
and oxygen.
Applications of electrolysis
Electrolysis is frequently used in various industries.
² Extraction of various metals e.g. sodium, aluminum
² Industrial manufacture of caustic soda (sodium hydroxide)
² Electroplating
Let us now study electroplating which is an application of electrolysis.
4 Science | Electrolysis
10.3 Electroplating
Recall the observations of activity 10.2. you would have observed the deposition of
copper on the negative electrode. By engaging in the activity 10.4, let us investigate
whether copper can be deposited on a certain object.

Activity 10.4
You will need :- Aqueous copper sulphate + -
Copper
solution, a clean copper sulphate
plate, a cleaned iron nail, a
beaker, connecting wires,
two dry cells of 1.5 V + - Iron nail
Method :-
Copper
² Connect dry cells to the copper plate and plate
the iron nail as shown in figure 10.4 and dip
them at once in the copper sulphate solution. Figure 10.4

² Record your observations.

In the activity 10.4, you can observe that the copper plate gradually dissolves and
copper is deposited on the iron nail. The plating of a certain metal on another surface
using electricity is referred to as electroplating.
For electroplating, the metal that needs to be plated should be used as the positive
electrode and the object that is plated should be used as the negative electrode.
Further, the electrolyte used needs to be a solution of a salt of the metal that should
be plated.

Assignment 10.1
1. Electroplating silver on an iron plate
2. Electroplating gold on a copper ring
Draw figures of suitable apparatus (as in figure 10.4) for no 1 and 2 instances
stating the positive electrode, negative electrode and the electrolyte in each case.

Take the iron nail you used in activity 10.4 to your hand and touch its plating with
your fingers. You will observe that the copper plating will get removed from the
nail and comes to your finger tips.

Science | Electrolysis 5
This shows that the plating occurred in this way is not in good quality.
Let us consider the characteristics of a high quality electroplating.
² The coating should firmly adhere to the surface subjected to plating.
² The coating should be of confirm thickness.
² The coating should be shiny.
Such a high quality plating occurs when the electrochemical change take place very
slowly. The electrolyte (salt solution) used for this has to be very dilute.
The chemical change occurring can also be slowed down by passing a very low
current through the solution. This can be effected by applying a low potential
difference.

In chemical industries, high quality electroplating is done by controlling the

conditions appropriately.

Plating of metals like nickel and chromium on iron trays is an example. This gives
a beautiful silver appearance to the tray.

Applications of electroplating
Pay your attention to vases, trays, cutlery and door locks offering a golden or silvery
lustre which are being used at home. Very often the luster of these objects is due to
a metal layer deposited on them. In order to prevent rusting of the parts of motor
vehicles, they are coated with a thin metallic layer by electroplating. Mostly metals
like copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), nickel (Ni) and chromium (Cr) are plated
like this. In such instances, the metal plate has a certain property which is lacking in
the metal which is subjected to plating. Resistance to corrosion, attractive colour,
luster and good finish are some of such properties.

² Electroplating nickel metal on iron tray

protects it from rusting and also gives it
an attractive appearance.
² Electroplating a copper jewellery with
gold adds value to it and gives it a rich
look.

Figure 10.5 - Some copper jewellery

subjected to electroplating
6 Science | Electrolysis
 Figure 10.6 - Some electroplated kitchen Figure 10.7 - Some electroplated spare parts
equipment

Summary
² Liquids/ solutions which conduct electricity are called electrolytes.
² The reason for the electrical conductivity of electrolytes is the presence of
mobile ions in them.
² Liquids/solutions which do not conduct electricity are called non electrolytes.
They do not contain mobile ions.
² Though ionic compounds contain ions, they cannot move in the solid state.
Therefore, solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
² Aqueous solutions and fused liquids of ionic compounds conduct electricity.
² The chemical changes taking place at the electrodes when an electric current
is passed through an electrolyte is referred to as electrolysis.
² During electrolysis, chemical compounds are splitted into more simpler
compounds or elements.
² By electrolyzing acidulated water, water can be turned into the elements,
hydrogen and oxygen.
² Coating one metal with another metal by passing an electric current is called
electroplating.
² When electroplating, always the metal that is subjected to plating should be
kept as the negative electrode.
² During electrolysis the metal that is plated is kept the anode while a solution
of a salt of that metal is used as the electrolyte.
² A high quality plating occurs when the chemical changes at the electrodes
occur very slowly.
² To obtain a high quality plating in chemical industry, conditions are
appropriately controlled.
² In electroplating, it is expected that the metal that is plated possesses superior
qualities to that of the surface being plated.

Science | Electrolysis 7
 Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. What is the electrolyte, from the given liquids or solutions?
1. Distilled water
2. Sugar dissolved in distilled water
3. Sodium chloride dissolved in distilled water
4. Grease dissolved in kerosene
2. Petrol is not an electrical conductor because,
1. It does not contain mobile electrons 2. It does not contain mobile ions
3. Its density is very low 4. It is highly volatile
3. Select the correct statement, from the following statements.
1. Solid sodium chloride (NaCl) is an electrical conductor
2. Fused sodium chloride (NaCl) does not conduct electricity
3. An aqueous solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) conducts electricity
4. Solid sodium chloride (NaCl) consists of mobile ions.
4. Which of the following statement is correct about electroplating?
1. To make a high quality electroplating, the concentration of the electrolyte
must be high
2. To electroplate a copper ring with silver, the copper ring must be kept as
the positive electrode,
3. To electroplate a copper ring with silver, a copper salt must be taken as
the electrolyte
4. When electroplating a copper ring with silver, the positive electrode
erodes gradually
5. You are required to coat a silver bangle with gold. Which of the following
set of substances is most suitable for it?
1. A silver rod, a very dilute solution of a silver salt
2. A gold rod, a very dilute solution of a silver salt
3. A gold rod, a very dilute solution of a gold salt
4. A gold rod, a concentrated solution of a gold salt
6. Which of the following is not an observation of the electrolysis of a copper
sulphate solution?
1. Decaying of the positive electrode
2. Reducing the blue colour of the solution
3. Deposition of copper on the negative electrode
4. Liberation of gas bubbles at the positive electrode

8 Science | Electrolysis
(02) Give short answers.
1. Name three electrolytes.
2. Name three non-electrolytes.
3. Write three observations when electrolysis of a copper sulphate solution
occurs using inert electrodes.
4. Name the gases liberated at the positive and negative electrodes during
the electrolysis of acidulated water.
5. In addition to the liberation of gas bubbles at the electrodes, write an
observation that can be made during this electrolysis.
6. Write a simple test to identify the gas liberated at each electrode.

(03) The diagram shows an electrolytic cell used to electroplate a copper ring
with silver.
1. Name a metal that can be used as electrode
A. B

2. What is the sign of the electrode A? A

positive or negative? Copper
ring
3. Which solution of a salt of which metal
can be used as solution B which, is the
electrolyte?
4. What precautions can be taken to obtain a plating of high quality ?

Technical Terms
Electrolysis - úoHq;a úÉfþokh - ªß£S¨¦
Electrolyte - úoHq;a úÉfþoHh - ªß£Sö£õ¸Ò
Non-electrolyte - úoHq;a wúÉfþoHh - ªß£Põ¨ö£õ¸Ò
Positive electrode - Ok bf,lafg%davh - ÷|ºªßÁõ´
Negative electrode - RK bf,lafg%davh - ©øÓªßÁõ´
Electroplating - úoHq;a f,daydf,amkh - ªß •»õªhÀ
Inert electrodes - wl%Sh bf,lafg%dav - \hzxÁ ªßÁõ´

Science | Electrolysis 9
11 Density
11.1 Introduction to density
In a glass of drinking water, contains a small volume of water and the mass of it is
also small. In a well, there is a large volume of water and the mass of it is also large.
But, when a reservoir is considered, the volume of water it contains is massive and
the mass of it is also massive (figure 11.1).

(a) Glass of water (b) Well (c) Reservoir

Figure 11.1

Though the volume of a substance and its mass differs, there is a common relationship
between those two. Let us do the activity 11.1 to reveal this.

Activity 11. 1
You will need :- Measuring cylinders of varied capacities 100 ml, 250 ml and
500 ml, a 500 ml beaker, a triple
beam balance, water
Method :-
² Adjust the triple beam balance to its zero mark. Figure 11.2 (a) - A triple beam
² Measure the mass of cleaned and dried 500 ml balance
empty beaker using this balance.
² Measure 100 ml of water into the beaker using
100 ml measuring cylinder.
² Measure the mass of beaker with water.
² Measure the mass of 250 ml and 500 ml of water Figure 11.2 (b) - Measuring
separately using the same beaker. mass by a triple beam balance
² Divide the mass of water by its volume and find
the ratio in each instance above.
² Fill table 11.1 using the readings and calculations you obtained.

10 Science | Density
 ² What can be concluded according to the results obtained?
* Consider that 1 ml = 1 cm3
The mass of empty beaker =……………
Table 11.1
Volume of water Mass of beaker Mass of water Mass of
(cm3) with water (g) (g) water
(g cm-3)
Volume

According to the above activity, it is clear that the ratio of mass of water to its
volume is constant, though the volume taken differs. This constant value is specific
for water. And this value is known as the density.

Mass
Density =
Volume

Density can be explained as the ratio between mass and volume.

The density can be defined as follows.
The mass per unit volume of a substance is known as the density of that
substance.
Density, mass and volume are symbolized by ρ, m and v respectively.
The formula for density is ρ = vm

11.2 Units of density

The measurements taken in activity 11.1 above, units of density can be deduced as
follows.
Mass
Density =
Volume

g
=
cm3
= g cm-3
Science | Density 11
But, according to the Standard International (SI) units, mass is measured in kg and
volume in m3. Thus;
SI unit of mass
Standard units (SI) of density =
SI unit of volume
kg
=
m3
= kg m-3

The Standard Units (SI) of density is kg m-3 (kilogram per cubic meter).

Now let us do the activity 11.2 to compare the densities of several substances.

Activity 11.2
You will need :- A measuring cylinder of 250 ml, a beaker of 250 ml, enough
water, coconut oil, kerosene, concentrated salt solution, a triple
beam balance
Method :-
² Clean and dry the beaker of 250 ml and measure the mass of it using the triple
beam balance
² Measure 250 ml of water by using the measuring cylinder of 250 ml. Then put
into the beaker. Measure the mass of beaker with water.
² Remove water and measure 250 ml of concentrated salt solution. Then, put
into the beaker. Measure the mass of beaker with salt solution.
² Same way, measure 250 ml of coconut oil and kerosene separately into the
same beaker and measure their masses.
² Note that the beaker and the measuring cylinder should be well cleaned and
dried before measuring coconut oil and kerosene.
² Tabulate your readings and work out the calculation as shown in the following
table 11.2.
Mass of the empty beaker = ..................
Table 11.2
Liquid/ Volume of Mass of the Mass of
Solution the liquid/ beaker with liquid - m Volume (m)
(g cm-3)
Solution - V liquid/Solution (g) Scale (v)
(cm3) (g)

² What can be concluded according to the results obtained?

12 Science | Density
According to this activity, it can be seen that the ratio of mass to its volume is
different for different substances, though their volumes are equal.

Density of various substances differ from each other. It is a specific property of the
respective substance. Substances can be identified by the value of their density. This
is common for solids as well as for liquids. Therefore, density is a vital physical
quantity of a substance.
Let us study how to solve the problems regarding density.
Solved example 01:- Mass of 2m3 of water is 2000 kg. Calculate the density of
water.
Mass
Density =
Volume
2000 kg
=
2 m3
= 1000 kg m-3

Solved example 02:- The mass of a solution, which has the density of 800 kg m-3,
is 200 kg. What is the volume of it?
Mass
Density =
Volume
Mass
Volume =
Density
200 kg
Volume =
800 kg m-3
1 3
= m
4
= 0.25 m3

11.3 Hydrometers
If you want to find the density of a liquid, you can measure the volume and
mass of it and calculate the density, as you have done in activity 11.2. But it is
a time-consuming difficult process. Therefore, to measure the density of a liquid
easily, an equipment known as hydrometer is used.
Figure 11.3 shows several types of hydrometers. Hydrometer is made of a thin glass
tube, the lower part of which is blow to form a bulb. This bulb is filled with lead
shots, so that a part of the tube is submerged and float vertically in the liquid.
Science | Density 13
 When a hydrometer is partially immersed and floating
in a liquid, the length of the immersed part depends on
the density of the liquid. It sinks less in high-density
liquids and more in low-density liquids. The upper
tubular part of the hydrometer is calibrated in such a
way that density can directly read by the depth it
immerse.

Figure 11.3 - Different types

of hydrometers

It is shown that the same hydrometer is made Liquid A Water Liquid C

(a) (b) (c)
to float in three different liquids in figure
Figure 11.4
11.4. Figure 11.4 (b) shows how it floats in
water. Immersed height of the hydrometer is less in liquid A, than in water (figure
11.4 (b)). It indicates that density of liquid A is higher than that of water. Immersed
length of the hydrometer is more in liquid C than in water (figure 11.4 (c)). So, the
density of liquid C is lower than that of water.

For extra knowledge

The density of the salty water of the dead
sea located in between Israel and Jordan
is very high. It has the ability of floating a
man without sinking.

Let us do activity 11.3 by using a hydrometer to know the density of some common
liquids.

14 Science | Density
 Activity 11.3
Table 11.3
You will need :- Three tall vessels,
Density
(measuring cylinders Liquid
(kg m-3)
or lower part of
plastic bottles), water, Mercury 13600
kerosene, coconut oil, Glycerin 1262
hydrometer Milk 1030
Method :- Sea water 1025
² Put water, kerosene and coconut Water 1000
oil in to three vessels. Olive oil 920
² Dip hydrometer in each liquid and Coconut oil 900
take down the reading of density Turpentine 870
(clean the hydrometer before you Petrol 800
put it into each liquid). Liquor 791
² Compare your valves with the Kerosene 790
table 11.3.

A simple hydrometer can easily be made by you using a drinking straw. Engage in
the activity 11.4.

Activity 11.4
You will need :- A drinking straw, a candle, several iron balls of the diameter of
3 mm, a measuring cylinder, 250 ml of coconut oil, 250 ml of
concentrated salt solution and water.
Method :-
² Heat one end of the drinking straw in the candle flame to seal it.
² Add enough water into the density jar or the measuring cylinder.
² Put iron balls into the straw so that it floats vertically while 2/3 of its length is
immersed in water.
² Mark the floating level on the straw, while it is in water. Now you have finished
making the hydrometer.
² Add salt water into the measuring cylinder and float the hydrometer in it.
Mark the level of floating on the hydrometer.
² Repeat the above step using coconut oil as the liquid.
² Decide whether the density of the liquids used is higher or lower than that of
water, according to the levels of floating.

Science | Density 15
Use of hydrometers
Cow's milk contains approximately 90% of water. Other than water, it contains
lipids, protein etc. Because of the contribution of the density of other constituents,
density of milk is slightly higher than that of water. Amount of water in milk can be
determined by measuring the density of it, using a hydrometer. This measurement
can be used to decide whether water is added to milk. Hydrometers which are
specially made to measure the density of milk are known as lactometers.

Hydrometers are also used to measure the percentage of alcohol in alcoholic drinks,
like wine and beer. Those are known as alcoholmeters. These alcoholic drinks also
contain high percentage of water. Therefore, the density of alcoholic drinks are
slightly different from density of water.

The density of the acid, changes according to the changes in lead-acid batteries used
in vehicles. Therefore, the condition of batteries can be examined by measuring the
density with a hydrometer.
Soil hydrometer is used in determining composition of a soil sample. It can be
concluded by dissolving a constant mass of soil, in a constant volume of water to
calculate the density of soil solution.
Sea water contain high amount of salt dissolved in it. There is a special hydrometer
called seawater hydrometer, used to measure the density of sea water. Due to high
concentration of salts, the density of sea water is higher than normal fresh water.
Composition of Rubber is also measured by special hydrometer known as metrolac.

Summary
² Density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of that substance.
² Mass
Density =
Volume
² The standard unit of density is kilogram per cubic-meters (kg m -3).
² Density is a vital, physical property of a substance. It differs from substance
to substance.
² Hydrometer is used to measure the density of liquid.
² Density is a criteria to determine quality of liquids and solutions.

16 Science | Density
Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. International unit (SI) of density is,
(1) g ml-1 (2) g cm-3 (3) kg m-3 (4) kg m-2
2. Four different liquids have equal masses of 8000 kg each. The volumes of them
are given below.
A. Liquid - 12 m3 B. Liquid - 10 m3
C. Liquid - 8 m 3
D. Liquid - 6 m3
The liquid that has the highest density is;
(1) A (2) B (3) C (4) D
3. Consider the following statements on the density of a liquid.
a. Density of a liquid depends on its mass.
b. Density of a liquid depends on its volume.
c. Density of a liquid depends on the kind of liquid.
The true statement/s out of those is/are,
(1) a and b only (2) b and c only
(3) c only (4) All a, b and c
4. Four different liquids have equal volumes of 0.5 m3 each. The masses of these
liquids are given below.
Liquid P - 400 kg Liquid Q - 500 kg
Liquid R - 550 kg Liquid S - 600 kg
The liquid that has the lowest density is,
(1) P (2) Q (3) R (4) S
5. Figure given below shows four liquids, that have equal masses, kept in equal
containers.

Select the correct answer, which illustrate the ascending order of densities of
four liquids.
(1) K < L < M < N (2) K < M < L < N
(3) N < L < M < K (4) N < M < L < K

Science | Density 17
 6. Figure below shows four equal hydrometers floating in four types of liquids.

T U V W

Out of those, the liquid that has the highest density is,
(1) T (2) U (3) V (4) W

(02) Observation received, while preparing an orange solution is given below.

Orange seeds which were at the bottom of glass, started floating when
adding sugar.
Give reasons for this observation.
(03) Calculate the density of 4 m3 volume of liquid with 3600 kg mass.
(04) Density of a solution is 2000 kg m-3. Calculate the mass of 0.25 m3 volume,
of this solution.

Technical Terms
Density - >k;ajh - Ahºzv
Hydrometer - øjudkh - }µ©õÛ
Lactometer - laISrudkh - £õÀ©õÛ
Alcoholmeter - uoHidrudkh - ©x\õµ}µ©õÛ
Liquid - øjh - vµÁ®
Solution - ødjKh - Pøµ\À

18 Science | Density
12 Bio-diversity
12.1 Introduction to bio-diversity
Recall the field visits you attended to study about the environment. During those
field visits you would have experienced different types of environments. They can
be beaches, mangrove environments, forests, monsoon forests and grasslands. A
system that includes all living organisms (biotic factors) in an area as well as its
physical environment (abiotic factors) interacting with one another as a unit is
known as an ecosystem. Study the ecosystems in figure 12.1.

A forest A mangrove environment

A grassland A beach
Figure 12.1 - Some ecosystems

When different ecosystems are considered, the animals and plants in these systems are
varied. The physical environment and climatic factors of those ecosystems are also
different. The diversity among these ecosystems is known as ecosystem diversity.
Think about the living organisms in ecosystems. In ecosystems there are many
species of animals and plants as well as many species of micro-organisms. With
regard to these species, there is a great variety of characteristics in the body shape,
size, nutritional patterns and reproduction. The diversity among the species is
known as species diversity.

Science | Bio-diversity 19
 Bacterium (enlarged) Grass Coconut tree

Ulva Snail Parrot

Figure 12.2 - Some species of living organisms

Let us do the assignment 12.1 to identify the diversity of plants and animals in an
ecosystem.

Assignment 12.1
Select a plot of land in your area or school (thicket, grassland, pond). Study the
species diversity in the selected plot of land. Using your observations fill in the
table given.
Table 12.1

Plant species Animal species Micro-organisms

Living organisms are categorized as plants, animals and micro-organisms.

(In this field visit you should follow your teacher’s advice, without harming the environment and
ensure your safety.)

Are there any differences in living organisms of a same species? Let us do the
activity 12.1 to find about it.

20 Science | Bio-diversity
 Activity 12.1
² Observe the external features (given within the table) of all your classmates
and fill in the table 12.2.
Table 12.2
Feature Number of students
1& a) have the ability to roll the tongue
b) no ability to roll the tongue
2& a) with free ear lobes
b) with attached ear lobes
3& a) with black eyes
b) with brown eyes
4& a) with straight hair
b) with curly hair
5& a) right handed
b) left handed

Modern man belongs to the species

Homo sapiens sapiens. Through
the above activity you would have
understood that even within the same
species there are differences among
the individuals.
You can understand the differences
among the human by figure 12.3.
The reason for these differences of a
certain species is genetic diversity.
You will learn about genes in grade
10 & 11.
Figure 12.3 - Humans of Homo sapiens sapiens with
different features

For extra knowledge

You already know that living organisms are made up of cells. Chromosomes
are located in nucleus of these cells. Genes are located on these chromosomes.
The features of living organisms are controlled by genes. Genetic diversity is
the cause for the differences among organisms within the same species.

Science | Bio-diversity 21
There is a diversity among the ecosystems that organisms live and there is a diversity
among the living species. Not only that, there is a diversity among the organisms
of a same species. Bio-diversity is a combination of ecosystem diversity, species
diversity and genetic diversity.

12.2 Importance of bio-diversity

Both large and small creatures in an ecosystem play a significant role in maintaining
the equilibrium of the certain ecosystem. Higher bio-diversity in an ecosystem also
increases the wellbeing and the stability of that ecosystem.
The beauty of the environment increases due to bio-diversity. We know that Sri
Lanka is a country with a rich bio-diversity. Sri Lanka has been named as the country
with the highest density of flowering plants, reptiles, amphibians, and mammals in
the Asian region. Rich bio-diversity is a strong reason for tourist attraction.
Bio-diversity has reduced the competition between the species. Organisms are
always in a competition for their needs. When considering the plant world, they are
competing for the needs that should be used from the environment such as light,
space, water and air. When considering the animal world, animals are competing for
requirements such as habitat, food, security and choice of partners. Bio-diversity
helps to minimize this competition among living organisms.
Let us see how bio-diversity acts, trees to minimize the competition for water. The
roots of different trees are adapted to take water from different levels in the soil
(figure 12.4).

Deeply rooted Plants with roots on the surface of the Earth A plant with roots that can absorb
plants water from the atmosphere
Figure 12.4 - Roots adapted to minimize the competition for water

We know that the beaks of different bird species are of different shapes. This is
important to reduce the competition for food. Various birds depend on various
foods and their beaks are shaped according to their diet (figure 12.5).
22 Science | Bio-diversity
 Hummingbird Duck Hawk Parrot
Figure 12.5 - Diversity of beaks among birds

“The wild types” of most plants and animals used in agriculture are found in natural
ecosystems. Genes that are resistant to pests, adverse environmental conditions and
illnesses, are available in these “wild types”. Because of bio-diversity it is possible
to use this genetic materials in a favourable manner in agriculture.
Due to bio-diversity some species are endemic to each region. Species that can be
seen only in one geographical region or country are known as endemic species.
Humans conserve these endemic species due to this rich bio-diversity.

Jungle fowl 'Rilava'/'Mandi' 'Bandula pethiya'

Blue magpie Green pit viper 'Ashoka pethiya'

Figure 12.6 - Some species endemic to Sri Lanka

This bio-diversity helps to protect the water resources and soil to maintain favourable
climatic conditions and minimize environmental pollution. Bio-diversity is very
important for entertainment, various research works and educational activities.

12.3 Threats to bio-diversity

There are many threats for bio-diversity. These threats have caused deterioration
in bio-diversity. The reasons for biodegradation can be discussed under two topics.

Science | Bio-diversity 23
Natural reasons
Since ancient times, bio-diversity has been affected by the impact of various natural
activities. Collapsing meteors, volcanic explosions, tsunami, earth slides and floods
are some of these natural reasons.
e.g. It is considered that a meteor collapse caused for the extinction of dinosaurs.
There is an argument that natural global warming was the reason for the
extinction of mammoth.

Mammoth Dinosaurs
Figure 12.7 - Some extinct animals
Human activities
With the rapid increase in the human population, forests are destroyed extensively
to meet their needs. Rapid deforestation destruct the habitats of living organisms.
Also the construction of various buildings, streets and reservoirs splits the habitats
of living organisms.
The increase in human population causes many environmental issues. Over use of
resources and addition of pollutants to the environment are often caused by human
activities. Soil, aquatic and airy ecosystems get so polluted and these ecosystems
become unsuitable for survival of organisms. These reasons have a strong impact
on bio-diversity.
Spreading of invasive organisms in an ecosystem too, make a strong impact on its
bio-diversity (figure 12.8).

'Gandapana'/'Napunni' Parthenium
24 Science | Bio-diversity
 Tank cleaner fish 'Mannawa' fish
Figure 12.8 - Some species of invasive organisms
The introduction of genetically modified new organisms into the environment
cause adverse impact on bio-diversity. Although, it is not yet possible to specify
this, these organisms can be considered as a threat to bio-diversity in the future.
Climatic changes due to environmental problems such as ozone layer depletion and
global warming will affect the bio-diversity.
These threats have caused bio-diversity degradation worldwide. Hence, some
species of organisms are in a threat of extinction from the Earth. Therefore,
bio-diversity should be conserved. The regions of higher density of living organisms
are called hotspots. To be considered as a bio-diversity hotspot, a country or a
region should be rich with high proportion of indigenous species and species with
more threats. As Sri Lanka belongs to a hotspot region, it is our duty to contribute
for the conservation of bio-diversity.

Assignment 12.2
Following are some threats for bio-diversity. Collect information on each topic
and prepare an article for a newspaper.
” Increase of human population
” Destruction of forests
” Introduction of invasive organisms
” Environmental pollution
” Overuse of resources in the environment
” Depletion of ozone layer and climatic changes

12.4 Important features of ecosystems

Do the assignment 12.3 to get an idea about the living organisms and non-living
organisms in an environment.

Assignment 12.3
” Select a plot of land in your school garden. Now draw separately the pictures
of plants, animals and non-living components in that plot of land in 3
transparent sheets.
” Keep the 3 transparent sheets overlapping
Science | Bio-diversity 25
Figure 12.8 shows some pictures of a similar assignment carried out around a pond.
Nonliving components Plants

Animals Overlapped figure

Figure 12.9

You will understand that the environment contains living organisms (animals and
plants) and non-living components.
All living organisms in a community and the physical environment interacting
with them considered together as an ecosystem.
e.g. :- A pond, a forest, decaying log, coral reef environment, a grassland
Features of an ecosystem
1. Interaction occur between living components as well as between non-living
components.
Living - living relationships, Living - non living relationships,
Non living - non living relationships
2. The energy flows through one way stream
The solar energy which is used by green plants in photosynthesis, is stored in
the food produced during this process. The energy flows from lower consumer
levels to the higher consumer levels through food chains or food webs.
3. Recycling of materials
The materials that the organisms receive from the environment continue to be
back to the environment. The continuous exchange of materials between the
organisms and the environment is an important feature of an ecosystem.
4. An independent Unit
Since there are constant interactions within the ecosystem it has ensured the
existence in biosphere.
26 Science | Bio-diversity
Let us see living - living relationships in an environment.
Living - living relationships
The interactions between the living organisms are known as living-living
relationships. These interactions are to meet the following needs.
² Food
² Security
² Reproduction
Following are some such interactions.
² Animals consuming plants as food
² Some predators consuming other animals
² Certain micro-organisms depending on other living organisms
² Some animals use trees as their habitat
² Animals hiding among plants for protection
² Some plants use animals to spread their species
² Some plants fulfill their nitrogenous requirements from insects
(insectivorous plants)
² Producing new creatures through reproduction for the continuous existence of
life

Figure 12.10 - Living-living relationships

Living - non living relationships

The interactions between the living organisms and non-living components are
known living-non living relationships. The organisms interact with their habitat to
get non-living components such as water, air and light.
e.g. The plants use solar energy for photosynthesis
Plants absorb water from soil
Plants and animals use atmospheric oxygen for respiration
Plants use atmospheric carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
Plants release oxygen to the atmosphere as a result of photosynthesis

Science | Bio-diversity 27
 Sun

Light
energy

Oxygen

yll
roph
C hlo Food
Carbon dioxide

Water

Figure 12.11 - Photosynthesis

The living creatures are also adjusted to match the specific environmental conditions
of their habitats. This is known as adaptation.
e.g. Adaptations of plants to minimize transpiration in dry environment

Non living - non living relationships

The interactions between non living components are known as non living - non
living relationships.
e.g.
” Soil erosion by water
” Rock weathering due to water and solar heat

Figure 12.12 - An environment subjected to soil erosion

28 Science | Bio-diversity
 Activity 12.2
² Name the plants, animals and non-living components that can be seen in the
given plot of land.
² Write sentences about the interactions that exist between the living organisms
and living-non living and non living materials.
e.g. Plants absorb solar energy for photosynthesis

Figure 12.13

12.5 Natural ecosystems and built environment

Sri Lanka is a country with a rich bio-diversity. Various ecosystems are found due
to the location of Sri Lanka as an island and the location of the central hill country.
The location of different ecosystems is a major cause for a higher bio-diversity.
A sketch of the ecosystem classification in Sri Lanka is given below.

Ecosystems in Sri Lanka

Natural ecosystems Man-made ecosystems

Agricultural
Natural aquatic Natural terrestrial ecosystems
environments environments
Industrial
Fresh water Forests ecosystems

Marine Human
Grasslands settlements
Brackish water

Science | Bio-diversity 29
Natural aquatic environments
Natural aquatic environments can be categorized into three groups as fresh water,
marine ecosystems and brackish water environments. A vast number of living
organisms live in these environments. Information about some aquatic ecosystems
are given below.

Rivers
² They are fresh water aquatic ecosystems.
² Most rivers start from the catchment
areas of the central highlands and flow
to the sea.
² The water level of rivers fluctuate with
the rainfall in the regions.
² Some rivers confine to a small stream
during the dry season. Figure 12.14 - A river

² Different species of plants and animals are living from the head wall ('Ismaththa')
up to the estuary.
e.g. 'Mahaweli' river, 'Kelani' river
Importance
² Fulfill the water needs for agriculture
² Generating hydro power
² For transportation

Estuary
² A place where a river falls to the sea is
known as an estuary.
² As marine water and fresh water are
mixed at estuary, water becomes
brackish.
² Various organisms live in brackish
water. Figure 12.15 - A river mouth
² The deposition of mud and sand in
river water cause triangular islands known as a Delta.
e.g. Estuary of 'Mahaweli' – opens to 'Koddiyar' Bay and 'Thambalagam' Bay
Importance
² Prevents the mixing of marine water and fresh water
² Abundance of fish species with economic importance
² Rich in bio-diversity
30 Science | Bio-diversity
Lagoon
² A lagoon is a shallow body of brackish
water permanently separated from the sea
by barriers of sand or reefs, but connected
with the sea at one time during the year.
e.g. Negombo lagoon, Batticaloa lagoon,
Puttalam lagoon
Figure 12.16 - Lagoon
Importance
² Used for fishing purposes because prawns, crabs, oysters are available in these
places
² The mangrove plants common on lagoons prevent sea erosion.
² A place of tourist attraction

Riverine environment
² The environment on either sides of the river
from starting point of the river to the point
where it flows to the sea is known as the
riverine environment.
² Flood plains, sandy lands, marshy lands
belong to this environment.
² 'Villu' is a wet land in riverine environment.
² Due to over flow of a river during the rainy Figure 12.17 - River side environment
season flood plains are created.
e.g. 'Mahaweli' flood plain at East
Importance
² Used for inland fishing industry
² The soil is very fertile in flood plains as silt flowing along the river is deposited
in these areas. So, this soil is used for agriculture as well as for tile and brick
industry.

Inland water reservoirs

² Naturally formed lakes and ponds belong
to inland water reservoirs. Man-made tanks
are also considered inland water reservoirs.
They can be seen in both wet zone and dry
zone and are fresh water environments. Figure 12.18 - Inland water reservoirs
² Plants such as Lotus, Lilly, 'Kekatiya'/'Kotti' and animals such as fish, frogs,
snakes, otters and aquatic birds can be seen in this environment
e.g. 'Parakrama samudraya', 'Kala wewa'
Science | Bio-diversity 31
Importance
² Used for inland fishery industry
² Provides water for agriculture

Ocean
² Marine areas that covers most of the
Earth’s surface is known as ocean.
² A large living community such as
algae, polyps, oysters and fish live in
the oceans.
e.g. - Indian ocean, Atlantic ocean Figure 12.19 - Ocean
Importance
² Rich bio-diversity
² Ocean water is used to produce salt
² For fishing industry
² Generates electricity by ocean waves
² A place of tourist attraction

Wet lands
² Marshy lands that are covered with
water during a long period of time in
the year are known as wet lands.
² There are fresh water wet lands, marine
wet lands and man-made wet lands.
e.g. - Anawilundawa, Muthurajawela
Figure 12.20 - A wet land
Importance
² Wet lands are important to control flood, maintain the stability of reservoirs,
minimize climatic changes, make ground water nutritious and maintain the bio-
diversity.
² Used for different industries and tourism industry
Assignment 12.4
” Arrange a field trip to visit a natural water resource in Sri Lanka.
” Study the bio-diversity in the particular environment.
” Make a booklet about the living species you observed and their special
features.

32 Science | Bio-diversity
Natural terrestrial environments
A vast bio-diversity can be observed in natural terrestrial environments in Sri Lanka.
Some information about diversity in some terrestrial environments are given below.

Forests
Tropical rain forests (Tropical lowland
rain forests/ Wet evergreen forests)
² There is a warm-wet climate with a rainfall
throughout the year.
² Receives over 2000 mm of annual rainfall
² Mineral are cycling Figure 12.21 - Tropical rain forests

² Located in areas with an elevation up to 900 m

² The trees with a higher economic value such as 'Hora'/'Ennai', 'Keena'/'Punnai',
'Milla'/'Kattamanakku', 'Halmilla'/'Chavandalai' and Teak are common in these
forests.
² Vegetation reach about 40 m of height and grow densely.
² A canopy structure can be seen. Epiphytes and climbers are common on trees.
e.g. 'Sinharaja', 'Kanneliya', 'Dediyagala', 'Nakiadeniya' forests

Importance
² Endemic plants and animal species are very common
² Can be considered as a special environment that protects the water resources of
a country
² Acts as a catchment area

Montane forests
² Located in areas above 900 m from the sea level
² Annual rainfall is about 4000 mm.
² As there is heavy wind the trees are stunted. Also
they are with twisted stems and smaller leaves. The
tops of the trees have become flat.
² Plant species such as 'Walsapu',' Veralu'/'Veralikkai',
'Mihiriya', 'Dan'/'Kirampu', 'Keena' and animal
species such as monkeys, loris, giant squirrel, stag
can be seen. Figure 12.22 - Montane forests
e.g. 'Haggala', upper part of Knuckles

Importance
² Endemic plant and animal species are common
² Act as catchment areas and protects many water sources
² Minimize soil erosion
Science | Bio-diversity 33
Dry-mixed evergreen forests /
Monsoon forests
² Can be seen in dry zone but not much arid
² Annual rain fall is about 1200 mm-1900 mm
² May to September is a long drought season
² Evergreen and deciduous plants are present
e.g. Wasgamuwa, Yala, Willpaththu Figure 12.23 - Monsoon forests

Importance
² A lot of economically valuable plants such as 'Palu'/'Pasippayaru',
'Burutha'/'Mutirai', 'Weera'/'Veerai', 'Koan'/'Kula', Ebony,
'Welang'/'Taddaemarum', 'Kolong'/'Manchal-kadampa', 'Kalumadiriya',
'Halmilla', Neem are common.
² Also animals such as deer, monkeys, leopards, bears, giant squirrel and elephants
can be seen in these forests.
² Act as catchment areas for reservoirs in dry zone
Thorn bushes and scrublands
² Annual rain fall is over 1250 mm and
temperature is high over 34 0C
² Considered as semi xeric areas.
² There are many adaptations in trees
to withstand the arid environmental
conditions.
² Some of the adaptations are having Figure 12.24 - Thorn bushes and scrublands
smaller leaves, fleshy leaves, ability to store water in the stem and thorny bushes.
² 'Nawahandi'/'Kally', Cactus, 'Daluk'/'Sadurakkalli', 'Kaneru'/'Alari', 'Eraminiya',
'Andara'/'Vidaththal', Aloe are some of the trees that can be seen in these
forests.
e.g. Hambanthota District, Puttalam District, Killinochchi District
Grasslands
Given below are some information about
the grasslands in different climatic zones of
Sri Lanka.
'Wet patana'
² Located in areas of over 2000 m altitude.
There is heavy rainfall in these areas.
Figure 12.25 - 'Wet patana'
² Normally located near forests. In addition
to grass there are also trees grown alone. 'Maharathmal' plant is prominent among
them. 'Usnia' lichens grow on these trees. The fern 'Pteridium' also can be seen
in these grasslands.
e.g. Horton plains, 'Bopaththalawa', 'Bagawanthalawa'
34 Science | Bio-diversity
'Dry patana'
² Widely spread than wet Patana.
² The grass 'Mana'/'Narippul' is very
common.
² Apart from small forests in the valley and
hills, other areas are covered with grass
only.
² Usually grass is burnt during the drought Figure 12.26 - 'Dry patana'
season. Soil gets eroded during the rainy
seasons.
e.g. 'Rakwana', 'Uva Basin'

'Damana'
² This is a type of grassland in the abandoned
chena cultivation ('Hena') areas in the low
country dry zone.
² Grasses such as 'Mana', 'Illuk'/'Tharppaipul',
'Bata' and trees such as wood apple, 'Palu',
'Myla'/'Aththi', 'Madan'/'Perunaval' are
common in these areas.
² This is the most preferred area of the Figure 12.27 - 'Damana'
elephants.
e.g. 'Wilpaththu', 'Maduru oya', 'Walikanda'

'Talawa'
² A type of a grassland formed as a result of
chena cultivation in low country wet zone.
e.g. Located in 'Kalutara' District,
'Haldummulla', 'Matara' District

Figure 12.28 - 'Talawa'

Let us engage in assignment 12.5 to study natural ecosystems in Sri Lanka.

Science | Bio-diversity 35
 Assignment 12.5
Following is a map that depicts the natural ecosystems in Sri Lanka. Study the
map well and identify the ecosystems and their locations.

ait Tropical thorn forests

r
St
lk

Jaffna
Pa

Bay of Bengal Dry evergreen forests

Wet deciduous forests

Kilinochchi
Mullaitivu Wet semi-evergreen forests

Semi – evergreen rain forests

Mannar Tropical savanna forests

Gulf of Mannar
Tropical rain forests evergreen forests
Vavuniya
Sub montane evergreen forests

Trincomalee Montane temperate forests

Grasslands

}
Anuradhapura
A - Dry 'Patana' grasslands
B - Wet 'Patana' grasslands
C - Damana 'Patana' grasslands

Puttalam
Mangroves
Polonnaruwa

Area without forests

Batticaloa

Indian
Kurunegala
Ocean Matale

Kandy Ampara
Kegalle

Gampaha

Nuwara Eliya Badulla

Colombo
Monaragala

Ratnapura
Kalutara

Hambantota
Indian Ocean
Galle
Matara

Figure 12.29 - Natural ecosystems in Sri Lanka

Source - The National Map Collection of Sri Lanka, School Edition, Survey Department

36 Science | Bio-diversity
Man-made ecosystems in Sri Lanka
The man-made ecosystems in Sri Lanka can be categorized into 3 groups.
² Agricultural environments
² Industrial environments
² Settlement environments

Agricultural environments
² An ecosystem designed for cultivation
of crops and animal husbandry to
meet the food requirement is called an
agricultural environment.
² Occasions where humans have taken
into their control of certain plants and
animals that were distributed in natural Figure 12.30 - Agricultural environment
environment are found in agricultural environments.
² For the cultivation of paddy, tea, vegetables particular land preparations should
be carried out. Also lands must be allocated for animal husbandry. In this case
when the grasslands are regularly grazed, the plants do not exist. Hence the bio-
diversity is limited.

Assignment 12.6
” Compare and tabulate the differences between a natural environment and an
agricultural environment.

Industrial environments
² An ecosystem that has been built up
by machines, raw materials and energy
resources required for a product is called
an industrial environment.
² When a community is being developed
many productions (food, medicine,
Figure 12.31 - A factory
clothes, furniture, electrical equipment,
sanitary materials) are produced, by many industries for betterment of living
conditions of the citizens in a certain country.
² Even though these industrial products are useful to human they also have adverse
effects.
Science | Bio-diversity 37
 Some of the adverse effects are,
² Heavy noise in the industrial environment
² Releasing poisonous gases and smokes
² Release of excessive heat and contamination of water bodies
² Harmful chemicals, released to the environment

Settlement environments
² A rural or urban environment where
man has established his habitat is
known as settlement environments.
² Migration to cities on a variety of
needs and urbanization in cities have
resulted more urban settlements.
² Many problems have arisen due to Figure 12.32 - A habitat
improper human settlements.
² Reduce the space
² Not enough light
² Less ventilation
² Diseases become to epidemic situation
² Insufficient sanitary facilities
² Difficulty in removing household garbage
² Damages from emergency fires
² Flooding
² Cultural and social issues

Assignment 12.7
” Man-made environments should be set up to ensure optimum utilization so
as to minimize the damage to the natural environment. List the strategies you
propose.

38 Science | Bio-diversity
 Summary
² Combination of plants, animals, micro-organisms, genetic materials of all
these living organisms and the ecosystems is known as bio-diversity.
² There are various threats for bio-diversity. These threats have led to
deterioration in bio-diversity.
² The living organisms as well as non-living components in an ecosystem
often interact with each other. These interactions are living-living,
living-non living and non living-non living.
² Fresh water environments, marine environments and brackish water
environments are the natural aquatic environments that can be seen in
Sri Lanka. Rivers, estuaries, lagoons, riverine environments, man made
inland water bodies and oceans belong to these environments.
² The natural terrestrial environments in Sri Lanka can be grouped as forests
and grasslands.
² There are four types of forests in Sri Lanka. They are tropical rainforests,
montane forests, tropical dry mixed evergreen forests and tropical thorn
forests.
² Wet 'Patana', dry 'Patana', 'Damana' and 'Talawa' are the types of grasslands
in Sri Lanka.
² The man-made ecosystems are agricultural environments, industrial
environments and settlement environments.
² It is our responsibility to protect the bio-diversity.

Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
01. Select the correct statement about bio-diversity.
1. Bio-diversity is the diversity of all the living beings in the environment.
2. Bio-diversity is the diversity of plants, animals and the micro-organisms in
the environment.
3. Bio-diversity is the diversity of plants, animals, micro-organisms in the
environment and their genetic materials.
4. Bio-diversity is the combination of plants, animals, micro-organisms, their
genetic materials and the ecosystem.

Science | Bio-diversity 39
 2. Which out of the following is not a threat for bio-diversity?
1) Environmental pollution 2) Spread of invasive species
3) Increasing human population 4) Study of biodiversity
3. Select the correct statement regarding bio-diversity.
a - High bio-diversity will increase the well-being and stability of an
ecosystem.
b - Bio-diversity has reduced the competition for the needs of living species.
c - Man has focused to conserve endemic species due to rich biodiversity.

1) a and b 2) a and c 3) b and c 4) a, b and c

4. Which of the following can be considered as a man-made environment?

1) Montane forests
2) Ponds
3) Agricultural lands
4) Wet Patana
5. Consider the following statements about an ecosystem.
a - It is an independent unit.
b - Energy flows in one direction and materials are recycled
c - There are interactions between living-living and also living-non living.
The correct statements are,
1) a and b 2) a and c 3) b and c 4) a, b and c

(02) Match the features of column A with the relevant ecosystem in column B.
A B
With smaller leaves and twisted stems tropical rain forests
Canopy structure can be seen wet 'Patana'
'Palu', 'Weera', 'Koan' are abundant montane forests
'Maharathmal' plant is prominent monsoon forests

40 Science | Bio-diversity
 (03) From ancient times man-made environmental systems have been
created in addition to the existing natural ecosystems.
1. Name two important features of a natural ecosystem.
2. What are the man-made ecosystems that exist in Sri Lanka?
3. Write two common issues in a man-made ecosystem.
4. Write an example for a man-made ecosystem.
5. Given below is a picture of a man-made ecosystem. Suggest two possible
issues and remedies in the given ecosystem.

Technical Terms
Bio-diversity - ffcj úúO;ajh - E°º¨ £ÀÁøPø©
Ecosystem - mßir moaO;sh - `ÇØöÓõSv
Natural ecosystem - iajdNdúl mßir moaO;sh - C¯ØøPa `ÇØöÓõSv
Man-made ecosystem - ks¾ñ; mßir moaO;sh - {¸©õoUP¨£mh `ÇØöÓõSv
Ecosystem diversity - mßir moaO;sj, úúO;ajh - `ÇØöÓõSv¨ £ÀÁøPø©
Genetic diversity - cdk úúO;ajh - £µ®£øµ¯»S¨ £ÀÁøPø©
Species diversity - úfYaI úúO;ajh - CÚ¨ £ÀÁøPø©
Biotic factors - ffcj idOl - E°›¯À Põµo
Abiotic factors - wffcj idOl - E°µØÓ Põµo
Agricultural environments - lDIsld¾ñl mßir - ÂÁ\õ¯a `ÇÀ
Industrial environments - ld¾ñl mßir - øPzöuõÈÀ `ÇÀ
Settlement environments - ckdjdi mßir - Si°¸¨¦a `ÇÀ

Science | Bio-diversity 41
13 Artificial Environment
and Green Concept
13.1 Artificial environment and green concept
Pay your attention to figure 13.1 which indicates built environments you have learnt
in the chapter Bio-diversity.

Agricultural environment Industrial environment Urban environment

Figure 13.1
From the date of the origin of Earth, everything in it has been formed naturally.
However with the advent of man on Earth and passage of time thereafter, an
artificial environment or a built environment was taken place on the natural
environment because of the man who changed the natural environment according
to his requirements. Therefore, agricultural, industrial and urban environments are
artificial environments made by man.

Assignment 13.1
² Figure 13.2 indicates how the
area around Manhattan metropolis
of New York in United State of Then
America appeared in the past and is
seen at present.
² List favourable and unfavourable
features between these two Today
environments. Figure 13.2 - Town Manhattan

Instead of the Earth covered with green colour in the past, what is left today is
an artificial environment crammed with settlements, factories and cultivated
lands. Because of this, at present the humans all over the world are facing unsolve
problems. Along with the advancement of science and technology of the human
who is considered as the dominant living being on Earth, his/her life span too

42 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

has increased. Meanwhile, with the increase in human population and unlimited
exploitation of limited resources on Earth, all organisms have confronted with
many problems. Increase in global warming due to human activities has either
directly or indirectly become the reason for all environmental problems.
At present, human attention has been drawn to follow guidelines and policies
essential for maintaining goods and services without damaging the natural
environment or causing minimal damage to the natural environment on the Earth.
This has come to limelight as the green concept.
Green concept means, following guidelines and policies essential for maintaining
goods and services so that the natural environment on Earth is minimally harmed
or not harmed at all.
To get a better understanding about the green concept, let us find out information
on several places in the world which adopt the green concept.

German Parliamentary building

Energy for this building is obtained
from solar energy, geothermal energy
and bio-fuel power houses. In addition,
it has special ventilating devices and
contrivances to retain warmth. 80% of the
Figure 13.3 - German Parliamentary building
total electricity requirement is produced
within the building itself. Because of
such devices, it has reduced the annual
emission of carbon dioxide from 7 000
tons to 1 000 tons (figure 13.3).
Figure 13.4 - Beijing National sports complex
Beijing National sports complex in China
It has employed methods to obtain electricity from solar energy and water
requirements from rain water. Ventilation is effected naturally. Therefore, the
maintenance of the sports complex is carried out by low cost (figure 13.4).

Wayne L. Morse court complex in

USA
Irrigation required for plants is minimized
by growing plants which can withstand
drought conditions. Use of water has
been cut down by 40% by the installation
of waterless urinals, toilets and showers
which use water minimally (figure 13.5).
Figure 13.5 - Wayne L. Morse court complex
Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 43
 K2 Housing project in Australia
This housing complex utilizes renewable
energy only. Use of recycled timber,
rain water, solar water heaters and
photovoltaic panels can be seen in this.
By such measures, it has been able to
reduce electrical supply by 55%, water
supply by 53% and petroleum gas supply
by 46% (figure 13.6). Figure 13.6 - K2 housing project

Bud Clark Commons housing complex

in USA
This housing complex uses solar water
heaters to get hot water, a roof with a
plant cover absorbing heat and rain water,
devices to purify bathroom effluents to
be used in toilets and fiberglass windows
opening under hot conditions. This project
saves energy worth of 60 000 US dollars
annually (figure 13.7). Figure 13.7 - Bud Clark Commons housing
complex

You should not misunderstand that the aim of green

concept is only enhancing the plant cover to appear
in green. It may be quite clear to you from the above
examples. Minimizing the emission of greenhouse
gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc.)
that cause increase in global warming is also a major
aim of the green concept. Therefore, all processes
supporting it belong to the green concept. Let us
Figure 13.8 - Symbol of the Green
Concept examine how the present agricultural and industrial
processes can be geared for this.

13.2 Agricultural Process

Organic farming
The production process that promotes the wellbeing of the agricultural environmental
system, microbial activity in soil, bio-diversity and biological cycles is called
organic farming.
44 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept
Use of organic fertilizers can be given as a major aspect of organic farming. As the
harvest that flourishes by absorbing nutrients from the soil of the cultivated land is
removed from it, the soil becomes deficient in nutrients. Therefore, the soil should
be supplied with nutrients from outside. It is done by applying fertilizers, containing
artificially prepared minerals and artificially synthesized chemicals, which
are being applied more and more. But, instead of this, organic fertilizers such as
compost formed by subjecting plant or animal materials to natural processes can be
applied. Some facts regarding the importance of the use of organic fertilizers rather
than inorganic fertilizers can be listed as follows.
² Application of inorganic fertilizers destroy many micro-organisms and
macro-organisms such as earthworms which are helpful for the crop. It affects
existence of the natural environment badly.
² Excessive application of inorganic fertilizers affects human health through
plant products. Some heavy metals contained in, enter the human body giving
rise to unfavourable effects.
² Organic fertilizers add nutrients falling within a wide range whereas inorganic
fertilizers can provide only a few nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium and sulphur.
² Large amount of money need not to be spent for organic fertilizers. Fertilizers
can be produced ourselves using refuse such as straw, plant debris, chaff and
saw dust.
² There is a greater demand for rice, vegetables, fruits and leafy vegetables
obtained from organic farming among the discerning people in Sri Lanka.
Therefore, the farmers growing them as well as the traders who sell them can
have a higher income.
² The structure of the soil will be improved with the time by using organic
fertilizer.
Another fact of organic farming is the use of traditional agricultural practices for
pest control. The pesticides used at present are highly poisonous chemicals that are
synthesized artificially. Weedicides, insecticides and fungicides belong to them.
Use of these pesticides causes inestimable environmental degradation and it can be
prevented by employing traditional agricultural practices. These may be biological
methods, mechanical methods or religious rituals. Some traditional agricultural
practices used for pest control are given below.
² Spread other organisms that destroy eggs and larvae of pests
² Control pests using insect-repelling substances
('Dahaspethiya' flowers/'Sevvandipoo', juice of neem seeds, plants of citrus family)
² Water management (restrict water or excess water) to control pests
Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 45
 ² In order to protect the cultivated land from harmful insects, an oil lamp is lighted
in the land at night. Then the insects attracted to the flame are caught by it and
die. Hence, this is known as a light trap.
² After sowing seed paddy in a paddy field, a 'diya holmana' is made below
the 'vakkada' (overflow) to protect them from birds. Because of the sound it
produces, the birds fly away.
² To protect paddy in a paddy field from mice, sticks each tied with a coconut
husk are planted in several places in the paddy fields. Then, the birds such as
owls perch on them and hunt the mice.
² Crop rotation avoid the establishment of pests in the crop land.

Assignment 13.2
Collect information about the traditional agricultural practices used for pest
control either by consulting elders or electronic/print media and prepare a booklet.

As the side effects of present day agricultural practices carried out neglecting the
traditional knowledge descended for long about farming in Sri Lankan society
and without modern scientific knowledge farmers have to face tragedies like the
chronic kidney disease. In addition to that, diseases such as dermatitis and neuro
diseases are common.

Water management
"Let us not drain even a single drop of water falling from the sky into the sea
without being used" declared so in the past by king 'Parakramabahu' the Great, was
the importance of water management. We are the one and the only nation that did an
environment friendly water management for agriculture from the past. Tanks, dams
and irrigation canals which give supreme contribution to sustain lives of millions
of people from thousands of years back to date, are magnificent examples for rain
water conservation (figure 13.9 (a)).
Out spill
a ll
River d w
a
He

Tank
Tank bund
Sluice

Ralapanawa
Canals
Sluice gate
Bisokotuwa
Figure 13.9 (a) – 'Parakrama samudraya' Figure 13.9 (b) – Major parts of a tank

46 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

A reservoir of water made by erecting a dam across a river, stream (oya) or a
tributary of them with the aim of irrigating for farming an area which is short of
water supply is used in earlier times.

Low level areas in large flat areas are made into tank systems where rain water
got stored. These tanks are connected where rain water get collected and flow into
nearby tanks. The stored water is used in dry zones during whole year. A tank is a
system full of the green concept. This is confirmed by considering the components
of a common plan of a tank (figure 13.9 (b)).
Collecting of rain water
As an individual person, there are courses of action which
we can take to conserve rain water. One such measure is
utilizing rain water falling on the roofs of houses and other
buildings, during drought (figure 13.10).

Drip irrigation
This is the most efficient
micro-irrigation method used
at present. In this, lateral pipes Figure 13.10 – A device set
connected to a main pipeline from up in a house to collect rain
the water source are laid closer water
to the root system of every crop
plant. Water drips in the form of droplets from small devices
called emitters in these pipes. Since water seeps only to the
root system, water is not wasted and the growth of weeds is
Figure 13.11 – Drip controlled (figure 13.11).
irrigation

Land management
Management of use and development of the land resource is known as land
management.
Land provides the environment for agriculture. But, when using it there may be
favourable as well as unfavourable impacts on the environment. Especially the
misuse of land leads to collapse of natural equilibrium including the increase in
the emission of greenhouse gases. The reason for this is that if maximum use is not
made from the existing land, lands with forests have to be used for cultivations. This
causes deforestation, so the green cover is reduced. Therefore, land management
should focus the green concept.

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 47

 Some steps taken in land management are given below.
² Making a soil texture suitable for agriculture
² Improving the soil structure so that water and air are retained well
² Making a good draining system in the land
² Improving the quality of soil by applying fertilizers
² Cultivated better suited crops in respective places in the land.

Figure 13.12 – A managed cultivated land

Indicated below are a few advantages that can be obtained by sustainable

management of agricultural lands.
² Improving productivity
² Reducing production risk
² Improving the quality of natural resources, soil and water
² Raising economic value
² Minimizing disasters
² Minimizing effects to the environment

Several green concept centered cultivation methods used in land management for
high productivity are given in table 13.1.

48 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

 Table 13.1
² Mixed crop cultivation Cultivating one or more crops along with one main
crop in a same plot of land is referred to as mixed crop
cultivation. This yields many advantages.
² Since nutrients are absorbed in balance from the
soil, the quality of soil is conserved.
² Since there are different types of crops, the growth
of weeds and damage caused by insect pests are
minimized.
² Crops withstand unfavourable climatic conditions
and plant diseases are suppressed.
² Increases the total yield
² Affords maximum benefits out of limited resources

² Crop rotation In this method, several crops are grown in the same
plot of land from season to season according to an
order. Mostly in crop rotation, four crops, a cereal, a
legume, a yam crop and a commercial vegetable crop
are grown.
² By growing different types of crops, nutrients in all
the soil layers are exploited.
² Different modes of land preparation improves the
physical, chemical and biological features of the
soil.
² Growing crops When improving plants by bio-technology, their
improved by tolerance to drought and resistance to diseases and
bio-technology pests increase while the nutritive value and taste of
plant products also increase.
e.g.
² Developing high quality varieties of organisms
through hybridization
² Developing maize plants resistant to a harmful
weevil species
² Producing varieties of rice which are resistant to
pests
² Producing a variety of 'Ransahal' containing vitamin
A
² Making crop varieties which produce higher yield

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 49

 Post-harvest technology
Cleaning, classifying and packaging the
harvest immediately after harvesting so
that its quality is preserved, is known as
post-harvest technology (figure 13.13).
The post-harvest process includes
plucking the harvest, packing the harvest,
transporting and selling.
In Sri Lanka, it can be seen that
post-harvest technology operates at a very
Figure 13.13 – Post-harvest arrangements
low level. It seems that, in our country
people are little interested in plucking,
packaging and transporting harvest scientifically. Therefore, a greater part of the
harvest is disposed without consumption. This drops the income of the producer as
well as the seller while increase the price of the products. Moreover, the opportunity
to consume high quality food is reduced due to poor post harvest technology.

13.3 Industrial process

Use of chemical substances
We have accustomed to use chemical substances for various needs of our day to day
life. They can be indicated as follows.
y Food additives
y Cleaning agents
y Medicines
y Disinfectants
y Cosmetics
y Paints
Most of these chemicals are artificially synthesized substances. Once added to
the environment they retain for a long time in the same form. This disturbs the
environmental balance. Because of this, we need to minimize the use of these
chemical substances as much as possible or use natural substitutes instead of them.
Some measures that can be taken in this regard are as follows.
² Avoid the consumption of flavoured food as much as possible and use home
prepared natural flavours such as spices instead of artificial flavours.

50 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

² Use chemicals such as turmeric and asafoetida which have been used by our
ancestors to kill germs.
² Using natural medicinal substances, instead of mercury containing carcinogenic
creams available in the market to brighten the skin.

Construction of buildings
The aim of green building concept is to construct buildings with a green environment
beset with plants. A few basic principles should be abided by when constructing
green buildings. They are;
² Presence of green plants in the premises
² Get clean air through ventilation methods such as doors and windows
² Minimize the amount of waste
² Use energy efficiently
² Consume water efficiently
² Use natural materials for construction
² Make the maintenance cost minimal
² Device to reach natural light

Through the green buildings concept, environmental resources can be consumed

causing minimum loss to the environment. Therefore, maximum benefit can be
utilized from the nature. Technology also can be used for this.
e.g.
² Minimizing the amount of heat by a plant cover
² Producing electricity by solar cells
² Obtaining hot water to bathrooms from solar heaters
² Fixing large windows to receive more natural light and ventilation

Figure 13.14 – A building constructed according to the green concept

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 51

 Green transportation
A massive revolution of transporting activities has been taken place with the
technological development in modern world. It causes to increase the productivity,
efficiency and the comfortable luxuries life pattern. But, unfavourable effects
caused due to this development make long term disadvantageous results. Large
amount of fuels burn daily for transporting goods and passengers. The result is
collecting green house gases such as CO2 and NO2 more in the atmosphere.
Vehicles of turbo engines which combust compressed air with petrol, release more
NO2 gas in addition to CO2. Hence, attention must be paid towards of minimizing
the emission of greenhouse gases in transporting activities. This concept is known
as green transportation.
e.g.
² Minimizing usage of vehicles individually
² Using transporting methods which do not consume fuels (walking,
cycling)
² Aware and facilitate citizens to use hybrid vehicles
² Promote the concept of vehicles using solar cells and electricity among
public
² Facilitating, transporting methods through water ways such as streams
and rivers
When transporting food and other goods, it burns large amount of fuels that energy
consumption is also need to cut down to decrease food miles. Consumption of
local food is also need to appreciate. Every individual must take steps to minimize
the emission of greenhouse gases in transporting activities so, that every body can
contribute to solve global crises.

Assignment 13.3
Make a list of activities that you can engage for green transportation.
Get the ideas and proposals of your friends in classroom, by presenting the list
you prepare.

The above discussion reveals us that, man has changed his living environment
drastically for his luxurious life by exploitation of limited resources unlimitedly.
Other organisms on the Earth has no privilege to use environmental resources as
human population, although they live in the same land.
52 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept
Number of global issues has been arisen from unusual exploitation of natural
resources by some people. The serious threaten is global warming. Hence, it is
the responsibility of man to avoid every activity which causes the emission of
greenhouse gases.
From birth to death, every activity of man cause producing CO2. It can be inferred
that, there is no human activity which do not cause production of CO2. This can be
clearly understood by studying 'Carbon footprint' of an individual.
It states us the amount of CO2 (metric tons) emitted by an individual. Through
out a year, a large amount of carbon is being released by people during activities
like taking food, drinking, clothing and occupation. Agricultural activities and
transportation related with 'Food mile' is again related with transporting activities.
Another major issue caused due to shortage of drinking water can be explained,
by the concept of 'Water footprint'. You will learn more details about food mile,
carbon footprint and water footprint in grade 11.

For extra knowledge

Carbon footprint
The amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere within a given time
period as a result of the activities of a particular individual, a production, an
activity or an organization is a carbon foot print. Total carbon foot print cannot
be calculated precisely as CO2 is produced naturally and it needs more data to
calculate.

Water footprint
The amount of fresh water utilized in the production or supply of the goods and
services used by a particular person or group.

Food mile
The distance over which a food item is transported during the journey from producer
to consumer, is known as food mile. This depends according to the amount of food
consume per meal and the location where the food is produced.

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 53

 Summary
² Following guidelines and policies required to maintain goods and services,
not causing damage or causing minimum damage to the natural environment
of the Earth, is referred to as green concept.
² Minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases which increase global warming
is also a main objective of the green concept.
² In order to align with the green concept, the present agricultural and industrial
processes should be subjected to a drastic transformation.
² The production process that improves the wellbeing of the agricultural
environment, biological activity in soil, bio-diversity and biological cycles is
called organic farming.
² Use of organic fertilizers is a main aspect of organic farming.
² Another aspect of organic farming is the adoption of traditional agricultural
practices for pest control.
² Tank (wewa) is a system replete with the green concept. This is justified by
considering the components of a common plan of a tank.
² Management of the use and development of the land resource is called land
management
² Post-harvest technology is the cleaning, classifying and packing of the harvest
of a crop immediately after packing the yields, so that its quality is preserved.
² The principle aim of green buildings or the sustainable construction concept
is the construction of buildings with high efficiency of using energy, water
and materials while minimizing the impact on man and the environment.
² Minimizing emission of greenhouse gases in transportation is called as green
transportation.

54 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. The meaning of green concept is described by following statements.
a - enhancing the plant cover appearing in green
b - minimizing the emission of greenhouse gases that increase global
warming
c - maintaining goods and services not harming or harming minimally to
the natural environment on Earth
Out of these, select the correct statements,
1. Only a 2. Only a and b 3. Only a and c 4. a, b and c

2. Utilization of solar energy supports the green concept because,

1. it conserves resources on Earth
2. it minimizes emission of greenhouse gases
3. more energy can be produced
4. it is available only during day time
3. Select the substance that cannot be used to produce organic fertilizers, from
the following.
1. Straw 2. Chaff 3. Plant litter 4. Polythene

4. Which of the following introduces the substances, that can be used for making
compost fertilizers?
1. Straw, plant litter, cow dung, animal urine
2. Straw, plant litter, polythene, cow dung
3. Plastic, straw, plant litter, animal urine
4. Papers, straw, plant litter, cow dung
5. From the following statements, which one is incorrect about post-harvest
technology?
1. Post-harvest technology is the cleaning, classifying and packing of the
harvest immediately after harvesting so that its quality is preserved.
2. The major aim of post-harvest technology is the addition of preservatives
to the harvest immediately after harvesting.
3. Harvesting, packing, transporting and selling the yield belong to
post-harvest technology
4. Weakening of post-harvest technology causes hike in prices of the
products.

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 55

 6. Which one of the following is not followed in the construction of green
buildings?
1. Collecting and using rain water
2. Heating water by solar heaters
3. Producing electricity by building natural gases
4. Purifying effluent water from bathrooms and to use in latrines
7. Some statements about organic farming are given below.
a- Organic farming is favourable for soil micro-organisms
b- The yield of organic farming is high quality
c- Organic fertilizers is a major application of organic farming
Of the above, the true statement(s) is/are
1. Only a 2. Only a and b 3. Only a and c 4. a, b and c

8. Which of the following is not a feature of a building constructed according to

the green concept?
1. Using natural light more
2. Fixing large windows for better ventilation
3. Producing electricity by solar cells
4. Using an air conditioner to maintain a suitable temperature
9. Consider the following two statements.
Statement A - Increase in global warming is a main environmental problem
seen at present
Statement B - The main reason for the increase in global warming is the
exclusive emission of greenhouse gases to the environment
Of the above statements,
1. Only A is true and B is false
2. A is false and only B is true
3. Both A and B are false
4. Both A and B are true
10. Which of the following is not an environment-friendly method of pest control,
1. Use of bio pesticides
2. Collect and destroy the pests
3. Use natural 'Kem krama' (simple and occult treatment that's done secretly)
4. Destroy the pests by machines

56 Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept

(02) Answer the following.
i. Name a place where green concept can be well observed in Sri Lanka.
ii. The artificially synthesized, highly poisonous substances used to control
pests are called ……………..
iii. Write two methods of generating electricity according to the green
concept.
iv. Write two advantages of the use of inorganic fertilizers.
v. Write five substances that are used in day to day life which contain
artificial chemical substances.

(03) Give short answers.

i. What is green concept?
ii.What is the aim of green concept?
iii.
State two things which are important in land management.
iv.State two advantages brought about by promoting post-harvest
technology.
v. Write one way by which you can contribute to green transportation.

Technical Terms
Green concept - yß; ixl,amh - £_ø© GsnUP¸
Organic fertilizers - ldnksl fmdfydr - ÷\uÚ¨ £\øÍPÒ
Pest control - m<sfndaO md,kh - ¥øhU Pmk¨£õk
Water management - c, l<ukdlrKh - }º •Põø©zxÁ®
Transportation of food - wdydr mßjykh - EsĨ ÷£õUSÁµzx
Food preservation - wdydr mßrlaIKh - EnÄ |ØPõ¨¦
Food security - wdydr iqrlaIs;;dj - EnĨ £õxPõ¨¦
Post harvest technology - miq wiajkq ;dlaIKh - AÖÁøh°ß ¤ßÚµõÚ öuõÈÝm£®
Eco - friendliness - mßir ys;ldó nj - `ÇÀ ÷|¯•øhø©
Green transportation - yß; m%jdykh - £_ø©¨ ÷£õUSÁµzx

Science | Artificial Environment and Green Concept 57

14 Reflection and
Refraction of Waves
14.1 Reflection of light
Light is a very important form of energy for man. Let us briefly recall what we
have learnt about light in grades 6 and 7. Let us do the assignment 14.1 for this.

Assignment 14.1
² According to the activities in table 14.1 what are the conclusions you can
made regarding the characteristics of light.
Table 14.1
Activity Conclusion

Candle

Cardboards with
a hole

Lasers Torch

Plane mirror

Light is composed of very thin light rays which travel in straight lines. Light travels
through a vacuum or a transparent medium in straight lines, and reflects when
strikes on a reflecting surface (mirror).
Bouncing back of light ray into the same medium, when strikes on a surface, is
known as reflection of light.

58 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

Let us study further about the reflection of light.
14.1.1 Reflection of light by a plane mirror
Let us do the activity 14.1 to study how light rays get reflected from a plane mirror.

Activity 14.1
You will need :- A plane mirror, a sheet of white paper, an electrical torch or a
laser torch, a pair of scissors, a ruler, a protractor, a pencil
Method :-
² Place the sheet of white paper on the table
² Place the plane mirror perpendicular to the paper using a stand.
² Draw the mirror line on the paper
² Direct a narrow inclined beam of light, along the paper on to the mirror using
the electrical torch or the laser torch.
² Observe how the beam of light reflects from the mirror
² Trace the incident and reflected rays on the paper using the pencil
² Remove the mirror and complete the rays using the ruler
² Construct the normal line to the plane mirror at the point of incidence
² Measure the angles at either sides of the normal line
²
²
²
²
²
²
²

Point of incidence

Incident ray
Reflecting ray
Angle of Angle of
Incidence reflection

Normal line
Figure 14.1

A diagram that shows the way the rays are traveling is known as a ray diagram.

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 59

In the activity 14.1, what you have constructed is a ray diagram to show the reflection
of a light ray from a plane mirror after its incidence.
² The ray that falls on the mirror is called the incident ray.
² The point where the incident ray contacts with the mirror is the point of
incidence.
² The ray that reflects away from the mirror is known as the reflecting ray.
² The perpendicular line drawn to the mirror at the point of incidence is the
normal or the normal line.
² The angle between the incident ray and the normal line is called the angle of
incidence and the angle between the reflected ray and the normal line is called
the angle of reflection.
We can do the activity 14.1 using pins instead of using electrical torch. Let us do
the activity 14.2 by using pins.

Activity 14.2
You will need :- A sheet of white paper, A plane mirror, four pins, a ruler, a pencil,
a protractor, a stand
Method :-
² Place the sheet of paper on the table
² Place the plane mirror perpendicular to the paper using the stand
² Draw the mirror line on the paper
² Fix two pins in front of the plane mirror which should be on an inclined
straight line to the mirror.
² Observe the images of the pins through the mirror
² Fix another two pins on the paper, which are in line with the two images.
² Now remove the pins and the mirror. Draw straight lines connecting the pin
marks. Complete the ray diagram by constructing the normal line at the point
if incidence, as done in activity 14.1
² Measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.

Figure 14.2

60 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

14.1.2 Laws of reflection
Observations of the activities 14.1
and 14.2 can be summarized as
follows. Point of incidence
² When light is reflecting; that the
incident ray, reflecting ray and Angle of
Angle of
the normal line are in the same incidence
reflection
plane.
Incident ray Reflecting
² That the values of the angle ray
of incidence and the angle of
reflection are equal. Normal line
Figure 14.3
Above conclusions are true for all
the instances of reflection of light. Therefore, they are considered as the laws of
reflection. There are two laws of reflection.

1. The incident ray, the reflecting ray and the normal line drawn at the point of
incidence are in the same plane.
2. The value of the angle of incidence is equal to the value of the angle of
reflection.

14.1.3 Regular reflection and diffuse reflection

Let us observe how parallel rays of light are reflected from a smooth surface and a
rough surface. Let us do the activity 14.3, using a plane mirror as a smooth reflecting
surface and a crushed aluminium foil as a rough reflecting surface.

Activity 14.3
You will need :- An electrical torch or a laser torch, A plane mirror , an aluminium
foil, a joss stick
Method:-
² Aim a beam of light on to the plane mirror and the crushed aluminium foil
separately as shown in the figure 14.4
² Observe how the light is reflecting in each instance
² Discuss your observations in the class room
(For clear observation, spread some smoke near the set-up using the joss stick)

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 61

 Thin
Laser aluminium
torch layer

Plain mirror

Figure 14.4 (a) - Regular reflection Figure 14.4 (b) - Diffuse reflection
Figure 14.4 - Regular and diffuse reflections

Note :- Do not aim the laser rays into eyes, as they are harmful to eyes.

You may have observed that parallel light rays are reflected parallelly by plane
mirror (figure 14.4 a) and parallel light rays are reflected to various directions by
crushed aluminium foil (figure 14.4 b).
According to the activity 14.4, it is clear that light reflection is of two types.
1. Regular reflection 2. Diffuse reflection

More information of these two types are given in the table 14.2.

Table 14.2 - Regular and diffuse reflection

Regular reflection Diffuse reflection

² This is done by smooth surfaces ² This is done by rough surfaces

² Parallel light rays are reflected ² Parallel light rays are reflected to
parallelly various directions
e.g. Reflection of sun light by the pages
e.g. Reflection of sun light by a plane
of a book
mirror
Reflection of sunlight by objects like
Reflection of laser rays by a plane
the Earth, plants, buildings and rocks
mirror
62 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves
Think whether regular reflection or diffuse reflection is commonly found in
day-to-day life.
Both regular reflection and diffuse reflection are useful in day-to-day life.
Instances where regular reflection is useful
² Regular reflection is commonly found, when using mirrors
e.g. To watch ones own face, to use light microscope
² To create vivid light patterns in various shows.
² To get information of the motion of machine parts in industrial plants

Figure 14.5 - Create vivid light Figure 14.6 - Using light

patterns in various shows microscope

Instances where diffuse reflection is useful

Figure 14.7 - Objects in the environment can be seen Figure 14.8 - Letters in a book can be
from all directions as they reflect sun light diffusely seen from all directions

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 63

 Assignment 14.2
² Discuss in the classroom, the instances where regular reflection and diffuse
reflection are useful. Tabulate the facts you discussed.

14.1.4 Images formed by plane mirrors

Images are formed because of the reflection of light, emitted by objects, from a
plane mirror. For instance, the image of an electrical torch place before a plane
mirror can be seen through it.
Let us do the activity 14.4 to study how an image is formed by reflection of light.

Activity 14.4
You will need :- A cardboard box,
an electrical torch,
plane mirror, a
stand, piece of
cardboard, a pair
of scissors, white
paper
Method:- Figure 14.9
² Place the white paper on the table.
² Fix the plane mirror, perpendicular to the white paper.
² Place the lighted torch inside the box, with a long slit. Focus the beam of
light, to the slanted mirror plane, emitted by torch.
² Look at the reflected beam of light.
² What can you observe through the plane mirror.
² Get the help of teacher to explain your observation.

In this activity you observed, the image of lighted slit. The light reach to eye from
object (slit) which get reflected from the mirror.
We see as the light reaches to eye from a point behind the mirror. It is known as
image.
Let us draw the ray diagram for the image formed by plane mirror.

Two rays are enough for drawing a ray diagram.

Let us do the activity 14.5 to draw a ray diagram of an image of pointy object, kept
infront of a plane mirror.

64 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

 Activity 14.5
You will need :- Two laser beams, a white paper, a plane mirror, a stand, a pair
of scissors
Method :-
² Make a slit in the piece of cardboard
² Place the white paper on the table and fix the mirror to the stand perpendicularly
(figure 14.10)
² Direct two lazer beams through the slit, slantly to the mirror.
² Observe the reflected beams of light.
What can you observe now?

Figure 14.10

In the activity 14.5, the pointy object is the slit made in cardboard. The light rays
reach from slit, get reflected by the plane mirror and from an object behind the
mirror.
According to the observation done in activity 14.5 we can illustrate the ray diagram.
For that let us engage in activity 14.6.

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 65

 Activity 14.6
You will need :- A sheet of white paper, a ruler, a pencil, a protractor
Method :-
² Draw a straight line, on the sheet of paper to indicate the plane mirror.
² Mark a point, about 5cm away from the mirror plane (point-form object).
² Starting from this point, draw two inclined light rays to the mirror plane.
² Mark the points of incidence and construct the normal lines for the two rays
drawn.
² Measure the angles of incidence and mark the angles of reflection equals to
them.
² Now construct the reflecting rays.
² Extend back the reflecting rays by dotted lines to meet them together.
² Mark the point where the reflected rays meet together when extended back.
That is the point where the image is formed.
² Connect the object Object

and the image by a

dotted line. Object
² Measure the distance distance
between the mirror
and the object (object
distance) and the Image
distance between the distance
mirror and the image
(image distance).
² Confirm the object Image
distance is equal to Figure 14.11
the image distance.

Assignment 14.3
Construct a ray diagram to show how the image is formed, of a point-form object
kept 8 cm away from a plane mirror
(It is suitable to use an A4 sheet of paper for this)
Measure the object distance and the image distance

You have already learnt in grades 6 and 7, some of the characteristics of images
formed by the objects kept infront of plane mirrors. Recalling them, let us do the
activity 14.7 to study the characteristics of images formed by plane mirror.
66 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves
 Activity 14.7
You will need :- A plane mirror, a white screen, a ruler, a stand, pieces of cardboard
on which letter O, B, F and d are drawn to the height of about
5cm (When you write the letter O draw a vertical line and colour
half of it).
Method :-
² Fix the plane mirror vertically to the stand.
² Place each piece of cardboard, on which a letter is drawn, in front of the plane
mirror. Observe the image of the letter through the mirror.
² See whether the image can be taken on to a screen.
² Repeat the activity, keeping some other objects in front of the mirror.
² Tabulate your observations in the table 14.3
Table 14.3
How the image Whether lateral Equality of the Whether image can
Letter/
is seen inversion sizes of object be/cannot be taken
Object
upright/inverted occur/not occur and image on to a screen
B upright occur equal cannot be taken on
to a screen (virtual)
F ............... ............... ............... ...............
d ............... ............... ............... ...............
O ............... ............... ............... ...............

Changing right hand side and the left hand side of the image is known as lateral
inversion.
If the image can be taken on to a screen it is known as a real image, if it cannot be
taken on to a screen, it is known as a virtual image.
According to the activity 14.7, the characteristics of images formed by the objects,
kept in front of a plane mirror can be listed as below.
² Virtual (cannot be taken on to a screen)
² Upright
² Equal to the size of object
² Object distance and image distance are equal
² Lateral inversion occur
Letters like O, A and X cannot be identified under lateral inversion as these letters
are symmetrical.
Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 67
 Assignment 14.4
Stand in front of a large mirror which is on a dressing table or any other place.
Observe the size and the lateral inversion of your image in the mirror.
Think whether your observations agree with the characteristics of the images
formed by plane mirrors.

14.1.5 Use of plane mirrors

Plane mirrors are widely used for various tasks in day-to-day life. Some of them
are given below.
1. Used in beauty salons and to watch ones own face, for dressing (figure 14.12)
2. In shops to show the number of items increased (figure 14.13)
3. To reflect light for laboratory activities (figure 14.14)
4. To produce multiple images (figure 14.15)
5. To observe the shape and the back side of costumes when selecting items for
fashion activities (figure 14.16)
6. To observe backside of the head when one is having a haircut in a salon
(figure 14.17)

Figure 14.12 Figure 14.13 Figure 14.14

Figure 14.15 Figure 14.16 Figure 14.17

68 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

7. For making kaleidoscope
Various colourful patterns can be observed through this, when small pieces of
petals, leaves or pieces of colourful papers are put into this.

Figure 14.18 - Kaleidoscope Figure 14.19 - Vivid patterns seen

through a kaleidoscope
8. For making periscope
Periscopes are used to observe objects which are located above or below the
position of the observer. (to watch out side from a submarine or a bunker)

Plane mirror

Plane
mirror

Figure 14.20 - Periscope

14.2 Sound
14.2.1 Reflection of sound
Be silent and listen to the environment for a moment. You may observe sounds
generated by the vibration of various objects. Let us pay our attention to an important
property of sound. Let us do the activity 14.8 for this.

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 69

 Activity 14.8
Metal or glass sheet
You will need :-
A small mechanical clock or a stop
PVC tube
watch, two pieces of PVC tubes to the
length of 30cm each (dia.2.5cm), two
stands, a piece of cardboard to the size 50
55 50

40
60

30
10

20
5

10

of 30 cm × 50 cm, a smooth metal or

45 15

40 20
35 25
30

glass sheet to the size of 30 cm × 30 cm Stop watch Piece of cardboard

Figure 14.21
Method :-
² Place the metal or glass sheet vertically on the table.
² Place the cardboard sheet perpendicular to it.
² Fix the PVC tube to a stand as shown in figure 14.21 and place the stop watch
closer to one end of it.
² Aim the other PVC tube to the glass sheet from the other side of the cardboard
sheet. Adjust the position of the tube till a clear "tick" sound is heard through
it. Mark the position of the tubes on the table.
² Now remove the glass sheet and listen for the "tick" sound of the watch.
² Repeat the activity, changing the position of the watch and using suitable
sound sources instead of clock or stopwatch.
² Discuss in the classroom, the conclusions that can be made for the activity.
² Think of the reason for placing a cardboard sheet between the PVC tubes.
² What is the conclusion that can be made according to the results of this
activity?
It is observed that the sound generated by the source was listened clearly at a certain
point when the metals or glass sheet was there. And the sound could not be heard
when the glass sheet was removed. The reason for this is the reflection of sound
from the metal or glass sheet.
Bouncing back of sound from an obstacle is known as reflection of sound.

The obstacle that reflected sound, in the activity 14.8 was the metal or glass sheet.
Sound is in the environment are constantly subjected to reflection by various
obstacles. Most of the sound reflecting instances cannot be noticed. But, there are
some observable instances. Now let us consider some of them.
70 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves
14.2.2 Echo
You may have observed that, when a strong sound is made in front of a large obstacle
(a mountain/a building), it is heard over and over again. Let us do the activity 14.9
to experience this.

Activity 14.9
You will need :- A clapper used for starting running events or two wooden sticks
Method :-
Obstacle
² Select a place where there is a
suitable obstacle like a tall building Observer
or a wall.
² Stand about 17 m apart from the
obstacle (minimum distance between
the obstacle and the observer to hear
an echo is 16.5 m).
17 m
² Make strong sounds by striking the
Figure 14.22
clapper several times.
² Listen carefully after each instance of making the sound.
² Discuss the reasons for observations.
² Repeat the activity while coming closer to the obstacle.
² Make the sound while you are at a distance of 15 m or less to the obstacle (you
can use even the walls of your classroom for this).
² Compare the latter observations with the earlier ones.

Sound generates by the clapper, was reflected by the obstacle. After hearing the first
sound, the reflected sound was also heard after a short while later.

A second hearing because of the reflection of sound after the first one, is known
as echo.

When the obstacle is too close the echo is not clear. This fact is confirmed in activity
14.9.
Sometimes several echoes can be heard, because of the reflection of the first
sound. This happens when the sound is reflected several times. For instance, sound
reflection in an auditorium can be mentioned.
Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 71
 Assignment 14.5
² List out the instances of sound reflection that you have experienced in your
day-to-day life. Mentioned the obstacle that is responsible for the reflection
of sound in each instance.

For extra knowledge

Though the sound is reflected, clear
echo is not heard when the obstacle
is too close to the observer.
There is a minimum distance that
should be maintained between the
obstacle and observer to hear an
echo. That minimum distance can
be calculated as given below.
² The sense of sound is retained in human ear for 0.1 seconds.
² Sound travels 330 meters per second in air.
² To distinguish two sounds separately, difference between them should be more
than 0.1 seconds.

The distance that sound travels in one second = 330 m

Distance that sound travels in 0.1 seconds 330 m x 0.1s
=
1s

Total distance that sound should travels to occur an echo = 33 m

∴The distance that should be between the obstacle and the = 33 m

observer 2
= 16.5 m

72 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

14.2.3 Reverberation
There are some instance in an auditorium or a cinema hall, that the sound emitted
by the loud speaker is not clear. The reason for this is that the echo generated by
the reflection of sound is heard before the initial sound fades off from the ear. Final
result of this is, that the observe experiences a mixed unclear sound.

The persistence of sound for a long time because of the disability to distinguish
the original sound and the echo is known as reverberation.
Reverberation is a disturbance for clear hearing. Therefore, methods are used to
prevent the reflection of sound in auditoria, lecture halls and cinema halls where
clear hearing is expected.
Reverberation occur because of the reflection of sound. Reflection of sound can be
minimized by making the surfaces that sound strikes, to absorb it. Thus reverberation
can be prevented.
Following methods are used in places like cinema halls, auditoriums and studios to
absorb sound and thus prevent reverberation (figure 14.23).

Methods used to prevent reverberation

Making the walls rough Making the ceilings porous Hanging rough folded curtains
Figure 14.23 - Methods used to prevent reverberation

Instance where reflection of sound is applied usefully

Let us consider briefly some instances where reflection of sound is used.
1. Ultra sound scanning
Reflection of ultra sound waves is used to observe the shape of internal organs.
This method is known as ultrasound scanning. Ultra sound waves are generated by
a machine and are aimed at the relevant organ from outside of the body. Ultrasound
waves that reflect from the organ are received by the machine. Those waves
formulate the external appearance of the relevant organ on a screen.
Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 73
Figure 14.24 - Womb of a pregnant mother Figure 14.25 - How the foetus developing in the
is being subjected to ultrasound scanning womb is seen in ultrasound scanning

For extra knowledge

X-ray photographing may be harmful to organs and living body. But the harm is
very less in ultrasound scanning.

2. Finding the depth of ocean bed

It is important to know the depth of the ocean bed in navigation. Reflection of
ultrasound waves is used for this purpose. The method used is known as Sound
Navigation and Ranging (SONAR). The equipment used for this is known Echo
Sounder.

Ultrasound wave emitted

Ultrasound wave to reach ocean bed
reflected by ocean bed

Figure 14.26 - How the depth of ocean Figure 14.27 - How the information of
bed is determined using echo sounder ocean depth is depicted in an echo sounder

The depth of the ocean is determined by the time taken to receive the wave, back to
the equipment after reflecting from the ocean bed.

74 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

3. For bats, to identify obstacles at night
Reflection of ultrasound waves helps nocturnal
animals like bats to identify obstacles at night.
Ultrasound waves emitted by them, reflect after
bouncing on the obstacles. According to the time
taken for this, they can determine the distance to
the obstacle. Figure 14.28 - How the ultrasound
waves emitted by bat is reflected after
bouncing on an obstacle

14.3 Refraction of Light

When light is travelling through a transparent medium, it travels rectilinearly. Now
let us consider an instance that a light ray entering from one transparent medium
to another transparent medium. Let us do the activity 14.10 for studying this
phenomenon.
Activity 14.10
You will need :- A beaker of water, some soap, an electrical torch or a laser torch
Method : -
² Mix some soap in water in the beaker. (without allowing to form lather)
² Direct a thin inclined beam of light using the electrical torch or laser torch.
² Observe how the path of light beam changes when it enters into water.

Laser torch

Thin light beam

Soap mixed water

Figure 14.30 - Directing the light beam Figure 14.29 - Directing the light beam
perpendicularly to the water surface with an inclination to the water surface

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 75

 ² Carryout the activity changing the inclination of the thin beam of light
² Discuss your observations in the classroom.
² Answer the following questions while engaging in the activity.
1. What are the two transparent media that the thin beam of light travelled
through?
2. At what place did the beam of light bend?
3. What is the reason for mixing soap into water?
4. What happens when light is directed perpendicular to the water surface?

In the activity 14.10, light rays have traveled from one transparent medium (air)
into another transparent medium (water). The surface where two media come to
contact each other is known as the interface. Light travels from one medium into
another medium through the interface. It may be clear that, always the change of
direction of light occurs at the interface.
It is important to mix soap into water to see the beam of light in water.
The change of direction of light when traveling from one transparent medium
into another transparent medium is known as refraction of light.

The beam of light directed perpendicular to the interface, do not occur refraction.

² During refraction, the ray that is reaching the interface is the incident ray.
² The ray that travels after refraction is the refracted ray.
² The point on the interface where the incident ray falls, is the point of incidence.
² A normal line also can be constructed at the point of incidence.

The way of refraction occurs when a Angle of

incident
light ray enters from air to water can be
shown by a ray diagram as in figure
14.31. Incident
ray
Air
Interface

Water
Point of
incidence
Refracted ray
Angle of
refracted
Figure 14.31- The way of refraction occurs when a
light ray enters from air to water
76 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves
 For extra knowledge
Light travels in a definite velocity in a given medium. Velocity of light differs
from medium to medium.
e. g.
Medium Velocity of light (meters per second)
Vacuum or air 3.0×108
Water 2.25×108
Glass 2.0×108
Refraction of light occurs because of change of its velocity when traveling from
one medium to another medium.

Refraction of light in a glass block

Let us study how a narrow beam of light (a pencil of light) refracts when directed
into a glass block. Let us do the activity 14.11 for this.

Activity 14.11
You will need :- A glass block, a sheet of white paper, four pins, an electrical
torch or a laser torch, a pencil, a ruler
Method :-
² Spread the sheet of white paper on the table and place the glass block on it.
² Direct an inclined beam of light on to the glass block as shown in figure 14.32.
² Fix two pins on the path of incident ray and the other two pins on the path of
the light ray that travels away from the block.
² Sketch the position of glass block using the pencil
² Remove the glass block, the pins and the torch. Complete the ray diagram.
Incident Air
ray

Glass Glass
block block

Refracted
Ray of light ray

Figure 14.32 - How light refracts through a Figure 14.33 - Ray diagram to show how light
glass block refracts through a glass block

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 77

14.3.1 Effects of refraction of light
Let us consider briefly, some phenomena that can be seen in day-to-day life, due to
refraction of light.
² Apparent elevation of the bottom of a pond or a container of water

Activity 14.12
You will need :- A tall glass tumbler or a beaker, water, a coin or a nail, a pencil
Method :-
² Put the coin or the nail into the glass
tumbler or the beaker. Fill it with
water.
² Observe the coin or the nail from
Beaker
above.
Water Apparent
² Mark the apparent bottom (the coin depth
or the nail) When viewed from top, Point that
on the side of the vessel using the the bottom
can be seen Real depth
pencil.
² Now measure the real depth and the Nail
apparent depth to the bottom of the Figure 14.34 - Real depth and apparent depth
vessel and note them down.

It is clear that the observable depth or the apparent depth when viewed from top, is
always less than the real depth from the water surface to the bottom.

It is important to think carefully before step down into a well or a reservoir

because the real depth of it is more than the apparent depth.

For extra knowledge

Birds like kingfisher observe fish in water, Place where
a little above than where they actually are. the fish
seems to be
But, those birds have an idea of the real
depth to the fish.
Place where the
fish actually is

78 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

² Pencil dipped partially in water seems to be Pencil
broken at the water surface
A pencil which is partially dipped in water, seems
to be broken at the liquid surface, when viewed
from a side. The reason for this is the refraction of Glass of
light when it comes from water to air. water

² Refraction of white light through a prism Figure 14.35 - How a pencil

A wonderful occurrence can be observed when dipped in water seems to be

white light passes through a glass prism. Let us do the activity 14.13 to study
about this.
Activity 14.13
You will need :- A glass prism (60 × 60 × 60), a white screen, a piece of cardboard,
a plane mirror
Method :-
² Keep the glass prism on the table.
² Direct a narrow beam of light on to the prism using plane mirror and the piece
of cardboard.
² Let the light that passes through the prism fall on the screen.
² Discuss the reason for your observations in the classroom.
White screen

Thin, white
Piece of light beam
cardboard

White light
rays Glass prism

Figure 14.36 - How white light passes through the glass prism

A spectrum of seven colours can be seen on the screen during the activity 14.13.
Separation of white light into seven colours when passing through a prism due to
refraction is the reason for this. Colours of the spectrum are red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo and violet respectively.

Separation of white light when passing through a prism is known as dispersion.

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 79

 For extra knowledge
Scientist Sir Isaac
Newton showed
that white light
is composed of
seven colours. The
equipment he used
for this is known
as Newton's disc.
Newton's disc is made by painting the segments, equally divided through the
centre of a circle with the seven colours. When this painted circle is rotated the
seven colours mix to give white colour. You also can make a Newton's disc of
your own.

² Occurrence of rainbow
Rainbow is another elegant phenomenon that occurs due to refraction of light.
There are various folktales among people that in connection with the rainbow.
When there is bright sunlight with mist or drizzle, a rainbow can be frequently
observed. Rainbow occurs because of refraction and internal refraction of sunlight
by water droplets in the sky. Here white sunlight is dissociated into colours by water
droplets. A large number of water droplets in the sky contribute to form a rainbow.

Figure 14.37 - How a rainbow is observed Figure 14.38 - Dispersion of light through
a single water droplet

80 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

 Summary
² Bouncing back of light to the same medium, after striking on a shiny surface
is called reflection.
² Light reflects according to the laws of reflection.
² Regular reflection and diffuse reflection are the two ways of reflection of
parallel light.
² Images are formed by reflection of light by mirrors.
² Images formed by plane mirrors are always upright, virtual and are subjected
to lateral inversion.
² When images are formed by objects in front of plane mirrors, the size of the
object is equal to the size of the image. Distance to the object is equal to the
distance to the image.
² Instances of reflecting light by plane mirrors are used in day-to-day life.
² Bouncing back of sound by an obstacle is called the reflection of sound
² Echo and reverberation can be mentioned as two phenomena occurred by
reflection of sound.
² Reverberation is a troublesome stage of echo.
² Various methods are used in auditoria, cinema halls and lecture halls to prevent
reverberation.
² Ultrasound scanning and finding depth to ocean bed are some instances where
reflection of sound is put into use.
² The change of direction of light when travelling from one transparent medium
to another transparent medium is known as refraction of light.
² The apparent elevation of the bottom of a pond, dispersion of white light
through prisms, forming of rainbow are some instances where refraction of
light occurs.

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 81

 Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. Select the correct sentence out of the following.
1. Regular reflection occurs well from rough surfaces.
2. Angle of incidence is not always equal to the angle of reflection.
3. Light rays that are falling perpendicular to a plane mirror do not get reflected.
4. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
2. Underline the correct ray diagram, which shows the reflection from a plane
mirror.

1) 2) 3) 4)
3' Image formed by objects kept infront of plane mirrors are always;
a - Upright and virtual
b - Subjected to lateral inversion
c - Distance to object is equal to the distance to the image
of the above sentences which is/are true,
1. Only a 2. Only a and b 3. Only b and c 4. a, b and c
4. Select the correct statement about echo.
1. It can occur at any distance between the observer and the obstacle.
2. Echo can be heard always when sound is reflected.
3. Cause for reverberation is not the echo.
4. Reverberation can be eliminated by preventing the reflection of sound.
5. White light can be separated into seven colours by a prism. Conclusion that can
be made according to this phenomenon is;
1. That light can be refracted by the prisms.
2. That white light is harmful to the body.
3. That white light is composed of seven colours.
4. That white light is reflected by prisms.

82 Science | Reflection and refraction of waves

6. Select the instances, out of those given below, which are associated with only
the refraction of light.
a. Looking at the face using a plane mirror
b. Benching of light when passing through a block of glass
c. Seeing a pencil broken at the surface when it is put into a container of water
d. Occurrence of multi images in a kaleidoscope
1. a and b only 2. b and c only
3. c and d only 4. a and d only
(02) Explain briefly, the following terms which are associated with reflection of
light.
i. Incident ray ii. Reflecting ray
iii. Normal line iv. Angle of incidence v. Angle of reflection
(03) In a school where multi-storied halls are situated close to each other, the
noise of students in classes at upper stairs are heard closely, by the students
in down stairs. What is the reason for this?
(04) A student aimed a lighted electrical torch with an inclination from the top of
a fish tank to observe its bottom. But unexpectedly the beam of light bent at
the water surface. Explain this phenomenon scientifically.

Technical Terms
Reflection - mrdj¾;kh - öuÔ¨¦
Uniform reflection - iúê mrdj¾;kh - JÊ[PõÚ öuÔ¨¦
Diffuse reflection - úidÍ mrdj¾;kh - £µÁÀ öuÔ¨¦
Angle of incident - m;k fldaKh - £k÷Põn®
Angle of reflection - mrdj¾;k fldaKh - öuÔ÷Põn®
Incident ray - m;k lsrKh - £kPvº
Reflecting ray - mrdj¾;k lsrKh - öuÔPvº
Normal line - wNs,ïNh - ö\ÆÁß
Refraction ray - j¾;k lsrKh - •ÔPvº
Lateral apostrophes - md¾Yúl wmj¾;kh - £UP ÷|º©õÖ
Kaleidoscope - nyqrEfmalaIh - Pø»²¸Põmi
Periscope - mÍlaIh - `ÌPõmi
Light refraction - wdf,dal j¾;kh - JÎ •ÔÄ
Dispersive - wmlsrKh - {Ó¨¤›øP
Hologram - j¾Kdj,sh - ÷|© Áøõ¯®
Echo - fodaxldrh - Gvöµõ¼
Reverberation - m%;skdoh - öuÔ¨ö£õ¼
Echo sounder - m%;s èjks udkh - Gvöµõ¼ ©õÛ

Science | Reflection and refraction of waves 83

15 Simple Machines
Since ancient time, man used machines to make their jobs easy. Let us recall some
instances where simple machines are used.
As you know, it is difficult to lift and
remove a large log or a rock with hands.
You may have experienced in your
day-to-day life, that one end of a metal
rod is kept under the rock or the log and
pushed down from the other rod. This
mechanical device is known as a lever
(Figure 15.1).
Figure 15.1 – A lever
Can a single person lift a barrel of oil on
to the deck of a lorry? It is difficult. Let us find out the amount of force that has to
be applied to lift an object directly upwards.
Hang a piece of metal on a spring balance and take the reading. Then lift the piece
of metal vertically up with your hand, while it is on the spring balance and observe
the reading of the balance.
When the piece of the metal was hanging on the balance, a force which is equal to
the weight of the piece of metal is exerted
downwards on the balance. While you are
lifting the piece of metal, you are applying
a force, which is equal to the weight of it,
upwards. Then, you will observe that the
reading of the balance reaches zero. Thus,
it is clear that a force which is equal to
the weight of an object should be applied Figure 15.2 – Drawing an object along an
inclined plane
upwards to lift it vertically up.
Now keep a piece of long plank, inclined to the horizontal surface and draw the
same piece of metals along it, as shown in the figure 15.2. Observe the reading of
the spring balance. You will realize that the force exerted to draw the piece of metal
along the ramp is less than the force exerted to lift it directly upwards. Here the job
is made easy.

84 Science | Simple Machines

 Here the device used to lift the piece of
metal is known as inclined plane. When
a barrel of oil is to be loaded to a lorry, it
is easy to push it along a ramp as shown
in the figure 15.3.
Figure 15.3 – Loading a barrel of oil to a lorry
using an inclined plane

When you want to pull a bucket of water from a well,

you can tie one end of a rope to the bucket, send the
bucket into the well and draw it upwards by pulling
it from the other end of the rope. Here the force that
should be applied is equal to the weight of the bucket
full of water.
Let us consider an easier way to do this job. Lifting
the bucket of water can be easily done by sending the
rope round a pulley and drawing the other end of the
rope downwards, as shown in the figure 15.4. Drawing
sometimes down is easier than drawing it up. Pulley is Figure 15.4 – Lifting an object
using a pulley
used to change the direction of force as we want.

To sink a screw nail into something, the force is applied

by turning the handle of screw driver (figure 15.5). It
is common experience that this job is made easier by
the screw driver. Here the device used is known as the
wheel and axle.
Figure 15.5 – Using a screw driver

Strategies used to make the job easy are known as simple machines.
There are four types of simple machines;
² Lever
² Inclined plane
² Pulley
² Wheel and axle
Let us discuss about these simple machines, in detail.

Science | Simple Machines 85

 15.1 Lever
As we have discussed earlier, a metal rod or a
crowbar can be used to lift a wooden log or a
rock. Let us consider it again.
It is difficult to lift the rock to some height. The
force that should be applied to do it is very large, Figure 15.6 – Using a crowbar
that a single person cannot do it.
It is easy to lift the rock or the log by using a crowbar as a lever (figure 15.6).
Here, why did the lever make the job easy? Let us do the activity 15.1 to find out about
this.

Activity 15.1
You will need :- A book, a Newton spring
a x
balance, a ruler or a
wooden strip
Method :- P
● Weigh the book, using the Newton spring
balance.
Figure 15.7
● Keep the wooden strip on a piece of wood
as a support P to balance it.
● Place the book on the end of the strip as shown in figure 15.7. Couple the
Newton balance to the other end of the strip using a book and pull the balance
vertically downwards, holding its stem.
● Take the reading of the balance.
● Keep the distance from the book to the support a constant and take several
readings by changing the distance from the support to the place where the
balance x is coupled. (Take several readings by keeping the value of greater
than a and less than a).
● In each situation, observe the movement of the place attached to the wooden
strip when the book lifts a vertical distance comparatively.
● Measure the distance x and keep records.

You may have observed that the force necessary to lift the book is less than the weight
of the book when x is greater than a. Here the lever helps to ease the job. When x is
smaller than a, the force necessary to lift the book is greater than the weight of the
book. But, in this case the book moves further than the point where balance is attached
moves. This distance is advantageous in some instances.
86 Science | Simple Machines
In all the above instances, the force applied on the lever is downwards to lift the
book upwards. This change of direction of force is also another advantage of a lever.
Parts of a lever
Let us consider the activity 15.1.
Here, the wooden strip is used as a lever. The force applied on the lever downwards
is known as the effort. The lever lifts the weight of the book. Thus weight lifted by
the lever is load.
Load is balanced by the effort other the wooden support. The point of the wooden
strip that contact with the lever is called fulcrum.
Here we have considered three points of a lever. Load is at one end of the lever.
Effort is at the other end. Load is balanced by the effort over the fulcrum.
Let us consider the lever shown in the figure 15.8 AB is a metal rod. Effort is
applied downwards at B. Rod is balanced on C. So, C is the fulcrum.

Effort arm and load arm

The part of the lever from effort
Effort arm
to fulcrum (CB) is known as Ndrh B
C
effort arm. The part of the lever ad arm Effort
A Lo
from load to the fulcrum (CA) Load Fulcrum
is known as load arm. Figure 15.8 - Parts of a lever

Mechanical advantage
Mostly a large load can be balanced by applying a small effort on a machine. In the
above activity, when the length of effort arm (x) is greater than that of load arm (a),
the book could be lifted by applying a force less than the weight of the book. This
advantage of the machine is calculated as the ratio of load to effort. This ratio is
known as mechanical advantage.
Load
Mechanical Advantage =
Effort
According to the figure 15.8, if a load of 36 N is lifted by applying an effort of 12 N,
then the mechanical advantage is;
Load
Mechanical Advantage =
Effort
36 N
=
12 N
3

Science | Simple Machines 87

 To remove the lid of a tin can, you can lift it with your fingers. But, it is difficult. An
easier way is shown in figure 15.9.
Here the handle of a spoon is used as a
lever. One end of the handle of spoon
holds the lid of tin (load). One point of the
handle rests on the edge of tin can. This
point is the fulcrum. When a small force
Figure 15.9
(effort) is applied at the free end and of the
handle, the lid is thrown up. So, the load of the can is removed easily.
Consider the position of the fulcrum of the levers mentioned above. It is positional
between the effort and the load.
Let us consider following situation where effort arm is greater than load arm.
Thus, levers can be divided into three orders according to the positions of effort,
load and fulcrum.
² First order lever
² Second order lever
² Third order lever
First order levers
Levers, in which the fulcrum acts between load and effort are called first order
levers. All the levers we considered in this lesson, up to now, are first order levers.
Figure below shows a first order lever.
Fulcrum

Load Effort
Figure 15.10
Some examples for first order levers are given below.

Seesaw

Pair of scissors Forceps

Figure 15.11 – First order levers

88 Science | Simple Machines

Second order levers
Levers in which the load acts between effort and fulcrum are referred to as second
order levers. Nut cracker is an example.
Effort

Fulcrum

Load
Figure 15.12
Some examples for second order levers are given in figure 15.13.

Nut-cracker Wheelbarrow
Figure 15.13 – Second order levers

The blade and the rod of the nut cracker turns round the pin, by which they are
coupled. Therefore, that pin is the fulcrum. Load acts on the object that is to be cut.
Effort is applied at the far end of the handle.
Third order levers
In third order levers, effort acts between the load and the fulcrum (figure 15.14).
Broom, fishing rod (figure 15.15) and human arm are some examples for third order
levers.
Effort

Fulcrum

Load
Figure 15.14

Load arm is always longer than the effort arm in third

order levers. Therefore, an effort which is greater than
the load has to be applied to balance that rod. Thus, the
mechanical advantage is always less than one. But,
these levers are advantageous because load moves
more for a small motion of the effort.
Figure 15.15 - Fishing rod

Science | Simple Machines 89

 Velocity ratio of a lever
Let us consider the lever device used to high a load up.

B
rm
Y Effort a
Load C

rm
Load a
A X Effort
Figure 15.16

Effort is applied on the point B of this lever. Let the point B travels to point X,
which is the displacement of effort. Sometimes load is lifted from A to Y. Therefore,
A Y is the displacement of load.
Velocity ratio of a machine is the ratio of the displacement of effort to the
displacement of load during the same time.

Displacement of effort
Velocity ratio =
Displacement of load

According to mathematics, same value can be obtained by dividing the length of

effort arm by the length of load arm.
The larger the velocity ratio of a machine the smaller the effort that should be
applied on it.
If BX = 60 cm and AY = 15 cm in the above example,

60 cm
The velocity ratio of that lever =
15 cm
= 4

If a velocity ratio of a machine is 4, then theoretically, the effort that should be

applied to lift a load using that machine is 1/4 th of the load.
But, in practice the effort does not decrease down that much (1/4th of the load). The
reason for this is the friction in the system. Thus the mechanical advantage of a
machine is always less than its velocity ratio.

90 Science | Simple Machines

Work-input and work-output
When we have to get work done from a machine, we have to work on the machine.
Work done on the machine is called work-input. When the work input is given to
the machine, some amount of work is done by the machine also. That is known as
work-output.
Let us consider the lever that we mentioned above.
Let the effort at B is 50 N and the load lifted at A is 150 N.
You already know, how to calculate the work done, when a force is acting along a
certain distance.
Work done is the product of the force applied and the distance that the force travelled.
We can calculate the work done on the lever (work input) as follows.

Work done on the lever (work input) = effort × displacement of effort

= 50 N × 60 cm
60
= 50 N × m
100
= 30 J

We can calculate the work done by the lever (work-output) as follows.

Work done by the lever (work output) = load × displacement of load
= 150 N × 15 cm
15
= 150 N × m
100
= 22.5 J

Here, when 30 J of work is done on the machine, only 22.5 J of work is given out
from the machine.
Therefore, the percentage of the work given out from the machine is for the work-input.
22.5 J
= × 100
30 J
= 75 %
What we calculated here is the efficiency of the machine. It is 75%.

Science | Simple Machines 91

 Work-output
Efficiency of a machine =
Work-input
Load × distance travelled by load
=
Effort × distance travelled by effort
Load distance travelled by load
= ×
Effort distance travelled by effort

We can obtain velocity ratio by dividing the distance travelled by effort to the
distance travelled by load. But, here it says other way around. It is similar to the
reciprocal of velocity ratio.
1
This is;
Velocity ratio

1
Therefore, efficiency = Mechanical advantage ×
Velocity ratio
Efficiency = Mechanical advantage
Velocity ratio

Generally efficiency of a machine is given as a percentage.

Therefore, efficiency = Mechanical advantage

× 100%
Velocity ratio

Following formulas can be used not only for levers but also for other machines.
Load
Mechanical advantage = × 100%
Effort
Distance travelled by effort
Velocity ratio =
Distance travelled by load at the same time
Mechanical advantage
Efficiency = × 100%
Velocity ratio

92 Science | Simple Machines

15.2 Inclined plane
Inclined plane or a ramp can be used to make a job easy. Therefore, inclined plane
is also a simple machine.
We realized earlier, that a force equal to the weight of an object should be applied
to lift it up directly.
But less effort is enough to draw it along an inclined plane.
Let us do activity 15.2 to understand how effort that should be applied to draw an
object along an inclined plane, changes with its inclination.
Activity 15.2
You will need :- A long piece of plank, a Newton spring balance, a block of
wood, few bricks
Method :-
² Construct an inclined plane using several bricks and the piece of plank.
² Fix a loop to one side of the block of wood. Couple the block to the hook of
Newton balance, find the force necessary to move the block of wooden along
the plane.
² Reduce the inclination of the plane by removing one brick and repeat the
above steps.
² Take several readings by reducing the inclination of the plane (by removing
another brick).
² Compare how the effort changes with the inclination of the plane.
You may have realized that the effort decreases with the decrease of the inclination
of the inclined plane and vice-versa. Mechanical advantage increases with the
decrease of effort.
Examples for inclined planes used in day-to-day life

² The wedge
² The staircase
² The screw jack
² The screw nail
² The ladder
Let us consider the
calculations regarding wedge
inclined plane. screw nail

Figure 15.17 - Instance where inclined plane applied

Science | Simple Machines 93

 The weight of a barrel of oil is 600 N. Using an inclined plane of 4 m long, it is
lifted to the deck of lorry, which is 1 m high from the ground. The force exerted to
push the barrel along the plane is 200 N.

i. Mechanical advantage of an Load

=
inclined plane Effort
600 N
=
200 N
= 3

ii. Velocity ratio of an inclined distance travelled by effort

=
plane distance travelled by load
4m
=
1m
= 4

Mechanical advantage
iii. Efficiency of an inclined plane =
Velocity ratio
3
= × 100%
4
= 75%

iv. Work-input = Effort × distance travelled by effort

= 200 N × 4 m
= 800 J

v. Work-output = Load × distance travelled by load

= 600 N × 1 m
= 600 J

94 Science | Simple Machines

Efficiency can be calculated by using work-input and work-output also.
Work output
vi. Efficiency of an inclined plane = × 100%
Work input
600 J
= × 100 %
800 J
= 75%
15.3 Wheel and axle
Wheel and axle is a simple machine which can be used to make a job easy. As wheel
and axle are connected, force applied on the wheel can be transferred to axle to do
the job. Windlass, is such a machine with wheel and axle.
This windlass is made by fixing an L shaped handle to a long cylindrical stem,
which is rested on the stands, so that it can be freely turned (figure 15.18).

Handle

Figure 15.18 - Windlass Figure 15.19

The rope is wound round the stem and a bucket is tied to the other end of the rope.
When the handle of the windlass is turned, the bucket goes down into the mine.
When the handle is turned the other way, bucket comes up with a load filled into
it. When the handle is turned one round, the rope also winds once round the stem.

Wheel
r1 When the handle is turned once, the distance
Axle
travelled by the effort is equal to the
r2 circumference of the circle of the handle turned.
Same time load is lifted by a distance which is
equal to the circumference of the stem.

E - Effort L - Load
Figure 15.20
Science | Simple Machines 95
 Length of the handle equals to the radius of the circle (r1). The diameter of the circle
is 2r1. Then, its circumference is 2r1×π (π = 22
7
).
Therefore, the distance that effort travels for one turn of the handle is 2πr1
If the radius of the cylindrical stem is r2, then its diameter is 2r2.
The distance that the load is lifted for one turn of the handle is 2πr2

Therefore, the velocity

ratio of the wheel and axle š =
Circumference of the circle with one turn of handle
Circumference of the stem
2 πr1
=
2 πr2
r1
=
r2
Velocity ratio of Radius of wheel
=
wheel and axle Radius of axle

Therefore, the velocity ratio of wheel and axle can be calculated by dividing the
radius of wheel by the radius of axle.
Here are some examples for wheel and axle.

The device which is

used to dismantle
Rotating screws in tires
handle

The effort is applied on the handle

Handle

Blade Screw driver

Blade end rotates when the effort

applies on the handle. Force
transmits by the blade.
Figure 15.21 - Use of wheel and axle

96 Science | Simple Machines

15.4 Pulleys

It is mentioned earlier is this lesson, that it is easier to pull a Effort

bucket of water from a well using a pulley rather than pulling

the bucketful of water directly with a rope. Thus you know
that pulley is a simple machine.
Let us do activity 15.3 to compare the force that should be
applied in the two situations above.
Load
Figure 15.22 - Pulley as a
simple machine

Activity 15.3
You will need :- A pulley, a suitable string,
a Newton spring balance, a
piece of stone or a suitable
load
Method :-
² Measure the weight of stone using the
Newton spring balance.
² Now tie the string to the stone and pull it
over the pulley using the Newton spring
balance as shown in the figure 15.23.
Figure 15.23
Note down the reading of the balance.

Compare the weight of the stone and the force necessary to pull it over the pulley.
You will realize that both readings are more or less the same. (There may be a slight
difference due to the friction of the pulley)

When we are lifting something straight upwards, the force should be applied
upwards. However, when we are using a pulley for this purpose, the pulling force
can be turned appropriately. Applying a force downwards is easier than applying it
upwards. Therefore, it is easy to use a single pulley to lift a load.

Science | Simple Machines 97

 Let us solve a simple problem associated with the simple machine, pulley.
The weight of a bucketful of water is 12 N. It is lifted up using a pulley (Assume
that the pulley has no friction.)

Solved problem 1
i. Here, the effort is 12 N, to lift up the load.
Load
Mechanical advantage =
Effort
12 N
=
12 N
= 1

ii. Velocity ratio

When the effort travels same distance, load also travels the same distance.
Therefore, velocity ratio is 1.
iii. Let us see the work-input for the machine.
The work-input for the machine = Effort × distance travelled by effort
Let us take the distance travelled by the effort as 0.8 m.
Then, work-input = 12 N × 0.8 m
= 9.6 J

iv. Let us see the work-output of the machine

Work-output of the pulley = Load × distance travelled by load
= 12 N × 0.8 m
= 9.6 J

v.
Mechanical advantage
The efficiency of the pulley = × 100%
Velocity ratio
1
= × 100%
1
= 100 %

98 Science | Simple Machines

Pulley systems
Stationary
The motion of a pulley used to draw water from a well pulley
is turning round its axis only. Such pulleys are known
as stationary pulleys. Other than these, there are
pulley systems with moving pulleys.
The figure 15.24 shows a pulley system with a stationary
pulley and a moving pulley.
Here the force is exerted upwards by two strings on the
moving pulley. Therefore, one string has to apply only
Moving
a force which is equal to a half of the load. That force pulley
is directed downwards by the string running over the
stationary pulley. Therefore, the mechanical advantage
of this pulley system is 2. This mechanical advantage Load

is gained only because of the moving pulley. The task Figure 15.24
of the stationary pulley is the change of direction of the
force applied.
In any simple machine, velocity ratio increases with the increase of mechanical
advantage. In the above pulley system, when the effort travels down with the string
a certain distance, load travels only a half of that distance. Therefore, its velocity
ratio is 2.
Mechanical advantage of a pulley system can be increased largely by using several
stationary and moving pulleys. Crane is a complete machine that consists of pulley
systems.

Figure 15.25 - Crane

Science | Simple Machines 99

 Complex machines are assembled using several simple machines.
e.g. Bicycle

Brakes
Cog wheels and chain (levers)
(pulley systems)
Wheel
(wheel and axle)

Paddle
(wheel and axle)
Figure 15.26 - Bicycle

Assignment 15.1
Observe and study about various machines (e.g sewing machine) used in daily
activities. Name the simple machines applied in these machines.

Summary
² Machines are used to make the jobs easy.
² A force is applied on the machine which is transmitted to the load to perform
work.
² Force applied on the machine is effort.
² Force applied by the machine is load.
² There are four types of simple machines. such as lever, inclined plane, wheel
and axel and pulley.
² Complex machines are constructed by assembling simple machines.
² For simple machines the following formula can be used:
Load
Mechanical advantage =
Effort
Distance travelled by effort
Velocity ratio =
Distance travelled by load
Mechanical advantage
Efficiency = × 100 %
Velocity ratio
100 Science | Simple Machines
Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. Which one of these is not a function of a machine?
1. Effort is decreased than the load.
2. Change the direction of effort appropriately.
3. Getting a job done by applying a force on the machine
4. More work is obtained by doing less work on the machine.
2. Which one out of the following is not a simple machine?
1. Nut cracker 2. Pulley 3. Wedge 4. Engine of a motor vehicle

3. A lever can lift a load of 48 N by applying an effort of 12 N on it. What is

the mechanical advantage of this lever?
1. 1 2. 2 3. 3 4. 4

4. Which are of the following is an inclined plane?

1. Screw driver, wedge, staircase
2. Screw driver, staircase, crowbar
3. Screw driver, wedge, ladder
4. Staircase, screw driver, forceps

5. Following statements are forwarded by two students during a discussion

on instances where effort is greater than the load.
A - Effort is greater than load when screw jack is used.
B - Effort is grater than load when single pulley is used.
C - Effort is always greater than load when third order lever is used.
What is the correct choice of the following?
Statement A Statement B Statement C
1 Correct Incorrect Correct
2 Incorrect Incorrect Incorrect
3 Incorrect Correct Correct
4 Correct Correct Correct

Science | Simple Machines 101

 (02) Copy into your exercise book and fill in the blanks.
The force exerted on a machine is the (a) …………………………….. and
the force controlled by the machine is the (b) ……………………………..
(03)
1. What are the two ways that a machine makes a job easy?
2. Draw lever diagrams separately to show the effort, load and fulcrum of
the three orders of levers.
3. Mention two instances in day-to-day life where inclined plane is used.

(04) The figure here shows how a piece of plank, kept inclined, is used to lift a
load of 450 N to a height of 1.2 m.
The effort applied is 150 N and the efficiency of the inclined plane is 60%.
i. Find the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane.
ii. Calculate the length of the plane.

1.2 m
iii. Find the velocity ratio.
iv. How much is the work-input?
v. How much is the work-output?
450 N

Technical Terms
Simple machines - ir, hka;% - Gίö£õÔ
Levers - ,Sjr - ö|®¦÷PõÀ
Fulcrum - Orh - ö£õÖv
Load - Ndrh - _ø©
Effort - wdhdih - GzuÚ®
Inclined plane - wdk; ;,h - \õ´uÍ®
Pulleys - lmams - P¨¤
Mechanical advantage - hdka;% jdish - ö£õÔ•øÓ |¯®
Velocity ratio - m%fõ. wkqmd;h - ÷ÁP ÂQu®
Efficiency - ld¾hCIu;dj - vÓß
Work input - m%odk ld¾hh - ö£õÔ «x ö\´¯¨£mh ÷Áø»
Work output - m%;sodk ld¾hh - ö£õÔ°ÚõÀ ö\´¯¨£mh ÷Áø»
Complex machines - ixlS¾K hka;% - ]UP»õÚ ö£õÔ

102 Science | Simple Machines

16 Nanotechnology and
its Applications
Observe well, the figure 16.1 given below.

Figure 16.1 - How a red blood cell is being treated by a micro robot machine

In the above magnified figure, you observed how a human red blood cell is
being treated by a micro robot machine. Machines which are dealing with such
microscopic structures should be extremely small. How can such micro-machines
be constructed? What is the technology used for this?
Science reached another important milestone in year 2016 with the award of
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry to Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart, and
Bernard Feringa, three scientists whose groundbreaking work had spawned the idea
of turning molecules into machines. Molecular Robots are not any more aliens to
science.

Sir J. Fraser Stoddart Jean-Pierre Sauvage Bernard Feringa

Figure 16.2 - The scientists who won Nobel prize in Chemistry in year 2016

Now let us try to understand the science of tiny world which could do such miracles.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 103

16.1 Nanometer
What is ‘NANO’?
The word ‘nano’ is derived from Greek language, with the meaning dwarf.
Therefore, nano refers to something very small. At this magic scale you'd not only
see the atoms that everything is made from—you'd actually be able to move them
around.
How small is ‘NANO’?
It is a tiny world. It is quite hard to imagine a world that is small to see. We live on
a scale of meters and kilometers. Nano means "billionth", so a nanometer is one
billionth of a meter, i.e. 10-9 m.

A two-meter-tall A pinhead size

man is two billion freckle is one million
nanometers tall nanometers across

1 meter = 1 billion nanometers 1 millimeter = 1 million nanometers

How small
is 'Nano' ?

Biological cells, such DNA molecules are about

as these red blood 2.5 nanometers wide
cells, are about 10, 000
nanometers across

1 micrometer = 1, 000 nanometers 1 nanometer

Figure 16.3 - Nano technology refers to inventions on the scale of small molecules or individual atoms

Individual atoms such as hydrogen, are only a few tenths of a nanometer in diameter.

For extra knowledge

Thickness of human hair is about 80 000 nm.
A paper has a thickness of about 100 000 nm.

104 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

16.2 Nanotechnology
Nanoscale science investigates the matter at the critical range on 1 - 100 nm.
Making new things on this incredibly small scale is called nanotechnology and it's
one of the most exciting and fast-moving areas of science and technology today.
Nanotechnology is an enabling technology which has applications in a diverse
areas from biology to aerospace.
History of nanotechnology
Nanoscience and technology are not new concepts to the nature. There are many
natural phenomena based on nanotechnology. However, the American physicist
Richard Feynman (1918–1988) is credited with kick-starting modern interest in
nanotechnology. In 1959, in his after-dinner speech called "There's plenty of room
at the bottom," Feynman speculated about an public speaking incredibly tiny world
where people could use atoms and molecules as tools to make things. In 1974,
Japanese engineering professor Norio Taniguchi named this field "nanotechnology."
Nanotechnology truly took off in the 1980s. That was when nanotech-evangelist
Dr. K. Eric Drexler first published his groundbreaking book “Engines of Creation:
The Coming Era of Nanotechnology”. Nanotechnology could not really took
off until the electron microscopy became popular. It was also the decade when
microscopes that were capable of manipulating atoms and molecules on the
nanoscale were discovered.

Likewise nanotechnology
will, once it gets under way,
depend on the tools we have
then and our ability to use
them, and not on the steps
that got us there. - Eric
Drexler

Figure 16.4 - Richard Feynman

There's plenty of room at the bottom - Richard Feynman Figure 16.5 - Eric Drexler

Natural Nano-concepts
Nature has created things of nano scale. Let us do the activity 16.1 to get an idea of
such things and their functioning.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 105

 Activity 16.1
You will need :- Untorn lotus or alocasia leaf
Method :-
² Put few drops of water on the leaf and observe.
² Record your observations.

Did you see that water droplets

roll on the leaf without sticking
and spreading on it? What can
be the reason for this?
Lotus effect Fig. 16.6 - How water droplets are retained on a
The self cleansing activity of lotus/alocasia leaf
lotus leaves because of the
hydrophobic condition on its surface is known as lotus effect. This hydrophobic
nature on the lotus leaf is due to the fine arrangement of the particles of nano scale.
Because of this, water, dirt and micro-organisms that fall on the leaf are automatically
removed. Lotus effect can be seen on wings of insects like dragon flies.

Figure 16.7 – A water droplet on a lotus leaf (stages of various scales)

Nature made nanomaterials
The best example is the functions taking place inside the cell, which is the structural
and functional unit of living organisms (Remember the size of the cell is not at nano
size). In a cell, a large number of nanoscale biological processes like respiration,
excretion, nutrition, growth and photosynthesis are taking place continuously. Cell
organelles, specially adopted for those biological functions can be considered as
machines of nano scale.
Why ‘Nano’? size matters!
Substances behave differently in the world of atoms and molecules. Both physical
and chemical properties of matter substantially changes when the size reaches
100 nm or below although it is the same bulk material. For example, physical
properties such as optical, mechanical, electrical and magnetic properties, change
at the nano-scale while chemical reactivity significantly changes.
106 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications
e.g.
² Metal copper is transparent on the
nanoscale while gold, demonstrates
a range of colours depending on the
size and shape at the nanoscales.
² Chemically inert gold become highly
reactive at the sizes below 100 nm.
² Carbon can be converted into
resistance free conducting materials
at nano-level.
Figure 16.8 - Various colours are observed in
² Strength of carbon nanomaterials gold nanoparticles when the size of particles are
could be several times higher than below 100 nm
steel.

Surface area of nano particles

The main reason for such changes in physical and chemical properties is the increase
in the surface area (A) to volume (V) ratio (A/V) when the particles size decreases.
As an example let us consider a 1 cm length cube made of silver. The volume of
the cube is 1 cm3 and surface area will be 6 cm2. This 6 cm2 surface area is equal
to the surface area of a stick of gum (chewing gum). But, if that volume of 1 cm3
is filled with cubes of 1 mm length, that surface area of total cubes will be equal
to the surface area of a single page in an exercise book. When the 1 cm3 of volume
is filled with 1 nm sized cubes, total cubes needed, have a surface area which is
about one third of a football court. Nanoscale materials have far large surface areas
than similar masses of large scale materials. As surface area per mass of a material
increase, a greater amount of the material can come into contact with surrounding
materials thus affecting reactivity (Figure 16.9).

Figure 16.9

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 107

How to see the nano-scale?
Your fingers are millions of nanometers long, so it's no good trying to pick up atoms
and molecules and move them around with your bare hands or see them using a
common optical microscope. That would be like trying to eat your dinner with a
fork 300 km long.
Scientists have developed electron microscopes that allow us to "see" things on the
nanoscale and also manipulate them. They are;
• Atomic Force Microscopes (AFMs)
• Scanning Probe Microscopes (SPMs)
• Scanning Tunneling Microscopes (STMs)

Figure 16.10 - Electron Microscope Figure 16.11 - Atomic Force Microscope

Nanomaterials
Key to developments related to
nanotechnology innovations, are based on
the availability of nanomaterials.
Carbon based nanomaterials
Out of the many available nanostructures,
carbon based nanostructures are among the
most exciting of nanomaterials. They can be
rod shape, a foot ball shape or thin sheets. Figure 16.12 - Image of human hair under
electron microscope
Forms of Carbon
Carbon exists as two distinct polymorphs, carbon graphite and carbon diamonds.

Activity 16.2
² Collect the information about carbon, graphite and diamond. Discuss them in
classroom.
108 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications
 Diamond Graphite

Figure 16.13 - Structures of diamond and graphite

Graphene

Graphite has a layered structure and scientists

have attempted to separate a single layer
from the structure for several decades. It was
one of the significant achievement of science
when single layer of graphite was pealed off
by two scientists, Andre Geim and Konstantin
Novoselov from University of Manchester.
They received the Nobel prize for physics in Figure 16.14 - Two scientists, Andre Geim
and Konstantin Novoselov
2011 for this ground breaking innovation. It
was a serendipity event in the history where they needed only a scotch tape and a
piece of graphite for this innovation.

Graphite Graphene

Figure 16.15

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 109

Graphene is a single layer thick graphite sheet ( 0.5 nm thickness) and has unique
properties due to high surface area (figure 16.15). It is highly flexible while
demonstrating very high mechanical properties. It also shows unexpected electronic
and electrical properties. It is considered as the material that has the potential for
revolutionizing the next generation flexible electronics.
SWCNT MWCNT
Carbon Nanotube
A nanotube is formed when a single layer or
few layers of graphene is rolled into a tube.
When a single layer is rolled it is known as
Single Wall Carbon Nano Tube (SWCNT)
while few layers rolling into a tube leads
to formation of Multi Wall Carbon Nano
Tube (MWCNT).
Figure 16.16 - Single layer or multi layer
nanotubes

For extra knowledge

One of the worlds best graphite deposits is found in Bogala and Kahatagaha, Sri
Lanka. Sri Lanka exports large tonnage of graphite without any further value
addition at a very cheaper price. The price of graphene is $ 100 per gram while
the price of carbon nanotube varies from $ 25 -100 in the global market.

Fullerene
One of the other forms of nano carbon is
fullerene. Fullerene is a molecule which
consists of about 60 carbon atoms arranged
in a shape of a football. Its diameter is about
1 nm.

Let us engage in activity 16.4 to make a model

of fullerene.

Figure 16.17 - Fullerene

110 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

 Activity 16.4
You will need :- Bristol board,
glue, a pair of
scissors D
C

Method :-
² Take a photocopy of the C
D
picture in figure 16.18.
Paste it on a bristol board
and cut the block.
² Join the letters together
A-A, B-B, C-C and D-D,
using glue on the foil-out A B

tabs.
² You wiil end up having a
ring and 2 caps.
² Stick the five flaps of each B A
cap onto the 5 hexagon
edges of the ring.
² Repeat on the other side. Figure 16.18

Large pores Adsorped Medium pores

Active carbon with pores of nanoscale particles
Micro pores
Active carbon is processed using charcoal,
coconut shell coal, coal, peat etc. as raw
materials. The specialty of active carbon is,
the presence of nanoscale pores. These pores
of nanoscale in active carbon provide a large
surface area. One gram of active carbon has a
surface area in excess of 3 000 m2. The pores
Figure 16.19 - Presence of nanoscale
in active carbon has high adsorption capacity. pores in active carbon

Due to these high adsorption capacity, it is used to purify water. Nanotechnology

is applied in various fields such as medicine, agriculture, electronics, polymers,
cosmetics, food and textile.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 111

16.3 Applications of nanotechnology
According to the researches carried out for a long time, there are expected as well
as unexpected uses of nanotechnology. Nanotechnology has contributed towards
a revolutionary development in the fields of security, communication, energy,
food, medicine, transportation, agriculture, textile, polymers, cosmetics, electronic
science etc. Few of them are described below.

Field of medicine
² Diagnostic tools are considered
by using nanotechnology. Thus
the therapeutic efficiency can be
increased. Nanotechnology is being
used to diagnose and treat ailments
like atherosclerosis. One way of
doing this is the introduction of nano
particles which are similar to HDL, Figure 16.20 - Nanorobots with diagnostic and
a type of favourable cholesterol, therapeutic ability used to treat ailments
to remove lipid deposits in blood
vessels.
² Clinical methods to treat directly to cancer cells, without damaging healthy
tissues, is being developed using nanotechnology.
² Treatment to replenish bone tissues and nerve tissues are being developed using
nanotechnology.
² Nanotechnology is used to inject drugs without using injection needles and also
to introduce common vaccines for frequent diseases like common cold.
² Nanoparticles are introduced to skin ointments which are used to protect skin
from harmful solar radiation, to increase their quality.
² Nanotechnology is used to detect the amount of sugar and cholesterol in blood.

Field of transport
² Very light and fuel economic motor vehicles, air crafts, boats and space crafts
can be manufactured using nanotechnology.
² Nanotechnology is used in the industry of motor vehicles. Items like heavy duty
rechargeable batteries, heat controllable electronic devices, wear-resistant tires,
thin solar panels and very efficient and cheap sensors are some vehicle parts
manufactured using nanotechnology.

112 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

Figure 16.21 - Motor vehicle with nanobattery in body Figure 16.22 - Nanotechnology used in air filters
panels in motor vehicles

Power generation
² Cellulose in saw dust, corn stem and grass can be converted to ethanol, which
can be used as a fuel, with the help of enzymes produced by nanotechnology.

² Resistance and tension can be minimized

by using wire codes which are made of
carbon nanotubes to transmit electricity.
² Nanotechnology is used to manufacture
efficient and inexpensive solar panels.
Future solar panels may be flexible and
are printable (paintable) like papers.
² Very thin solar panels can be made using
nanotechnology to stick on computer
Figure 16.23 - Flexible solar panel
covers and cloths. They can generate
electricity using light, friction and body heat.

Electronic science
² Minute and speedy transistors in computers can be manufactured using
nanotechnology. The size of an ordinary transistor is 130 nm – 250 nm. This
size decreased down to 14 nm by 2014 and further decreased to 7 nm by 2015.
² Flexible, foldable, windable, stretchable and washable electronic components
which are powered by solar energy can be made using nanotechnology.
Therefore, it is possible to manufacture very thin, light, unbreakable, durable
and smart electronic equipment.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 113

² Nanotechnology is used to manufacture memory chips, audio equipment,
keyboards with antibacterial covers and mobile phone covers.

Flexible smart phone Mobile phone covers Memory chips

Figure 16.24

Producing consumer goods

² Eye spectacles, computer and television screen, door and window glasses made
of nanotechnology are resistant to ultraviolet and infrared radiations. They do
not retain water or micro-organisms and have the ability of auto cleaning.
² Nanopolymers are used to manufacture very light, hard and durable sports
items, head gear, bicycles, vehicle spare parts and weapons.
² Household items like high quality detergents and bleaching agents, air filters,
water filters, antiseptics, stain and dirt resistant paints can be manufactured
using nanotechnology.
² Wearing off and cracking of machine parts can be minimized and life time of
them can be considerably increased by using nanostructured ceramic coatings
and lubricants made using nanotechnology.
² Textiles and cloths which are resistant to dust, dirt and oil particles are
manufactured.
² Nanotechnology can be used in water purification plants to purify water
economically and efficiently. Very thin filter membranes are used for this
purpose.
² Air filters with pores of nanoscale are used to filter dust and micro-organisms in
places like cockpits of air planes.
² Products like aluminum, steel, tar, concrete and cement which are durable,
flexible and have a fine finish are manufactured using nanotechnology.

114 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

 A surface with nanoplating Piece of glass with Keyboards with antibacterial
nanotechnology covers
Figure 16.25

Assignment 16.1
Collect information on nanotechnology using books, media and internet. Present
the information, thus collected, creatively as a booklet.

16.4 Future condition that may arise because of

nanotechnology
As in any technical application, nanotechnology also may have adverse effects.
These ill-effects may increase with the progress and usage of nanotechnology.
Some such effects are mentioned below.
² Air, water and soil can be polluted by releasing particles of nanoscale, which are
used in nanotechnology, to the environment. This is known as nano pollution.
² Health problems can arise because of the collection of nanoparticles in human
and animal bodies.
² Calamitous situations in
the society may increase
because of the abundance
of nanoscale equipment.
² Severe disasters can
occur because of the
Figure 16.26 - Imaginary nano armaments
production of chemical
and biological armaments of nanoscale.
Various precautionary measures can be suggested to minimize the ill effects of
nanotechnology.
² Release of nanoscale air pollutants with effluent smoke can be filtered using
nanofilters.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 115

² Natural pollutants like arsenic can be removed from the environment by using
nanoscale particles.
² Unfavourable gases can be removed by using nanosensors which are sensitive
to those gases.
² Judicial security can be provided by imposing new legislations to prevent ill
uses of nanotechnology.

Further information on nanotechnology

and applications can be obtained from
Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology.
The address of this institute is
Mahenwatta, Pitipana, Homagama.
Telephone – 011 4 650 500
Figure 16.27 - Sri Lanka Institute of
Nanotechnology

Summary
² One billionth of a meter is the nanometer (nm).
² Manufacturing of materials and components using particles of nanoscale and
their usage in known as nanotechnology.
² The best natural nanosystem is the cell, which is the structural and functional
unit of organisms.
² The self cleansing ability of lotus leaves because of the hydrophobic condition
on its surface is known as lotus effect.
² Non-wettable clothes, self-cleansing glass, self-cleansing paints are some
items produced using lotus effect.
² High standard productions are made in nanotechnology by positioning atoms
appropriately.
² Nanotechnology has contributed to a revolutionary development in various
fields.
² Misuse of nanotechnology can results in adverse effects.

116 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. A nanometer is considered as;

1. 10-3 m 2. 10-6 m 3. 10-9 m 4. 10-12 m

2. What are the instances below, that lotus effect is in action?

a - Water does not retain on lotus leaves.
b - Water does not retain on insect wings.
c - Dirt does not retain on surfaces painted with self cleaning paints.

1. a only 2. a and b only

3. a and c only 4. a, b and c all

3. The particles that are used in nanotechnology are;

1. The particles of 1 nm scale.

2. The particles of 1 nm to 10 nm scale.
3. The particles of 1 nm to 100 nm scale.
4. The particles of 1 nm to 1000 nm scale.

4. Who put forward the idea of nanotechnology to the world?

1. Eric Dexler 2. Albert Einstein

3. Francis Bacon 4. Richard Faynman

5. Which of the following, is not considered as a measure to be taken to minimize

the ill-effects caused by nanotechnology?

1. Limiting the use of nanotechnology.

2. Minimizing the spreading of nanoparticles using nanofilters
3. Acting against production of nano armaments
4. Testing the amount of nanoparticles in air using nanosensors.

Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications 117

 (02) Fill in the blanks.

1. Nanometer is .......................... of a meter.

2. What is the term used to describe the auto cleansing ability caused by the
presence of hydrophobic nature on a lotus leaf ? ..........................
3. Mention two fields where nanotechnology is used ..........................
4. Name two products in day-to-day life that are made using nanotechnology.
..........................
5. Mention two obstacles that come across, when a country is to use
nanotechnology ..........................
(03) Outbreak of nanotechnology is considered as the fifth industrial
revolution. This technology is not fully used up to date.
1. Identify what nanotechnology is.
2. Who introduced nanotechnology to the world?
3. Name two natural nanosystems found in the environment.
4. Describe lotus effect.
5. Name two products made, using lotus effect.
6. What is the element mainly used for nanotechnology activities?

Technical Terms
Nanometer - kefkdaógrh - |÷Úõ «ØÓº
Nanotechnology - kefkda ;dlaIKh - |÷Úõ öuõÈÀ~m£®
Nanoparticle - kefkda wxY= - |÷Úõ xoUøPPÒ
Lotus effect - f,dagia wdprKh - ÷»õmhì ÂøÍÄ
Activated carbon - il%Sh ldnka - öuõÈØ£k® Põ£ß
Fullerene - *q,Íka - ¦ÍŸß

Graphene - .%e*Ska - Qµ¥ß

118 Science | Nanotechnology and its Applications

17 Lightning Accidents

Recall what you have learnt about the accidents caused by lightning in grade 7. Pay
your attention to the newspaper headlines on loss of lives and property caused by
bolts of lightning.

Female elephant and the baby

elephants caught in lightning
Central Anurdhapura
Specialist, Gamini jayasinghe
A female elephant with
her three baby elephants
were suspected to be
dead with lightning. The
dead bodies were found
in Mahawilachchiya police
area to
2016.04.09 - Daily News Page 04.

Lankadeepa 10.03.2005 Page 2 Island 29.04.2005 Page 4

Heard a burst with a big sound.

Rupavahini
My son Wipula was found dead near the doorway. Transmission stucked
due to lightning at
Death of a 12 year old student in Piduruthalaggala.
Thissamaharamaya mother witness.
28th of Wednesday, April 2005 Page 4
Lankadeepa 17.10.2003 page 9 A loss of Rs. 20 lakhs to Rupavahini
Lightning came along the trip switch.

Fig. 17.1 - Some newspaper reports on accidents caused by lightning

Lightning causes loss of human, animal and plant life. Only a small part of the
accidents brought about by lightning are reported by mass media.
Lightning claims loss of lives and property not only in Sri Lanka but also in other
countries.
In United States of America, it is reported that 100 deaths and nearly 500 get injured
within one year by lightning accidents. It has been observed that many lives were
lost due to negligence of the precautions for preventing lightning accidents.
Therefore, it is important to have an understanding about lightning.
There are seasons in which the lightning accidents are more frequent. To investigate
into it do the assignment 17.1.
Science | Lightning Accidents 119
 Assignment 17.1
Collect information regarding lightning and thunder occurred in this year.
Note down the months in which the lightning activity is highest.

According to the above newspaper reports (figure 17.1), it

has been observed that the lightning activity is at its peak
in the months of March-April and October-November.
Meteorologists call those two periods inter-monsoons.
In these inter-monsoon periods the temperature of the
atmosphere close to the Earth is high. Blowing of wind
is low. This increases the amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere. This water vapour rises up and also gets cooled
forming clouds. Cumulonimbus is the type of cloud that
contributes most to lightning. Generally, these are located
Figure 17.2 -
at a height of about 15 000 m from the ground level. Cumulonimbus cloud

Assignment 17.2
Observe continuously the changes taking place in a cumulonimbus cloud formed
in the afternoon during the inter-monsoonal period and Observe the following.
y General increase in height
y Flattening of the top
y Getting darker from the bottom to top.

17.1 How lightning occurs

Clouds contain crystals of snow and tiny droplets of
water. Insides the clouds, wind blows fast from the
bottom to the top. This makes crystals and water droplets
rub each other. Because of this rubbing electrostatic
charges are formed in the crystals and water droplets.
Recall what you have learnt about the electrostatic
charges in grade 7. There are two types of electrostatic
charges as positive and negative. It has been discovered
that in a cumulonimbus cloud positive charges
Figure 17.3 - How charges are
accumulate in the upper region whereas negative distributed in a cumulonimbus
charges get collected in the lower region. cloud
120 Science | Lightning Accidents
The air in a cloud is an insulator. Hence electrical charges do not flow easily through
air. Therefore, a large amount of electrical charges accumulate in the upper and
lower regions of a cloud. When, very large amounts of charges are developed like
this, a moment will arise where electricity can flow even through air. Then a jump
of electrical charges or an electric discharge occurs. This phenomenon is known as
lightning.
Types of lightning
Depending on the sites between which the charges jump, lightnings are classified
into three types.
y Cloud to cloud lightning
y Cloud to air lightning
y Cloud to ground lightning
Photographs illustrating the above three types of clouds are given below.

Cloud to cloud lightning Cloud to air lightning Cloud to ground lightning

Figure 17.4

A jump of charges either between two regions of a

charged cloud or between two clouds with different
charges is referred to as a cloud to cloud lightning.
Sometimes a discharge of charges accumulated in
a cloud occurs to surrounding air. It is a cloud to
air lightning.
The most dangerous type is the cloud to ground
lightning. Let us find out how it occurs.
When a charged cloud positions itself above a
certain point on the Earth, positive charges are
induced on the ground due to the influence of the
negative charged accumulated in the lower part
of the cloud. When the amounts of charges in the
cloud and on Earth increase, at a certain moment
Figure17.5 - Induction of positive negative charges from the cloud, jump to Earth.
charges on ground due to negative
charges in the cloud This is called a cloud to ground lightning.
Science | Lightning Accidents 121
 Lightning and thunder
The voltage of a cloud to ground lightning is about 10 million volts. In such a
lightning a current of nearly 25 000 amperes flows. The voltage of an LED lamp
used in houses is 230 volts while the current flowing through it is less than even 0.1
amperes. Hence, you will be able to understand how high is the voltage and current
of a lightning.
When such a large current flows through air in a very short time (about
10 milliseconds), air is heated up to a very high temperature. This temperature is
about 30 000 0C. It is five times the temperature of the sun's surface.
Due to the high air temperature, around the lightning current expands instantaneously
(same thing happens when a cracker explodes). When air expands at once like this,
first a wave is generated followed by a sound wave. The result of the sound wave
is the thunder.
In lightning, both light and sound are born simultaneously. But, light is seen first
and sound is heard afterwards. The reason for this is that the speed of light is very
high whereas the speed of sound is much less than the speed of light. Since the
speed of light is very high, light travel from the place where lightning occurs to us
is negligibly small. Sound takes more time to reach us. That is why sound reaches
us later.

For extra knowledge

The speed of light is 300 000 000 m s-1 (3x108 m s-1) and the speed of sound is
330 m s-1.
During a lightning, if time is measured from the moment of observing light to the
moment at which the sound is heard, the distance to the point at which the lightning
occurred can be calculated approximately.

For extra knowledge

As the speed of sound is 330 m s-1, it takes about three seconds to travel a
distance of 1km (1000 m). So, if the time between the observation of light and
hearing of sound (in seconds) is divided by three, we get the distance to the
point of lightning in kilometers.
e.g. Let us assume that the sound was heard 12 seconds after the
lightning. Then, the distance to the place of lightning is 12/3 = 4 km.

Let us do the activity 17.2 to produce an electric spark (a teacher demonstration).

122 Science | Lightning Accidents

 Activity 17.2
² Produce an electric spark using the induction coil
available in the laboratory.
² Observe the production of light and sound while
doing it.
² If an induction coil is not available in the school, a
spark plug in a motorcycle can be removed from the Figure 17.6 - Producing
engine and the way a spark is sparks by the induction coil

produced in it can be observed.

Caution
Here, the participation of the teacher or
an adult is essential.
Figure 17.7 - Sparking in a
spark plug

In the above activity you would have observed an electric spark. You could have
also observed the production of light and sound. The length of that spark is only a
few millimetres or centimetres. But, the length of the spark produced in a lightning
bolt would be several kilometers. Accordingly, you may understand that the thunder
accompanying is also intense.

How lightnings get earthed

There are four ways by which lightnings get earthed harming humans and animals
and damaging buildings.
y Direct strikes
y Side flashes
y Contact voltages
y Step potentials

Direct strikes
A strike of a lightning on a solitary man, tree or a building
standing on a flat land is known as a direct strike.
If a human is struck by a direct lightning, it would
seriously affect the person because the lightning current
flows to the Earth through his/her body.
Figure 17.8 - A direct strike

Science | Lightning Accidents 123

 Side flashes
A bolt of lightning hitting a tall building or a free passes into
the Earth through it and during its passage may side-step from
it and get earthed through the body of a man standing near by.
The reason for this is that the flow of the lightning current
through a human body is easier than its flow through a building
or a tree.
Figure 17.9 - Side flashes
Contact voltages
Being struck by a lightning at a time of its production because
of touching domestic electrical appliances or using cellular
phones is known as a contact voltage.
Besides, a person in contact with a tree at a time of the
occurrence of a lightning may also fall
Figure 17.10 - A contact
prey to it when it hits the tree. This is
voltage also a contact voltage.
Step potentials
When a lightning strikes a building, a tree or the ground the
lightning current spreads in every direction from that place.
Suppose a person or an animal is standing within such a spread
area. The lightning current that enter the body of that man or Figure 17.11 – Step
the animal from one leg will pass through the other leg. This potential

phenomenon is called step potential.

The longer the distance between the two feet, the higher is the potential difference
and hence the intensity of the current too. That is the reason why it is safer to keep
the two feet closer at a time of lightning.
An ox is hurt more than a human by a step potential. This is because the distance
between the fore limb and hind limb of an ox is greater than that between the two
feet of a human. This increases the potential difference and hence the current flow
through the body of the ox. Consequently the damage caused is also greater.
According to the newspaper reports shown to you at the beginning of this lesson,
it would be clear to you that a lot of damage is caused on human, animals and
property by lightning. Though a systematic calculation has not been carried out,
the loss of property due to lightning per year in Sri Lanka may amount to billions
of rupees.
Therefore, measures should be taken to minimize the losses caused by lightning.
124 Science | Lightning Accidents
17.2 Prevention of lightning accidents
Some precautions that can be taken to prevent accidents Point
caused by lightning are given below.
² Fixing lightning conductors for tall buildings and
maintaining them properly.
² Installing earth wires properly in domestic electrical
circuits Broad
² Disconnecting all electrical appliances from the copper
strip
circuit and keeping them away from sockets in
situations in which lightning is likely
² Disconnecting television antennas from the
television set and keeping them outside the house Earth connector
when there is likelihood of lightning.
² Identifying safe sites in advance when planning Figure 17.12 - A lightning
outdoor activities. conductor

Ensuring safety from lightning accidents

Following precautions can be taken to minimize the accidents caused by lightning.

For extra knowledge

The lightning conductor was invented by
Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin

² Not staying in open areas such as playgrounds, tea plantations and paddy
fields
² Refraining from using equipment such as mamaty and crowbars
² If it is required to stay in an open area keeping feet closer and being in
squatting position
² Wearing dry shoes or standing on insulator materials
² Not staying on trees or high lands
² Keeping away from the foliage if it is required to stay near a tree
² Staying away from flag posts, wire meshes, wire fences etc.
² Staying seated or reclined lessening the height above the ground
² Being seated if it is required to stay in an open boat
² Limiting the use of landline phones as much as possible
² Refraining from using electric irons, refrigerators, electric ovens etc.
A fully-enclosed vehicle is very safe place to be in, when lightning occurs. Be
sure not to touch interior metallic parts in the vehicle.
Lightning victims do not carry an electrical charge and are safe to handle.
Science | Lightning Accidents 125
 Figure 17.13 - Not staying in an open areas when Figure 17.14 - Avoid the use of landline
lightning phones when lightning

First aid for a person struck by lightning

² If the limbs are benumbed bring them back to normally by massaging
² If respiration has stopped, give artificial respirations
² If the heart beat has stopped, massage the heart
It is very important to have a practice in artificial respiration and heart
massaging. It is useful for you in day to day life.
² Take the patient to the hospital as soon as possible. Give first aid while taking
the patient to the hospital

Summary
² Lightning is a natural disaster affecting Sri Lanka. It causes loss of human
lives, animal lives and property.
² Lightning occurs mainly due to the accumulation of electrostatic charges in
cumulonimbus clouds.
² When the clouds heavily laden with electric charges they get discharged.
² Lightnings are classified according to the way of discharge.
² Cloud of ground lightnings are the most harmful. They are further classified
according to how they get earthed.
² In a lightning bolt, flow of a high current occurs instantaneously due to the
high potential difference created between the clouds and the Earth.
² Thunder is the result of sudden expansion of air due to intense heat generated
in an electric discharge.
² In a lightning through both light and thunder are produced simultaneously,
an observer at a distance sees light first and hears the sound afterwards.
² The damage caused by lightning can be minimized by suitable precautions
and following safety measures in the occasions of lightning.
126 Science | Lightning Accidents
Exercises
(01) State whether the following statements are true (√) or false (×).
i. Exact predictions cannot be made about the lightning strikes. ( )
ii. Only water vapour can be seen in clouds. ( )
iii. It is not suitable to be on a tall tree in an occasion where there is
a risk of lightning. ( )
iv. Even a person inside a house can be hurt by a lightning. ( )
v. In a lightning bolt, both light and sound are produced at the same ( )
time.
(02) Match the pairs correctly.
i. Direct strike a. Hurting a person staying near a building when a
lightning hits that building
ii. Contact voltage b. A man standing under a tree being struck by part of
a lightning that hits the tree
iii. Side flash c. A lightning hitting a person staying alone in a flat
land
iv. Step potential d. A lightning hitting a man leaning against a tree or a
person using a cellular phone

(03) Fill in the blanks of the sentences given using the following words.
(cloud to air, cloud to ground, cloud to cloud, large, greater)
i. A ……………………….. lightning comes from a cloud to Earth.
ii.……………………….. lightnings are produced between clouds.
iii.
The lightnings occurring between clouds and air are…………………..
iv.The temperature of a lightning is ……………………….. than the
temperature of the sun's surface.
v. A ……………………….. amount of heat is generated by a lightning.

(04) Match the following sentences with the blank spaces A,B,C and D in
the concept map given as approximate.
i. Air gets heated up and expands suddenly ( )
ii. Charges jump within a cloud, between cloud or from a cloud to ( )
ground.
iii. Electrical charges accumulate in a cloud. ( )
iv. Air with water vapour moving up gets cooled to form clouds. ( )
Science | Lightning Accidents 127
 Air with water vapour rises up

The cloud takes the shape of an anvil

Rain

Lightnings

Thunder Electric discharge

Turns first into shock waves and

then into sound waves B

Turns into an electric current with large

C amount of accumulation of charges

Air around the lightning current is

strongly heated up D

Technical Terms
Discharge - úi¾ckh - ªßÛÓUP®
Lightning - wl=K - ªßÚÀ
Thunder - .s.=reu - Ci•ÇUP®
Inter monsoon - wka;¾ fudaiï - £¸ÁU PõØÖ Põ»¨£Sv
Cumulo nimbus clouds - leá jeys j,dl=¿ - vµÒ •QÀ
Snow crystals - ysu iaMál - £Û¨ £Î[SPÒ
Static electric charges - iaÓ;s úoHq;a wdfrdaamK - {ø» ªß÷ÚØÓ[PÒ
Cloud to cloud lightning - j,d wl=Kq - •QÀ ªßÚÀ
Cloud to ground lightning - mDÓú wl=Kq - ¦Â ªßÚÀ
Cloud to air lightning - jd - wl=Kq - £i•øÓ ªßÚÀ
Induction coil - fm%arK o`.rh - yshØ _¸Ò
Lightning rod - wl=Kq ikakdhlh - ªßÚØ Phzv
Direct strike - Rcq wl=Kq - ÷|µiz uõUS
Side flash - md¾Yaúl wl=Kq - £UP¨ £õ´a\À
Step potential - mshjr wl=Kq - £i•øÓ AÊzu®
Contact voltage - iam¾Yl wl=Kq - öuõkøP ÷ÁõÀØÓÍÄ
Shock wave - lïmk ;rx. - AvºÁø»

128 Science | Lightning Accidents

18 Natural Disasters

The losses brought about on humans, animals and property by a natural process
without the interference of man is named a natural disaster.
There is a number of natural disasters affecting Sri Lanka. Of them, here we study
about the below mentioned natural disasters.
² Cyclones
² Earthquakes
² Tsunami
² Wild fires

18.1 Cyclones
When the pressure of the air at a certain place in the atmosphere closer to the Earth's
surface drops below the pressure around that place, a low pressure area is created.
If this low pressure situation develop further, it becomes a depression. If situation
develops further it gives rise to a cyclone.

Figure 18.1 (a) – Satellite picture showing the Figure 18.1 (b) – Movement of air during a
movements of clouds during a cyclone cyclone

Factors that cause cyclones

² Existence of a large oceanic area and its temperature being above 27 0C to a
depth of 60 m.
² Occurrence of convection current in the atmosphere
² Minimal tendency of the horizontally blowing wind to sweep vertically

Science | Natural Disasters 129

 ² Location of the point at which the depression is closer to the equator. (cyclones
are not formed on the equator)
² Increasing humidity of the atmosphere beginning from surface of the ocean
to higher atmospheric levels (higher than 60%).
As cyclones are born on meeting the above conditions, they are restricted only to
some oceanic regions on the Earth.

For extra knowledge

Types of cyclones
” The cyclones formed in the North and South Asian oceans are known as
tropical cyclones.
” The cyclones generated in the Northern Pacific Ocean are called as typhoons.
” Cyclones produced in the North Atlantic Ocean are termed as hurricanes.

Structure of a cyclone
In addition to the circulation,
air rises up in the central part
of the whirl of the cyclone. Dense cirr
us ov
erca
This upward movement of air st
gives rise to a cylindrical cloud
Eye
wall. The central part of the
Eye wall
whirlwind is called as the eye.
It would have spread within a
region of 30 - 60 km from the Rainbands
centre of the whirl. This eye is Figure 18.2 – Cross sectional structure of a cyclone

a region with little wind and

free of rain and clouds. In satellite photographs this appears as a black circle.
The cylindrically arranged cluster of clouds around the eye is known as the eye
wall. In this region heavy rains and fast blowing winds occur. Due to the eye wall,
a few spiral bounds of clouds can be seen. In these regions too, heavy and speedy
winds occur.
Cyclone is the main mechanism that distributes the huge solar energy received by
the regions close to the equator of the globe. Cyclones originating time to time in
Indian, Pacific and Atlantic oceans provide the factors essential for the life of plants
and animals on the Earth. Though in nature, cyclones is a favourable phenomenon
like this, today more attention is focused on the disasters brought about by it.

130 Science | Natural Disasters

 An experience of a cyclone
The date was 26th December 2000. It was a sunny day for Trincomalee
town. The residents of the town were involved in their daily routing as
usual. Although the weather forecasts of that day had informed that a
cyclone would occur, some seemed not to be concerned about it.
At about eight o'clock a black cloud appeared from the sea side. Before
half an hour passed, a fast blowing wind swept across the town. At the
same time it started to rain heavily. Roofs of buildings flew away with
the wind. Trees were uprooted. Electricity was cut off. Residents of the
town ran to safer places.
After some time rain stopped and the wind also subsided. Some people
came out from the safe places. But, again a strong wind started to blow
in the opposite direction as earlier. Rain started again. Buildings which
were not destroyed by the wind which blew first were devastated by
this second.
Given below are numerical data about the losses caused by the cyclone
described above.
² Number of families hit - 170 419
² Number of houses fully damaged - 57 273
² Number of houses partly damaged - 20 860
² Amount of cultivated land destroyed - 20 810 acres
² Number of deaths - 17
² Loss caused to the national economy - Rs. 1500 million

Now let us compare the above experiences with the action of a cyclone. Within the
cyclone winds, the whirl is very fast and that whirl moves in a certain direction with
a certain speed.
After a strong blowing of wind from one direction, comes a state of tranquility.
That is when the eye of the cyclone passes through that point. When the other part
of the whirl passes that point, a speedy wind, as was the one blew first, blows in the
opposite direction.

Science | Natural Disasters 131

 Table 18.1 - Information about some cyclones that affected Sri Lanka in the past 50 years

Year Date Area from which the cyclone Number of deaths

entered Sri Lanka
1964 22 December Trincomalee More than 1000
1978 22 November Batticaloa 915
1992 12 November Pottuvil 04
2000 26 December Trincomalee 17
2008 25 November Eastern coast 15
2016 15 May Eastern coast 101

According to the above table, what are the months in which most of the cyclones
affected to Sri Lanka had occurred? From which areas had cyclones entered to
Sri Lanka most?
It may be clear to you that most of the cyclones that defected Sri Lanka had occurred
in November and December and they had entered Sri Lanka from the Eastern coast.
In 1978, the death toll due to cyclones was 915. However, since warnings could be
given because of the development of technology, the number of deaths could be
reduced in subsequent cyclones.

For extra knowledge

Most of the storms affecting Sri Lanka are born in the Bay of Bengal.

Let us do the activity 18.1 to demonstrate the movement of air during cyclones,
using water.

Activity 18.1
You will need :- Two identical transparent plastic bottles, water, gum tape
small pieces of paper or colourant
Method :-
y Take two identical, transparent plastic bottles.
y Fill about 3/4 of one of them with water. Colour the water or put some
pieces of paper into water.
y Place the mouth of the empty bottle on the mouth of the bottle containing
water and connect those two tightly with gum tape.
y Now rotate the apparatus slowly in anticlockwise.

132 Science | Natural Disasters

You will be able to understand how air
moves during a cyclone by the movement
of water in the bottle placed on top.
During the past century, 13 cyclones have
entered to Sri Lanka from the Eastern coast
of the country. Among those cyclones, three
were very powerful cyclones.

Figure 18.3

Figure 18.5 - A cyclone

Figure 18.4 - Paths of cyclones which entered
Sri Lanka from 1901 to 2000

Assignment 18.1
Study the above map and prepare a list of districts in Sri Lanka which are prone
to cyclones.

Using high technology, the Department of Meteorology keeps vigilance over

the cyclones around 24 hours. In occasions of a probable cyclonic situation
to Sri Lanka, the latest information about it are communicated to the relevant
government institutions. The telephone number of the Department of Meteorology
is 011 2 686 686.

Science | Natural Disasters 133

18.2 Earthquakes
An earthquake is a jolt or shoulder like movement of the Earth's surface. Less
violent earthquakes are known as tremors.
Earthquakes and Earth tremors are caused by releasing of the energy stored in
the Earth's crust.
Earthquakes bring heavy damages to man-made creations on Earth.

Figure 18.6 – Photographs of the same area before and after the Earthquake

In order to understand how earthquakes are happening, we need to know about the
structure of the Earth. The figure 18.7 shows the internal structure of the Earth.

The Earth is composed of three main structures.

Crust
Upper mantle

Lower mantle

Outer core 1. Crust 2. Mantle 3. Core

Inner
core Upper Lower Outer Inner
mantle mantle core core

Evidences support the fact that the crust, the

topmost layer of the Earth is composed of a
Figure 18.7 – Internal structure number of tectonic plates which move relative to
of the Earth one another. The Earth's crust consists of a few
large tectonic plates. They can be identified by
the following map (figure 18.8).

134 Science | Natural Disasters

 North American
Eurasian Eurasian
Plate
Plate Plate

Arabian
Plate
Philippine Cocos Indian
Caribbean
Plate Equator Plate Plate
Plate

Nazca African
Australian Plate South Plate
Plate American
Plate
Australian
Plate

Antarctic
Plate

Figure 18.8 – The map of tectonic plates

The tectonic plates which form the Earth's crust move relative to one another. By
the activity 18.2 you can understand how this happens.

Activity 18.2
You will need :- Plate or a shallow basin, water, colourant, piece of styrofoam
Method :-
y Pour water into a plate or a shallow basin. Add some colour to water.
y Cut a polystyrene sheet into pieces and float them on water.

Figure 18.9 – Pieces of styrofoam floating on water

y Now shake the container gently.

y Observe the way the piece of polystyrene move.

Science | Natural Disasters 135

The movement of the pieces of polystyrene corresponds to the way the tectonic
plates move on semi-solid magma in the upper part of the mantle.

How tectonic plates move

It has been identified that there are three ways of movement of tectonic plates
relative to one another at the boundaries.
• Divergent border
• Convergent border
• Slip border
Divergent border
At this border, the two tectonic plates move away from each other.

Figure 18.10 – Illustration of a divergent border Figure 18.11 – Mid Atlantic Ridge

At divergent borders, magma in the upper mantle rises up between the two tectonic
plates and therefore a new crust is created. Most of such tectonic plate borders are
located in the oceanic floor.
e.g. Mid Atlantic ridge
Convergent border
At this border, two tectonic plates collide and one plate moves underneath the other.
Volcanoes erupt in the regions in which these movements occur.
e.g. Saint Helen's mount (Figure 18.13)
St. Helen's
mountain peak
North
Juan de American
Fuca Plate Plate

Increase of
magma

Figure 18.12 – Illustration of a convergent border Figure 18.13 – St. Helen's mount

136 Science | Natural Disasters

Slip border
At this border, the two tectonic plates move away from each other while being in
contact.
Sometimes, the tectonic plates cram into each other during the movements. Violent
earthquakes may happen when lot of energy is collected during such movements.
e.g. Saint Andrea's fault (Figure 18.15)

Figure 18.14 – A slip border Figure 18.15 – Saint Andrea's fault

By the activity 18.3, you may have an understanding about how the tectonic plates
move on the Earth's crust.

Activity 18.3
You will need :- A boiled egg
Method :-
y To Demonstrate the Earths' crust and the movements of
tectonic plates,
y Tap a boiled egg on the table and make several cracks on it.
y The shell of the egg corresponds to the Earth's crust and the
egg white underneath it, corresponds to the upper mantle.
Figure 18.16
y Colour the boundaries of the cracks using a marker. Take
the egg onto the palm and squeeze it gently, so that the edges move back and
forth.

When squeezed, it can be seen that at some pints of the cracks the pieces of shells
move apart. Those points correspond to divergent borders. At some other places it
appears that some pieces come closer. Such places illustrate convergent borders.
In some other places it appears that the pieces of the shell move forward and
backward relatively. Those places correspond to slip borders.

Science | Natural Disasters 137

 For extra knowledge
Compared to the Earth, the thickness of the crust is 2% of its diameter. Compared
to the diameter of an average egg, the thickness of the shell is also 2% of it.

Intensity of earthquakes
At the points at which the tectonic plates have colloid impact, the layers of rocks
bend. When the force exerted to bend them exceeds the yield point of the rocks, the
rocky layers break. This point of breakage is the focus of the earthquakes. The point
on Earth above the focus is the epicenter.
Epicenter

Surface waves Surface waves

Body waves Body waves

Focus
Figure 18.17 – Focus and epicenter of an earthquake
Seismic waves spread in all directions from the focus of an earthquake. These
waves convey energy along the surface of the Earth and also through the interior
of the Earth.
The strength of these seismic waves can be measured by the seismometers installed
at various places of the Earth. The apparatus which automatically records the
information related to seismic waves is called the seismograph.

Figure 18.18 – A Seismograph and its records (Seismograms)

The scale that is calculated on the basis of the information recorded by the
seismograph and the damage inflicted to buildings, ground and humans is called
the Richter scale.
This scale has been introduced by Charles F. Richter in 1953.
138 Science | Natural Disasters
Table 18.3 gives a short description of the intensities of earthquakes and their results
as against the Richter scales values.
Table 18.3 - Intensities of earthquakes and their results
Richter scale value Result
2.0 - 3.5 Not felt by human but is recorded in the seismograph
3.5 - 5.5 Felt by everybody
5.5 - 7.3 Buildings may be destroyed
7.4 - 8.0 A big damage may be caused
above 8.0 Can cause a complete destructtion

Worlds' regions prone to earthquakes

Study well the map (figure 18.19) indicating the regions where strong earthquakes
occurred in the world.

Eurasian Plate Eurasian Plate

North American Plate

Ring of fire Ar
Pl abia
ate n

Cocos
Plate South
Nazca American
Plate Plate African Plate
Indo-Australian
Plate
Pacific Plate

Antarctic Plate

Figure 18.19 – Map indicating the regions subject to strong earthquakes

From the above map, it may be clear to you that earthquakes have occurred mostly
in the borderland regions. Of them, too most of the earthquakes have broken out in
the region called 'Pacific Ring of Fire'. From the map it can be seen that, this region
is the border of the very large Pacific tectonic plate.

Science | Natural Disasters 139

 For extra knowledge
Table 18.4 shows the information on strong earthquakes that took place during the
past few years. Table 18.4
Region/Country of
Value on the Richter scale Date occurrence Number of deaths
6.4 2004.02.24 Morocco 631
9.1 2004.12.26 Sumatra 250 000
6.4 2005.02.22 Iran 612
8.6 2005.03.28 Sumatra 1 313
7.6 2005.10.08 Pakistan 87 000
6.3 2006.05.26 Java Islands 5 782
8.0 2007.08.15 Peru 519
7.9 2008.05.12 China 69 197
6.3 2009.04.06 Italy 308
8.1 2009.09.29 Samoa Islands 189
7.6 2009.09.30 Sumatra 1 115
7.0 2010.01.12 Haiti Islands 160 000
8.8 2010.02.27 Chile 1 525
6.9 2010.04.13 China 698
7.7 2010.10.25 Indonesia 408
6.1 2011.02.21 New Zealand 185
7.9 2011.03.11 Japan 18 184
6.9 2011.03.24 Myanmar 150
6.9 2011.09.18 India-Nepal border 111
6.4 2012.08.11 Iran 306
6.6 2013.04.20 China 193
7.1 2013.10.15 Philippine 222
6.2 2014.08.03 China 617
7.8 2015.04.25 Nepal 9 018
7.3 2015.05.12 Nepal 218
7.5 2015.10.26 Afghanistan 398
7.8 2016.04.16 Ecuador 673
6.2 2016.08.24 Italy 297
6.4 2016.02.05 Taiwan 117
Study the above table and find out the following information.
1. How many earthquakes have occurred during past 13 years which above 7.4
in Richter scale?
2. What are the countries in which, those earthquakes occurred?
3. What is the country in which, the highest number of earthquakes have occurred?
140 Science | Natural Disasters
 Assignment 18.2
Find the tectonic plate borders of above countries based on the location and
prepare a table. Seek assistance of the Geography teacher if required.
e.g. Sumatra Islands are located on the border between Indo-Australian
plate and Eurasian plate

Human activities that would cause earthquakes

Recently, scientists have observed that, in addition to natural causes, some activities
of human could also be the reasons for earthquakes.
y Testing nuclear weapons underneath Earth
y Drilling Earth to great depths to mine oil and minerals
y Erecting dams and constructing large water reservoirs
y Constructing very large buildings of great heights and weights

18.3 Tsunami
On the 26th December 2004 we had to face the most ruinous natural disaster which
affected Sri Lanka in recent times. It was the tsunami disaster. A part of a newspaper
article published 12 years after the incident is given in the figure 18.20.
26th of Friday, December 2016

12 years for Tsunami

'Tsunami' train stops at Paraliya for 5 minutes for the
commemoration of 2004 Tsunami.

Figure 18.20
In this disaster, 250 000 people died in countries bordering the Indian Ocean. In
Sri Lanka about 40 000 were died. The way that tsunami was formed, has been
explained by geologists as follows.
That day at 6.58 a.m. in Sri Lankan time, an earthquake of Richter scale value 9.1
occurred in the sea bed near Sumatra Island of Indonesia. The process taking place
at a convergent border occurred there. Indian tectonic plate moved underneath the
Burmese tectonic plate. Owing to the upward moment of the Burmese tectonic
plate and the vast amount of energy released by the earthquake, the oceanic water
Science | Natural Disasters 141
raised up. The tsunami wave created by it was spreaded throughout the Indian ocean
at a speed greater than 800 kilometers per hour.
Bangladesh

India
Myanmar (Burma)

Bay of
Bengal Thailand

Sri Lanka

Maldives Malaysia

Indian Ocean Sumatra

Indonesia
Figure 18.21 –The way of tsunami wave spread in 2004

Let us do the activity 18.4 to demonstrate an event of tsunami.

Activity 18.4
You will need :- A rectangular basin, air filled
balloons with different sizes, a pin
Method :-
² Pour water about 2/3 the volume of a rectangular
basin.
Figure 18.22
² Sink an air-filled balloon at a narrow end of it
and burst it by piercing with a pin.
² Observe the waves formed in water.
² Burst small, medium and large balloons like this and observe if there is any
difference in waves created.
Incidents causing tsunami
² Earthquakes occurring in the oceanic bed
² Volcanic eruptions in the ocean floor
² Earth slips in the ocean floor
² Falling of a large meteorite to sea
Of the above, the greatest ruin would be caused by the fall of a gigantic meteorite
to the sea. Such a devastation may also be caused by the collision of an asteroid
with the Earth.

142 Science | Natural Disasters

Table 18.5 shows information regarding tsunami occurred during the past 20 years.
Table 18.5 - Tsunami occurred during the past 20 years
Date Region/Country in which the Strength (height of waves)
tsunami occurred
1994.06.03 Indonesia 5 m
1998.07.17 Papua New Guinea 10.5 m
2004.12.26 Sumatra Islands 50 m
2006.07.17 Java Islands 21 m
2006.11.15 Kuril Islands 2 m
2007.04.02 Solomon Islands 12 m
2009.09.29 Samoa Islands 14 m
2010.02.27 Chile, Argentina 2 m
2010.10.25 Sumatra Islands 3 m
2011.03.11 Japan 2 m
2013.02.06 Solomon Islands 1 m
2014.04.02 Chile 2 m
2015.09.16 Chile 4 m
2016.11.13 New Zealand 2 m

Study the above table and answer the following questions.

1. According to this table, name the country that was hit by the highest number of
tsunami disasters.
2. What are the countries that were subjected to tsunami disasters twice?
3. What was the date that the tsunami with highest height occurred?
4. What are the effects caused by the tsunami mentioned in question number 3 to
Sri Lanka?

Assignment 18.3
Find the margins of crustal plates where the above countries are located and
prepare a table. Get the assistance of the Geography teacher if required.
e.g. Chile is situated at the boundaries of Nazca plate and the South
American plate

Nature of a tsunami wave

Tsunami waves are a type of water waves. Figure 18.23 illustrates the characteristics
of a normal water wave.

Science | Natural Disasters 143

 Crest Wavelength Crest

Amplitude
Trough Trough
Figure 18.23 – Characteristics of a normal water wave
A water wave comprises of an alternate series of crests and troughs. The distance
between two successive crests or troughs is called the wavelength. The depth from
the mid point of a wave to its crest is known as the amplitude.
Figure 18.24 shows how the wavelength, amplitude and the speed of tsunami waves
change from deep sea to shallow sea.

Figure 18.24 – How wave length, and speed of the tsunami waves change when they
move from deep sea to shallow sea
The affect of the move which occur in sea surface depend on the depth of water
column. In the deep sea, the speed of tsunami waves is high. Their wavelength is
also high. But, the amplitude or the height of the waves is low. Therefore, tsunami
waves cannot be identified in deep sea. Further the ships streaming in deep sea are
not damaged by the tsunami waves.
In the shallow sea, the speed of tsunami waves decreases. Their wavelength also
decreases. But, the amplitude or the height of the waves increases. Hence the boats
near the coast are damaged by the tsunami waves.
In tsunami waves, the trough first approaches the shore. Then the sea is drawn
backwards. This is a forwarding of an imminent tsunami.

144 Science | Natural Disasters

Coral reefs and mangroves retard the speed of tsunami waves. Therefore, the coral
reefs and mangroves should be protected live without causing damage to them.
Since there is a possibility of tsunami following an earthquake, people should be
vigilant about them. Investigations must be made about the sites which have been
already damaged by tsunami and the people living in such areas should be made
aware about them.

18.4 Wild fires

Wild fires have occurred out in jungles from the distant past. When a forest is
dry, wild fires may erupt due to natural reasons such as lightning or setting fire
deliberately or by mistake.

Figure 18.25 – A wild fire

There are three factors that should be met for a fire to break out.
² Availability of a combustible substance
² Availability of a supporter of combustion or oxygen
² Heating the combustible substance to the ignition temperature
Several factors are affecting the spread of wild fires.
² Existence of dry plant leaves or tree stems as the combustible materials
² Prevalence of a high temperature
² Low humidity (water vapour content) in air
² Profuse supply of oxygen to the fire due to blowing wind
² Slopy land that helps upward spread of the fire

Science | Natural Disasters 145

A wild fire is a terrifying scene. In a wild fire, a very tall column of fire moves
forward very fast. The smoke produced in this, rises to a height of thousands of
meters in the atmosphere. More and more fires also would break out because fire
flames are carried through air to distant places from the fire.
Plants and animals have been damaged due to wild fires. Organisms are adversely
affected even by the smoke produced by wild fires. It has been reported that
respiratory difficulties and even deaths have occurred in certain instances. In
Sri Lanka approximately 4 000 acres of land has been destroyed in 2016 owing to
wild fires.

18.5 The relationship between

increase in global warming and natural disasters
During the past 100 years, the average temperature of the world has been increased.
This condition is known as global warming. The graph in figure 18.26 shows how
the average temperature changed from 1860 to 2000 in the world.
Average Global Temperature (0C)

Year
Figure 18.26 – The change of average temperature from 1860 to 2000 in the world

From the above graph it is clear that the average temperature of the world has
increased during this period. Scientists indicate that a main reason for this increase
in temperature is the greenhouse effect.
Generally, during day time the Earth gets heated up by sun rays. During night, heat
is lost to space, so the Earth gets cooled. But, since the carbon dioxide gas and
water vapour in the atmosphere absorb and retain a part of the heat released from
the Earth, they help to keep the Earth warm. This is called the greenhouse effect.
This effect creates favourable environment for the living beings on the Earth.

146 Science | Natural Disasters

However, because of the increase in the
concentration of greenhouse gases such
as carbon dioxide, methane, Nitrogen
dioxide sulfur dioxide, the temperature
of the Earth is gradually increasing. In
addition to the gases mentioned above,
ozone and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC)
also contribute to the greenhouse effect.

Figure 18.27 - Green house effect

The ways by which greenhouse
gases are added to the environment
² Release of carbon dioxide by volcanic eruptions, thermal power plants and
combustion of fuels in vehicles
² Release of methane from heaps of garbage, marshes etc.
² Release of CFC from refrigerators, air conditioners etc.
Global warming and cyclones
The graph in figure 18.28 indicates the change in the number of the incidence of
cyclones in the world from 1850 to 2015.
Number of times cyclones occured

Year
Figure 18.28 – Incidence of cyclones from 1850 to 2015

The above graph brings to light the fact that, the number of the events of cyclones
in the world has gradually increased during this period.
Science | Natural Disasters 147
Figure 18.29 is a histogram which depicts how the number of natural disasters
changed during the period 1980-2010.

Number of disastrous events

1,000
Geophysical events (earthquakes,
800 tsunami, volcanic activities)
Meteorological events (cyclones)
600

400
Hydrological events (floods, earth slips)
200

Climatological events (extreme

0
temperatures, droughts, wildfires)
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Figure 18.29 - Histogram which depicts the number of natural disasters during 1980-2010

The chart indicates that the number of natural disasters has gradually increased
during this period.
From the above information it is clear that, there is a relationship between the
increase in global warming and the increase in the number of natural disasters.

For extra knowledge

² During the period from 2000 to 2009, natural disasters have occurred three
times more than the number of those occurred from 1980 to 1989.
² Globally, the number of natural disasters reported in 1970 was 78, whereas
the number of those reported in 2004 was 348.
² During the period from 1980 to 2009, the number of natural disasters
related to weather has increased by 80%.

What we can do to prevent the increase in global warming

² Forestation and conservation of forests
² Usage of public transport instead of private transport
² Consumption of more plant food and obtaining them from areas close to the
residence
² Economizing electricity - using energy saving electrical appliances
² Reducing the amount of materials consumed daily
² Living a simple life style without using more materials
² Raising the awareness of others about the above facts

148 Science | Natural Disasters

 Summary
² The damage caused by natural disasters can be minimized by keeping
vigilant over one's environment, use of standard safety methods and
maintaining connection with media of communication.
² Because of the development of depressions in the atmosphere, cyclones
and storms are created.
² Lot of damages to property and loss of lives have been brought about by
cyclones from time to time in Sri Lanka.
² Earthquakes would be resulted when the crustal plates of the Earth move
relative to one another.
² Tsunami is mainly caused by the lifting of oceanic water due to the
earthquakes in the sea bed.
² Earthquakes and tsunami mainly occur in the regions associating with the
borders of Earths' tectonic plates.
² In other countries wildfires break out due to natural causes. In Sri Lanka,
the wildfires are occurred mostly due to human activities.
² It is considered that, the number of natural disasters increased due to the
increase in global warming.

Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. Which ocean associated with the earthquakes and tsunami that occur mostly?

1' Atlantic 2' Pacific

3' Indian 4' Arctic

2. The factor /factors causing a tsunami is/are,

1' Earthquakes 2' Volcanic eruptions

3' Fall of meteorites 4' Above all

Science | Natural Disasters 149

 3. Which option indicates the tectonic plate movements shown in the following
figures respectively.

1' Convergent, divergent, slip border

2' Divergent, convergent, slip border
3' Slip border, convergent, divergent
4' Slip border, divergent, convergent
(02) Mark whether the following statements are true (√) or false (×).
1' Mangroves near the sea shore reduces the speed of tsunami waves. ( )
2' Greenhouse effect has an influence on the rise of sea level. ( )
3' In deep sea, the height of tsunami waves is about thousand meters. ( )
4' Cyclones occur on the equator. ( )
5' The direction of spin of the cyclones occurring in the Northern ( )
hemisphere is anticlockwise.
(03) Insert the words/phrases given below into the rectangular boxes of the
following concept map as appropriate

is
att by
en ed
tiv s
ea cau
bo
ut are
by
sed
cau
are countries Tsunami are
highly affected by are cau
sed by
y are
edb ca
us
roy ed
est by
is d

Words/phrases
Volcanic eruptions, coastal environment, earthquakes, earthslips under sea, fall
of meteorites, Chile, Indonesia, Japan, Geology and Mines Bureau

150 Science | Natural Disasters

(04) Two identical ships A and B were sailing in the sea. When ship A was
sailing in deep sea and ship B was sailing in shallow sea, only one ship was
damaged by an earthquake erupted in a distant place of the sea bed.
1' What is the phenomenon resulted by the earthquake which caused the
ship damage?
2' Which ship, A or B got damaged ?
3' Explain the reason why the ship you mentioned above got damaged while
the other was not.

Technical Terms
Cyclones - iq<s iq<x - `ÓõÁÎ
Earthquakes - N+ñlïmd - ¦Â¯vºÄ
Tsunami - iqkdñ - _Úõª
Wild fire - ,eõ.sks - Põmkz w
Depression - mSvk wjmd;h - A•UP CÓUP®
Storm surge - jdiq<s W;ai¾ckh - _ÇÀ PõØÖ
Crust - lfnd, - ¦Â÷¯õk
Mantle - m%djrKh - ö©ß‰i
Core - yrh - APo
Tectonic plates - N+;eá - ¦Âzumk
Convergent border - wNsirK ;eá udhsu - J¸[S® GÀø»
Divergent border - wmirK ;eá udhsu - ›²® GÀø»
Slip border - ;S¾hla ;eá udhsu - ÁÊUS® GÀø»
Seismometer - N+lïmk udkh - ¦Â¯vºÄ©õÛ
Seismograph - N+lïmk f¾Lh - ¦Â¯vºÄ Áøµ°
Asteroid - .%ylh - G›PØPÒ
Wave length - ;rx. wdhduh - Aø»}Í®
Amplitude - úia;drh - Ãa\®
Focus - kdNsh - S¯®
Epicentre - wmsflakaøh - ÷©ßø©¯®
Seismic Waves - N+lïmk ;rx. - ¦Â¯vºÄ Aø»PÒ

Science | Natural Disasters 151

19 Sustainable Use of
Natural Resources
Name several things that you can see in your classroom. Find out and tabulate the
basic things that used to make them. Compare the table you made with the table
19.1.
Table 19.1
Things in the Basic things used to make them
classroom
Wall Bricks, cement, lime
Table and chairs Timber, iron
Pens Plastic, metal, ink
Pencils Wood, graphite
Books Paper
Bags Cloth, metal, plastic
Water bottles Glass, plastic

Find out about the natural substances that were based to make the things in the
classroom. Tabulate your findings and compare your table with Table 19.2 given
below.
Table 19.2
Substance Natural substances based to
make them
Bricks Clay, water
Lime Limestone
Cement Limestone, clay, gypsum
Timber (Wood) Plants
Iron Iron ore
Plastic Petroleum (mineral oils)
Paper Plant fibre
Cloths Plant material, petroleum
Glass Silica sand (minerals)

Study well, the things given in the second column of the table 19.2. Those are
known as natural resources.

152 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources

Natural resources are the substances generated naturally, without the influence of
human activities.
There are some basic natural resources.
² Water
² Minerals and rocks
² Plants
² Timber
The conservation of water for the future generation while we are using water today
is known as sustainable utilization of water.
Now let us find out about these resources in detail.

19.1 Water
Man cannot live without air more than few
minutes. Further, he cannot survive without
water more than a week. Thus, the second
most important resource on the Earth is
water.

The base of life on the Earth is water. When

finding life on other planets, scientists find
whether there is water on them. The reason
for this is that the life we know is based on
water.

Figure 19.1 – Some uses of water

Assignment 19.1
Make a list of some other uses of water, that can be added to the above diagram
and present it creatively.

How water is used sustainably in the past

The natural way that the Earth’s surface gets water is the rain. If rain water is not
properly used, it flow through rivers and streams upto the sea. It was the slogan
of great king 'Parakramabhahu', that “Even a single drop of water should not be
allowed to flow into sea without being used by man or animals”.
A water tank can be introduced as a great creation of our ancient ancestors, used for
conservation and sustainable use of water.
Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 153
 Out spill

ll
wa
River d
ea

H
Wewa

Tank bund
Sluice

Ralapanawa
(Break water) Canal

Bisokotuwa

Figure 19.2 (a) - 'Parakrama samudraya' Figure 19.2 (b) - Important parts of a tank

A reservoir or a water body that is constructed by building a dam across a river or

a stream is known as a 'wewa'.
There are evidences to prove that Sri Lanka had a unique irrigation technology,
uncomparable to any other country in the world. Even now we have more than
12 000 large and small 'wewa' and embankments that irrigate the farmlands of our
country.

Assignment 19.2
Find the special terms used for the components related to 'wewa' and make a
report.
If there is no air pollution, the purest water that we can receive, is the rain water.
Now in Sri Lanka, as well as in some other countries, rain water is collected to be
used.

Figure 19.3 (a) - Collecting rain water Figure 19.3 (b) – Using collected rain water

Rain water collection in domestic level is very important for the people in small
islands like maldive islands, where there are no natural reservoirs.

154 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources

 Activity 19.1
Create a model to collect rain water, draining from the roof into a tank. Use the
Figure 19.3(a) for this.

In dry zone, for the economical use of water

in agriculture, clay pots filled with water are
buried near the plants.
Try this method in your home garden also.
Scientist forecast that pure water will not be
available for the people in the world in near
future if recycling and reuse of water is not
put into practice.
Figure 19.4 – Economical use of water in
agriculture

Assignment 19.3
Construct a poster or make a booklet including the steps that can be followed to
use tap water in an economical way.

Now let us study about minerals and rocks which can be considered as another
natural resource.

19.2 Minerals and rocks

A mineral is an inorganic solid substance with a definite chemical composition
having a crystalline shape. Minerals occur naturally in our environment.

Figure 19.5(a) – A crystal of gem Figure 19.5(b) – A giant crystal of quartz

Some useful minerals found in Sri Lanka are graphite, quartz, ilmenite, rutile,
zircon, feldspar, apatite and silica sand.

Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 155

 A rock is a collection of minerals
e.g. Gneiss, Granite
Some rocks are made of a single mineral.
e.g. Limestone, Quartz
The map in figure 19.6 shows the locations of largely found minerals resources of
Sri Lanka.

Kankasanthurai
Gem bearing areas
Jaffna
Ampan
Graphite deposits
Chavakachcheri
Main graphite mines
Sedimentary limestones

Crystal limestones
Mullaitivu
Limestones/ 'Hirigal'
Oddusuddan
Mankulam Kaolin
Mannar Clay (to produce roofing tiles)
Pulmude
Murunkan Clay (to produce cement)
Vavuniya
Silica sand
Kebithigollewa
Point of Trincomalee
Ilmenite
Kudiramale China Harbor
Rutile Monazite
Anuradhapura Seruvila Rutile
Ralmadu
Iron ore deposits (magnetite)
Eppawala
Iron ore deposits (limonite)
Thabbowa
Puttalam
Polonnaruwa
Apatite

Dambulla Copper

Elahara Batticaloa
Adigama Thalagoda
Bangadeniya
Chilaw Kahatagaha Mine Dodamgas landa
Panirendawa Kolongaha Mines Rattota
Kurunegala
Naththandiya MataleKaikawala
Maravila
Pallekele
Vilagedara Kandy Thalathuoya Ampara
Negombo Pasyala Deltota Mailapitiya Mahiyanganaya
Bogala Mine
Karamatiya Bibile
Gampaha
Muthurajawela Thirukkovil
Kelaniya Mathurata
Avissawella Badulla
Colombo
Boralesgamuwa Pussella Hatton Alupola Monaragala
Haldummulla
Eheliyagoda Pinnawala
Balangoda Okkampitiya
Ratnapura
Dela Kahawatta
Kalutara Ekarella
Kalawana
Beruwala Rakwana Thanamalvila Minihagalkanda

Deniyaya
Hiniduma
Dikgoda
Ambalangoda
meetiyagoda
Pallerota
Hambantota
Walpita
Galle
Matara

Figure 19.6 – The map which display the location of minerals in Sri Lanka
Source - The National Map Collection of Sri Lanka, School Edition, Survey Department

156 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources

 Assignment 19.4
Study the map carefully. Name 10 sources of minerals and rocks found in Sri
Lanka. Mention the places where each of those resources are found. State an
industry where each of those resources are used.

For extra knowledge

There are about 5 300 minerals identified in the world up to date. Number of
minerals registered in the International Union for Minerals is about 5 070.

Sri Lanka exports most of its mineral resources not as end products, but as raw
materials. Therefore, we get only the raw material value of those minerals, though
our country is rich in minerals.
Now let us study about gems which are very important among the minerals found
in Sri Lanka.

19.2.1 Gems

Gems are a sort of mineral crystals which are used in

making jewellery after cutting and polishing.
Gem industry in Sri Lanka has a history of more than
2 500 years. There are more than 200 kinds of gems
identified in the world. It is amazing to mention
that, more than 70 types out of them are found in
our small island.
Blue Sapphire is named as the national gem of Sri Figure 19.7 - Blue Sapphire
Lanka.

Assignment 19.5
Make a list of the kinds of gems found in Sri Lanka.

Sri Lanka is the only country that export high quality large blue sapphire with
natural colour to the world market.

Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 157

 Gem mining
Gems are formed in the Earth, attached to large rocks. As the rocks in the mountains
get eroded, gems detach from them. Those gems then carried away with rain water
and are buried in plains of down hill. The deposit of gems and other pieces of rocks
is known as the vein of 'illama'.
First a proposed place for gems is selected and the mine, which is like a pit is dug.
When the vein or 'illama' is found, horizontal tunnels are excavated. Mixture of
substances collected from the vein is taken out of the mine and is sifted to separate
gems.

Figure 19.8(a) – A gem mine Figure 19.8(b) – Sifting of gems using a sifting pan

Activity 19.2
Demonstration of gem sifting method
Method :-
Get a milk strainer woven of bamboo peels as a small substitute for a gem sifting
pan. Using it, sift a mixture of soil, sand and small pieces of pebbles, to separate
the pebble from the rest (even a separating pan made of clay can be used for this).

Characteristics of gems
Some important characteristics of gems are mentioned below.
² Hardness
² Resistance to be worn out
² Colour
² High refractive index
An unerasable streak can be drawn on a sheet of glass using a piece of quartz. The
reason for this is that the hardness of quartz is higher than that of glass. Mohr’s Scale
is prepared to compare the hardness of minerals. Hardness index 10 is assigned
for diamond, which is the hardest mineral. Hardness index 01 is assigned for talc,
which is the least hard mineral.
158 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources
 Table 19.3 - Mohr’s Hardness Scale
Hardness index Substance
01 Talc
02 Gypsum
03 Calcite
04 Fluorite
05 Apatite
06 Feldspar
07 Quartz
08 Topaz
09 Corundum
10 Diamond
Study the Table 19.3 and answer the following questions.
1. Hardness index of finger nail is 2.2. Name two minerals that can streak a finger
nail.
2. Hardness index of a pile is 6.5. Name three minerals that cannot be streaked by
a pile.
Gems like blue sapphire, Ruby, Topaz and yellow sapphire found in Sri Lanka
belong to the Corundum family.
Gems do not ware out because of their hardness. Gems are used as bearings in
mechanical watches because of their resistance to be worn out.

Figure 19.9 – Gems used in a mechanical watch Figure 19.10 – Gems of various colours

Gems found in Earth are of various colours. Gems acquire their characteristic colour
because of the trace impurities trapped in them, while they are forming in the Earth.
Colour is a main factor that increase where an impurity caused to increase the value
of a material. Hence, this is rare instance, where the value of a material increases
when mix impurities.

Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 159

 Refractive index of gems is used to identify them scientifically.
When a light ray enters from one transparent medium to another transparent
medium, its pathway changes at the interface. Refractive index is a measurement
of that change. Refractive indices of some transparent substances are given in the
table 19.4.
Table 19.4 – Refractive indices of some substances
Substance Refractive index
Water 1.3
Glass 1.5
Topaz 1.6
Blue sapphire 1.7
Diamond 2.4
Because of high refractive index of gems, light rays are reflected repeatedly when
they are entered through the cut and polished gems. This gives a shine to the gem.

For extra knowledge

Gems with special characteristics

Alexandrite Cat's eye Star sapphire

Emit green colour in When this gem is cut in When this gem is cut in a
natural light and red a special pattern, it looks special pattern, six lines
colour in artificial light. like a cat’s eye in light. of light are visible in it.
Though gems are beautiful and attractive, various problems have raised because of
gem industry.

Problems associated with gem industry

² Soil erosion because of irregular mining.
² Mud deposition and water pollution in streams and water bodies, which are
used for gem sifting.
² Sudden depression of land and land slides occur due to over mining in some
areas.
² Extinction of fauna and forest cover depletion due to mining in forest areas.
160 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources
² Reduction of crop production as most of gem mining is done in paddy fields.
² Collapsing of river banks due to mining near river banks.
² Spreading of some diseases like dengue, because of the breeding of mosquitoes
in abandoned gem pits.
² Decreasing of the population of certain trees like coconut, rubber and bamboo
because of their usage in gem mines to avoid collapsing of fits and tunnels.
² Existence of social discrimination between the owners and the workers of gem
mines, because of the difference of their income level.
² Absence of a permanent way of income for the labourers as gem mining industry
is not done uniformly through out the year.
² Deterioration of educational status of relevant area due to the attraction of
youngsters to gem industry.
National Gems and Jewellery Authority has taken certain measures to solve some
of the above problems associated with gem industry. When issuing permits for gem
mining, a cash deposit has to be made. If gem pits are abandoned without filling
government utilize the money deposited to fill the abandoned gem pits.

19.3 Trees
Cre P
ate
Voluntary contribution of school children

ro
Pro

vid
vid

sc
Provid e

e (M
en
ef f
is taken for replanting those areas. oo
ue

ic b
d

edicines)
l

t a s w i
eauty

t m se O 2 a l r a in
Ac n d P
ba r
Plants as a natural resource from cradle to e h
vid abita
rri
e o
v

her to
ro i
rs

e
n
P
ea soon
ts

o sp in
grave, man extensively uses plants. Some Pro vide raw
f
d
n
i o n t ai
r m ain
or

ma g
for c
an

services rendered by plants to man and

te m

loth to

ir
Provide s
te

ima

el a
h

na
e lp
ria s

phyt vari
environment are shown in figure 19.11.
e
He in Rthe
ls
ls

oc o l li
he s t e
lev
u

e
m r O2
ic a
Study figure 19.11 well and answer the
s c e C
ls Redu
S
u t
following questions. p i
p m
1. Mention five material benefits l b
y e
r
provided to man by plants which Redu
il
are shown in the figure.
ce l
so
Preve

a nd s
g of R
e lides
n
ryi d

2. Mention five non-material benefits

n

td u
t i o n ero s i o

en c
ev e
Pr

shown here. f
l
o

3. Write three benefits provided to man

o
d
i
n

n
g

by plants, which are not mentioned

Figure 19.11 - Some services rendered by plants
in the figure.
Some services given in figure 19.11 are provided by all plants.
e.g. Release oxygen to the atmosphere, removal of carbon dioxide from air
Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 161
 There are specific plants for certain activities or services. Information on such
plants are given in table 19.5.
Table 19.5
Supply food paddy, wheat, corn, pulses, yams, fruits, vegetables
tea, coffee, ‘Polpala’/‘Thengapookeerai’,
Provide drinks
‘Ranawara’/‘Ponnawarasu’, wood apple
Supply fuel coconut, rubber, Gliricidia
For scenic beauty Flowers and other horticultural plants
‘Aralu’/‘Kadukkai’, ‘Bulu’, ‘Nelli’/'Nellikkai',
For medicine
‘Katuvelbatu’, ‘Venival’/‘Maramanjal’, margosa etc.
‘Kekuna’/‘Pakkili pal’, pinus, ‘Gammalu’/‘Thanakku’,
Chemicals
agarwood (Vallapatta)
Raw materials for clothes cotton, jute, malberry
To manufacture paper paddy, pinus
coriander, curry seed, turmeric, ‘Goraka’/‘Koraka puli’,
Supply spices
cumin seed
Beauty cultural substances turmeric, 'Cocum', sandle wood, Aloe

Assignment 19.6
Display common names and scientific names of plants/trees grown in school
garden, in a suitable manner. Do not harm trees when labelling them.

19.3.1 Timber
The oldest building material is timber. Timber is the only building material that is
recyclable and renewable. Some special characteristics of timber are as follows.
y Durability
y Resistance to heat, electricity and sound
y Ability of creating attractive patterns due to the streak and the colour
Ancient times, Sri Lanka was famous for valuable timber. Timber like ebony,
satin wood and calamander wood which were in the dry zone of our country, were
extensively used by colonial rulers to manufacture furniture. Now such types of
timber are very rare in the country.
Therefore, the existing amount of timber should be used with maximum efficiency.
Selection of timber, according to the durability, which is needed for different uses
of timber, will lead to a sustainable utilization of timber that brings economical
advantage.

162 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources

Diversity of timber in Sri Lanka is very high. We have more than 400 kinds of
plants in our country, that can be used for timber.

Assignment 19.7
Take leaves of plants in your area that can be used for timber. Insert the leaves
between two pages of paper to press. Make a booklet using pressed leaves
(make sure not to harm the plants when taking leaves).

For extra knowledge

State Timber Corporation has more than 250 samples of Sri Lankan timber.

Satin wood 'Nedun'/ 'Colon'/ 'Kumbuk'/ Mango

'Samandalei' 'Mansal kadampu' 'Marudha'

Activity 19.3
Study of various types of timber
Method :-
y Collect samples of various types of timber.
y Note down their colour.
y Test whether they have any odour.
y Find out the uses of those types of timber.
y Find out whether there is any specific use of any of those types of timber.
y Present your findings attractively.

Specific use of some types of timber

Each types of timber is used for specific purpose according to its properties. Some
examples are given below.
y Jak timber is used for front doors of houses because of its strength, durability
and shine.
y Persian lilac ('Lunumidella') timber is used for ceilings because it is very
light.
y 'Panakka' timber is used for making umbrellas because the stem of panakka is
thin and strait.
y Ancient times pegs made of agar wood ('Vallapatta') timber are used to split
granite rocks.
y 'Hora' timber is used for underwater structures because it last long under water.

Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 163

 y 'Rukattana'/'Elilaippalai' timber is used to carve masks because of the
lightness and workability.
y 'Paaramara' timber is suitable to make the frame of “rabana” because of its
lightness and sonorousness.
y Alexandrian lawrel ('Domba') timber is resistant to vibrations, bending and
twisting. Therefore it is used for masts of yachts, neck-pole of bullocks carts
and yoke pole of ploughs.

For extra knowledge

Wooden bridge of Bogoda
This bridge is located at Hali-Ela in Badulla district. Even though it is about 400
years old, still it is in use.

Wooden bridge of Bogoda

Jak and 'Kumbuk' timber were used to construct this bridge. Wooden nails were
used to connect its beams. Ebony and 'Milla'/'Kattamanakku' timber were used
for its wood carvings.

Assignment 19.8
Prepare a collection of information about plants used for specific purpose. Get the
assistance of the elders of your area for this task.

Decaying of timber
Fungi can grow inside the timber. Timber is decayed because of the degradation of
complex carbohydrates which timber are made of due to the activity of enzymes
secreted by those fungi.
Fungi can retain inactively, even for many years inside timber. They grow when
favourable conditions are available. Such favourable conditions are the presence
of oxygen, moisture and nutrients. Out of those, the most important factor is the
moisture. Though other factors are available, fungi do not grow in the absence of
moisture.
Food is stored in some cells of tissues of timber. Timber can be destroyed by termites
and weevils who come in search of food.
164 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources
Figure 19.12 (a) – Fungi that Figure 19.12 (b) – Weevil that Figure 19.12 (c) – Termites that make
grow on timber bores timber (enlarged) timber decay

Prevention from timber being decayed

Long lasting types of timber were abundant in ancient Sri Lanka. Therefore, timber
preservation methods are not necessary.
With the increase of human
population and human needs, such Alburnum
types of timber have become very
rare, due to over usage.
Heartwood
For example timber like ebony,
'Nadun' and Teak are now classified
as luxurious types of timber.
Therefore, we are compelled to
use fast growing types of timber
like rubber, Persian lilac, mango, Figure 19.13 – Alburnum and heartwood of an
alstonia, eucalyptus and pinus. But, Ebony tree
such types of timber do not last long in the environmental conditions of our country.
They are easily damaged by insects and fungi. Therefore, we have to use wood
preservative methods.
Generally the heartwood of a tree lasts longer than its alburnum. Therefore,
heartwood of a tree should be used when making furniture to minimize them from
decaying.
Now let us find out how decaying of timber can be prevented.
Methods of preventing the timber decay
² Prevention of absorbing moisture into timber
² Seasoning of timber
² Usage of wood preservatives
Prevention of absorbing moisture into timber
Moisture absorption into timber can be prevented by applying enamel paint on
them.
e.g. Enamel paints are applied on school desks and chairs to prevent decay.
Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 165
 Seasoning of timber
Timber can be seasoned by allowing it to dry slowly in controlled conditions.
Timber can be kept for long time by reducing the moisture content below 20%.
You can get a knowledge of this method by observing a timber stores or a carpenters
workshop.

Figure 19.14 – Seasoning of timber

Usage of wood preservatives

Timber can be preserved for a long time by soaking in suitable chemicals.
One such chemical is creosote, which is extracted from coal. This chemical is used
by State Timber Corporation when they are treating sleepers for railway lines and
wooden electrical posts.

Figure 19.15 (a) – Sleepers on railway line Figure 19.15 (b) – Wooden electrical posts

Boron treatment is done for the longer life of rubber and pinus timber. Here the
timber is soaked in a mixture of boric acid, borax and a fungicide.
Forest conservation is promoted by proper usage and preservation of timber.
Increasing the lifetime of timber can be reduced tree felling.
Water, minerals and rocks, plants and timber are ours valuable resources. Therefore,
it is our responsibility to use them sustainably, while leaving their potential of
existence for the generations to come.
166 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources
 Summary
² Water, minerals and rocks, plants and timber are some examples for natural
resources.
² Construction of 'wewas' and using rain water collected in tanks are two
methods practiced by man for sustainable use of water.
² Minerals like gems are separated from other soil particles by sifting.
² Hardness, resistance to be worn out and high refractive index are some
identical properties of gems.
² Gem pits have adversely affected the environment and man.
² A large number of plants that can be used for various purposes are found
in Sri Lanka.
² Hundreds of timber plants are found in Sri Lanka and are used for various
purposes.
² Timber is destroyed by fungi and insects.
² There are several methods to prevent decaying timber.
² Natural resources should be used sustainably for the fulfilment of the future
generations.

Exercises
(01) Select the correct or most suitable answer.
1. What can be a mineral, out of those given below?
1. Coal 2. Mineral oil 3. Apatite 4. Gneiss
2. The uses of graphite are,
1. Manufacturing pencil rods 2. Manufacturing electrodes of electrical
cells
3. Using as a lubricant 4. All the above
3. Gems are valuable natural resource obtained from the Earth of our country,
which one below is not a cause for its high value?
1. Its beauty 2. Its hardness
3. Its rareness 4. Being a mineral
4. What is the national gem of Sri Lanka?
1. Blue sapphire 2. Yellow sapphire 3. Tourmaline 4. Cat's eye

Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources 167

 5. Which one is the order, when graphite, gems and quartz are arranged in the
descending order of their hardness?
1. Gems, graphite, quartz 2. Gems, quartz, graphite
3. Quartz, gems, graphite 4. Quartz, graphite, gems

(02) Give short answers.

1. What are natural resources?
2. Why scientists pay attention to water, when they are in search of life on a
certain planet.
3. What is the purpose of building tanks ('wewas') in dry zone?
4. What is the type of water that exists in nature in its purest form?
5. Mention three characteristics of pure water?
6. Is granite a mineral or a rock? Give reasons for your answer.
7. What is the special property of gems, that leads to its separation method of
sifting?
8. Mention three adverse effects to the environment caused by the gem
industry?
9. What is the plant in Sri Lanka, that a maximum number of uses can be
obtained from? Mention five plant parts of it and their uses.
10. Mention one specific use that can be obtained from each of following types
of timber.
i. Agar wood ('Wallapatta') ii. 'Paremara' iii. Alexandrian laurel ('Domba')
iv. 'Rukattana' v. Persian lilac ('Lunumidella')
11. Write one difference that you can observe between the heartwood and
alburnum of the stem of a plant.
12. Persian lilac ('Lunumidella') timber floats on water while ebony timber sink.
Thus arrange persian lilac timber, ebony timber and water according to the
ascending order of their densities.

Technical Terms
Natural resources - iajdNdúl iïm;a - C¯ØøP ÁÍ®
Sustainable use - ;srir Ndú;h - {ø»÷£s £¯ß£õk
Hardness - oeänj - Áßø©
Refractive index - j¾;kdxlh - •ÔÄa_mi
Recycling - m%;spl%SlrKh - «Ò_ÇØ]
Regenerative - mqk¾ckkSh - «Ð¸ÁõUP®
Seasoning of timber - oej moï lsÍu - ©µ®£uÛhÀ
Wood preservatives - oej wdrlaIl - A›©µ |ØPõ¨¦ £uõºzu[PÒ
Wood preservation - oej wdrlaIKh - ©µUPõ¨¦
168 Science | Sustainable use of Natural Resources