LIFE SKILLS NOTES

FORM 1

2018

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TOPIC 1 : SELF AWARENESS AND SELF ESTEEM

Self Awareness

-It is the knowledge of oneself

-it is the way you identify yourself

You understand yourself in terms of likes, dislikes, values, weaknesses, strengths, talents,
hobbies, ambitions, abilities, emotions, habits, feelings, personality and intellectual
characteristics

-if a person does not know himself or herself the following things are likely to happen:

 Lack of self confidence

 Having negative self-image
 Making poor choices and decisions in life
 Being in the company of bad friends
 Engaging in risky behaviours that may ruin his/her life

How other people view you

 people may see you in different ways. Others see you as strong, confident, intelligent
person while others see you as weak, unintelligent, coward etc
 the way others see you may influence your self –image
 the way you see yourself, however, is more important than what other people think or
know about you.

Self-Esteem

 it is the way a person sees or values himself or herself, either positively or negatively
 it is the belief and confidence in your own ability and the value
 it is the way you feel about yourself

Characteristics of Healthy (Positive) Self-Esteem

 Respect – for oneself and others, opinions and property of others

 Ambition – strong will/desire to succeed. A will for personal advancement
 Optimism – being hopeful and looking at the positive side of a situation rather than the
negative side
 Co-operation – working together with others to achieve common goals
 Enthusiasm – feeling of interest and eagerness to be involved in an activity
 Empowerment – state where one feels they are in control of their life
 Responsibility – taking care of something or someone and accepting blame if anything
goes wrong

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 Kindness – feeling compassion towards others who are less privileged
 Sense of humour – causing laughter and happiness
 Giving credit where it is due

Importance of Self-Esteem

Self-Esteem helps a person to :

 Be assertive
 Think critically
 Value personal opinion more than other people‟s opinion
 Cope with stressful and challenging situations in life such as orphanhood, anxiety,
diseases and examinations
 Work and achieve results
 Avoid peer pressure
 Be successful in his/her endeavours
 Have social competence with peers

TOPIC 2 : PLANNING

 it is an outline of activities to be achieved within a specified time

 it is deciding beforehand what you want to achieve the methods of achieving it and time
frame for achieving it
 it is the process of thinking about and organising the activities that one requires to do in
order to achieve a desired goal

Elements of Planning

1. Identifying activities/goals

These are issues you desire to do. The desired things have to be identified and
prioritised

2. Developing objectives

These are things you intend to achieve at the end

3. Organising resources

Think of things needed in your activity e.g. money, material, time, human resources

4. Choosing a course of Action

Identifying the activities to be done in order to achieve the objectives

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5. Implementation

This is the most important element in planning where you translate plans into actions
to achieve goals. Sometimes people fail to implement their good plans

6. Monitoring

Involves checking what is happening in the implementation stage. This exposes

problems and challenges encountered in the implementation process

7. Evaluation

It involves checking whether the planned objectives were achieved or not. It also
gives information required for another plan

Two types of evaluation

a) formative (ongoing) – this is carried out throughout the plan

b) summative (final) – this happens at the end of the plan

Activities That Require Planning

1. Choice of career

 a career is a job or profession that a person does over a long period of time e.g.
engineering, teaching, fashion designing etc
 choosing a career requires a lot of planning

2. Marriage

 marriage is the legal union between a man and a woman living as husband and wife
 before getting married they need to plan their source of income, place of stay etc

3. Family

 married people make plans concerning their family

 e.g. number of children to have, type of school to send their children etc

4. Business

 entrepreneurs make plans concerning their business

 e.g. how to increase sales, how to satisfy customers, source of capital and human
resources etc

5. Examinations

 a person sitting for exams needs to plan for study time table, equipment needed
during the examinations etc

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6. Farming

 a person involved in farming needs to plan in order to have high yields

 e.g. type of crops to grow, where to do farming activities, type of farming tools to
use etc

Setting goals

 A goal is something you want to achieve at any given time or at the end of the day.
 a goal is a desired outcome of what one is doing or intending to do

Goal setting involves:

a) naming your goals

b) finding ways of achieving the goal

Example of setting a goal

1. Name of the goal: being selected to University after four years

2. Ways of achieving the goal:

 Working hard in class

 Taking studies seriously
 Using free time profitably
 Joining educational clubs such as debate, quiz, drama and mathematics

3. If properly followed, you can achieve your goal

Personal Study Timetable

 it is a study guide drawn by a student

How to develop a personal study time table

The following are guidelines for developing a study timetable:

 allocate time to all subjects

 allocate more time to difficult subjects. Do not have difficult subjects following each
other.
 alternate the subjects i.e. science subjects (e.g. biology) should be followed by a
humanities subject (e.g. history)
 allocate time for breaks to allow information to sink
 vary your activities – reading notes should alternate with practical work
 allocate time early in the morning for subjects that require more concentration

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Importance of developing a personal study time table

Once a timetable has been developed it should be used because it has the following
importances :

 It helps to achieve one‟s goals e.g. obtaining good grades

 It ensures proper use of resources e.g. time
 It helps to reduce indecisiveness e.g. gives direction on what to do
 It helps to develop peace of mind e.g. no last minute panic

TOPIC 3 : ASSERTIVENESS

 It is an act of showing strength and confidence in oneself

 it is knowing what you want and why and being able to take the necessary steps to achieve
what you want

Values are :beliefs about what is important or what we cherish

:beliefs that people have about what is right or wrong

 different people value things differently

 the process of finding out what you value most is called “identifying values”
 examples of values : love, chastity, justice, respect, abstinence, faithfulness, discipline,
hard work, patriotism, courage etc

Importance of standing up for one’s values

 once you have identified your values, stand for those values because they are very special
and beneficial to you and you alone. What another person values is not fit for you.
Respect your values because you understand the results of what you are doing.
 Values come from different sources e.g. school, family, community, friends, media.

Standing by your values helps to :

 Guide your behaviours in your daily life

 Make right choices in career and even in marriage
 Make proper decisions and actions in a given situation
 Assess or judge situations, whether good or bad, false or true

Peer Pressure

 people of the same age and interest are called peers

 when a person is forced naturally to follow what her or his peers are doing it is known as
peer pressure

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Forms of Peer Pressure

a) positive peer pressure – if a person is forced or influenced to do something good

b) negative peer pressure – when a person is forced or influenced to do something bad

Consequences of positive peer pressure

a) High academic performance

 good peers will help someone to work hard in class leading to high performance in
school

b) Building successful relationships

 good peers encourage an individual to respect oneself and others, to welcome

advice from peers etc. This helps him or her to develop and build relationships at
home, school and other places.

c) Helps to prevent social and health problems

 good peers discourage a person from engaging in risky behaviours e.g casual sex,
drug and substance abuse, smoking etc
 this helps to prevent problems such as early marriages, early pregnancies, abortion,
STIs and death.

d) Helps to learn life skills

 skills such as hardworking, reading culture, sharing etc can be learnt from peers
 these skills help you to survive in society

e) It helps a person to learn a spirit of sharing and you start minding about others by
sharing what you have

Consequences of Negative peer pressure

-early pregnancy -abortion -premarital sex

-school dropout -prostitution -drug and substance abuse

-contracting of HIV and other STIs -Death and mental disturbance

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Futures Wheel on causes and effects of premarital sex

Causes

Lack of
parental care School Peer
Dropout Presssure Poverty

___________ Premarital sex ____________________

Effects

School
dropout Contracting Contracting Pregnancy
HIV/AIDS STIs

Poverty
Chronic Barrenness
diseases abortion

Prostitution Death Loss of

blood

Practice future‟s wheel on :

 Prostitution
 Drug and substance abuse
 Abortion
 Risk of contracting STI and HIV/AIDS

Techniques for Resisting negative peer pressure

1. Assertiveness – this will help you to avoid copying what your friends want. You will
only follow what your mind tells you and take proper steps to achieve your goal
without being influenced by others

2. Develop self-esteem – it helps to maintain self-respect, aim for the best and take after
role models

3. Knowing your values – knowing what you stand for helps to disregard any advice
which in your view may lead you into problems

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4. Developing self-control – by knowing the long term effects of what your peers are
trying to influence you, you will make an informed decision whether to take part in
the activity or not

5. Developing self-confidence – peers will respect you and your decisions if you have
self-confidence

6. Effective communication – let your peers know your beliefs, values about things you
like or dislike. Effective communication skill is necessary to put messages across to
peers

7. Planning skills – planning your time effectively and avoid being idle

TOPIC 4 : GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Adolescence

 a period in the life of a person when change takes place from childhood to adulthood
 it occurs between the ages of 11 and 19. All the youth that experience these changes are
called adolescents. Adolescence begins with puberty.

Puberty

 the period when a youth starts experiencing changes in his/her body

 e.g. for girls it starts on first menstruation, for boys it starts when they start experiencing
wet dreams

Growth

 it is increase in size
 e.g. increase in height, broadening of chest in boys, developing of hips in girls

Development

 it means continuous change in maturing or getting advanced

Meaning of Physical, Social and Mental Development

Physical Development

 it refers to the changes that take place in the body as a person grows.
 it involves increase in weight, height and development of secondary sexual organs (e.g.
beard, breasts) in the adolescents.
 Adolescents of the same age may not experience the same changes.
 Both boys and girls experience physical developments. Some of these changes are the
same while others are different

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Physical developments in girls Physical developments in boys
Body shape becomes more adult (hips) Body shape becomes more adult
Weight gain Weight gain
Growth in height Growth in height
Pimples appear on the face Pimples appear on the face
Growth of pubic hair and armpit hair Growth of pubic hair, armpit hair & facial hair
Softening of voice Deepening of voice
Development of breasts Broadening of shoulders
Menstruation begins Sperm production begins
Ovaries get bigger and developed First ejaculation
Enlargement of labia Enlargement of penis
Ova (egg cells) develop in ovaries

What adolescents like and do not like about their physical changes

As young people are growing up they may either like or sometimes dislike changes that take
place in their bodies.

What they like about physical changes :

 It makes young people feel grown up and therefore capable of making their own decisions
 It makes young people associate more with friends. This is where they get new ideas
 It makes them more sexually mature. Sexual maturity is a source of pride for many young
people. As a result they become interested in people of the opposite sex

What they do not like in physical changes:

 They sometimes lead to poor relations with parents and peers especially when these
changes occur very late
 Sometimes it leads to immature, attention seeking behaviour such as talkativeness,
restlessness, aggressiveness. This mainly occurs in boys
 Girls may sometimes feel “too grown up” for their age. They become embarrassed,
worried and anxious
 Unpredictable erection of penis in boys
 Irregular menstruation in girls
 Bad smell from armpits and genitals which needs regular bathing
 They experience restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes
 Rapid and irregular physical growth in their bodies
 They not accepted by their peers who are not matured

Challenges of Physical development

 Irregular menstruations in girls force them to check their clothes when standing up
 Unpredictable erection of penis in boys forces them to move without tucking in their
shirts, especially those with loose underwear
 Rapid, irregular physical growth demands sudden change of peers/friends

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 Varying maturity rates causes panic to late maturers
 Adoption of poor health habits makes them physically vulnerable
 In case of girls, men flock to them cheated by their body size and may think they are
mature to have sexual intercourse

Ways of dealing/overcoming challenges of physical development

 Children should be told in advance about the changes that take place at puberty. This
helps them to prepare them for puberty. Parents and guardians have a responsibility to
discuss freely with their children stories about puberty and sexual intercourse
 Observing personal hygiene by bathing regularly and washing underwear daily to avoid
bad smell
 Parents to teach children how HIV can be contracted. In addition equip children with
skills to refrain from sexual desires.

Social Development in boys and girls

 these are new behaviours which develop in adolescents which increase their interaction
with members of the community
 it also refers to changes in the way a person relates with others

These changes include :-

 Attending social gatherings in community e.g. funeral

 Chatting with elders
 Opting privacy
 Participating in self-help projects in the community e.g building school blocks,
moulding bricks
 Discovery of new ideas and interests
 Ability to develop stable relationships
 Ability to gain status and power among peers
 High interest in group work
 Easily influenced by role models and the media
 Seeking peer approval before making a major decision in life
 Rudeness and quarrelsome towards others
 Increased interest in competitive games
 Changing values and behaviour to fit with peers
 Enjoy testing the limits of authority

**challenging the authority of parents is a bad development. Therefore adolescents are

advised to control themselves and obey the authority of parents

Challenges of Social development

 The feeling of wanting to be loved and accepted leads to wrong relationships and
premarital sex

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 Have strong need to belong to a group with peer approval
 Adjusting to social acceptance of early maturing boys and girls especially if they find
themselves maturing at a slower rate
 Development of their beliefs, values and attitude, influence of media and negative
experiences with adults and peers may compromise their ideals and values

How to deal with challenges of social development

 Adolescents should be well equipped with skills of resisting peer pressure

 They should not be deceived by peers or media. They should be assertive by sticking to
what they feel is morally accepted by society
 They should be well informed that people mature at different rats, so late maturers should
not be scared.

Mental /Intellectual development in boys and girls

 it is the change in the way they think and reason e.g they are full of imaginations as they
move from concrete to abstract reasoning.
 the changes in the way a person feels (emotional) and thinks (psychological)

The changes include:

 Strong interest in the opposite sex (desire to know more about sex organs of opposite
sex)
 Being sensitive to what others say about you
 Being sensitive about your personal appearance
 Being able to think in an abstract way. Imaginations come from abstract thinking e.g.
thinking of the consequences of your actions
 High levels of self-confidence
 Frequent mood changes
 Interest in reading books or magazines concerning sex and other social activities
 Sexual feelings and excitement towards persons of the opposite sex

Challenges of mental/intellectual development

 They are in transition period from concrete thinking to abstract thinking and as a result
they are fond of telling lies
 Consumption of alcohol or drugs can affect learning abilities of adolescents, memory
ability and their ability to think responsibly
 Prefer active over passive learning experiences and therefore want to practice what they
see in books/films, whether good/bad
 Prefer interacting with peers during learning activities
 They want to know more about adults yet they challenge their authority
 They are disturbed with wet dreams

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Ways of dealing with problems associated with mental development

 They should be informed that claiming someone is your sexual partner while it is not true
is an offence
 School regulations have to be followed. Parents‟ authority should not be challenged.
 Guidance and counselling to the youth at school, home or any religious grouping. If not
guided the youth can go astray
 effects of drug abuse should be discussed at home and school

TOPIC 5 : HEALTH PROMOTION

Personal hygiene and Sanitation

Personal Hygiene involves properly caring for your body by keeping it clean and healthy

Good health habits of personal hygiene that may help to promote personal hygiene include:

 washing hands before and after eating

 bathing every day and regularly
 brushing teeth
 using a clean handkerchief when blowing the nose
 covering the mouth when coughing
 avoiding nose poking
 avoid nail biting
 cutting nails (maintain them short)
 washing fruits before eating them
 frequently changing and cleaning one‟s beddings and towels

Washing hands

 washing hands is a very important habit of personal hygiene since germs are removed
from our hands. It also removes dirt.
 it is recommended that soap should be used when cleaning hands
 if soap is not available we may use other traditional materials e.g. ash, sand, soil, leaves,
etc

Times for washing hands

 when we wake up from sleeping

 before and after eating
 after visiting the toilet
 after changing baby nappy/diaper
 after attending to the sick

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 after doing piece work
 anytime we feel our hands are dirty

Proper ways of washing hands

 people wash hands in different ways. However some of these ways are good for health and
others are not
 it is our wish to promote proper ways of washing hands and these are:

i) Pouring method

The water in the bucket can be used for other things and germs are washed away from
hands

Challenges of pouring method

 it needs another person to pour water for you

 dirty water needs to be handled with care
 The container which is used can be contaminated with germs. Therefore, it
should be cleaned with soap regularly

ii) Using tap water

 if not carefully used, you waste a lot of water in the process

 it needs another person to open a tap for you. Otherwise you contaminate the
tap with germs from your hands

The solution to the challenges of both methods is :

 Use a bucket to collect water

 Then use the water for other things like watering flowers and gardens

Washing Clothes

 Wash clothes with soap and iron them to look presentable

Cleaning hair and skin

 use warm water and soap which helps to remove skin oils which may trap dirt and germs.
 after, use skin and hair lotions to look presentable.

Feet

 Wash feet with soap and keep them dry to avoid fungus growth.
 use a clean pair of socks to absorb moisture

Nose

 clean by blowing or sneezing to remove dirt and mucous

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 avoid inserting foreign bodies e.g. buttons, seeds as they may block the respiratory system

Washing clothes

 wash with soap and iron them

Parts of the body that require special attention

The body has different parts. All parts need to be cleaned thoroughly. However, there are
other parts which need special attention. These are: teeth, armpits, sexual organs, ears

i) Teeth

 There are two areas in the mount that need thorough cleaning. E.g. the tongue, the
teeth
 the tongues and teeth should be cleaned using toothbrush and toothpaste

How should we clean or brush our teeth?

 Brushing should be done in up and downwards and sideways movements

 Eating fruits, uncooked cassava, vegetables and sugarcane helps strengthening and
cleaning teeth

Importance of cleaning teeth

 Decayed teeth will make a person :

 Look ugly
 Be unhappy
 Have pain
 Produce a bad smell
 Teeth decay is caused by food particles that stick between the teeth, especially
particles of sweet and starchy foods on which bacteria feed. In return, the bacteria
produce chemicals which dissolve the enamel of the teeth
 the teeth must be brushed every morning, morning and after each meal using a
toothbrush and toothpaste. In the absence of toothpaste; ash, fine sand or soda can
be used

ii) Armpits

 At puberty, changes include maturation of sweat glands under the arms

 A lot of wastes are excreted from the body under the arms
 The armpit should therefore be shaved and cleaned with soap and sponge
 Cleaning and shaving help to clean dirt and avoid smell.

iii) Sexual organs (genitals)

The penis and vagina are the sex organs which should be taken care of regularly

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 How to take care of sexual organs

 wash the sex organs regularly. e.g a minimum of twice a day

 the genitals or the outer sex organs need to be cleaned with soap. However, the
inner parts of the sex organs (vagina and the area under the foreskin of
uncircumcised male) should be cleaned with clean water only and not soap. Avoid
using soap when cleaning the vagina and the skin under the foreskin because in
soap there are different chemicals which could make the inner parts vulnerable to
cancer (you may use soap if you are advised by doctors and they should tell you
the type of soap to be used)
 for males, it is advised to go for hospital circumcision. Circumcision is important
because :
 It helps in cleanliness
 It prevents contracting HIV and AIDS, though it is not 100%
 Bacteria under the foreskin expose the vagina to cervical cancer. If you are not
circumcised you put your sexual partner at risk of getting cervical cancer.

d) Eyes

 Avoid reading in dim light or when travelling in a car.

 seek medical attention if you suspect any eye problems
 Avoid applying local herbs directly in the eyes

e) Ears

 the ear is an important organ of the body. It is a sense of hearing.

 clean ears with soft materials using warm water and soap to remove dust and wax.
 do not use sharp objects as it may damage eardrum and cause deafness

Disposal of waste matter

 Waste matter is unwanted material of any type. It is often that which is left after
substance or parts have been removed.
 Refuse is unwanted waste or rubbish in our communities. The most common refuse is in
the form of liquid, solid or gas e.g. human excreta and rubbish

Disposal of human excreta is done in pit latrines, water closet toilets. When away from
toilets dig a hole, deposit the excreta and fill the pit with soil.

Toilets

A toilet is a sanitation feature used primarily for disposal of human excreta and urine

Two types of toilets

1. pit latrine – common in villages

2. water closet toilet – common in towns and villages where there is piped water

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Importance of using toilets

 Helps to avoid diseases

 Helps to avoid bad smell
 It provides privacy
 Helps to control disease carrying flies
 Provides a cleaner environment for disposing body wastes

Care for toilets

Toilets should be cared for to avoid the spread of diseases such as cholera and dysentery

Care for pit latrines

 the floor should be well swept and mopped if cemented

 it should be smeared every week if made from mud
 the bush around the toilet should be cleared
 walls should not have cracks
 Sprinkle chlorine or any disinfectant on the floor
 cover the toilet hole with a lid which should be replaced after toilet use
 walls to be dusted to remove cobwebs
 where toilet is used my many people (e.g. in school) chemical substances like Bio
Activator can be added to the pit to break down the waste. This helps to reduce level of the
waste and foul smell from the toilet thus reducing flies

Care for water closet toilets

 the hole should always be closed

 mop the floor with disinfectants to kill germs and bad smell.
 the floor and toilet seat should always be dry
 supply the toilet with toilet papers
 clean the toilet seat and bowl everyday with soap and water. Use toilet brush for the bowl
 walls to be cleaned once a week
 flush toilet after use
 never put anything in the toilet that may block pipes

How to use pit latrine

 target the hole to deposit our excreta

 urine should not spread on the floor
 avoid spitting on the floor
 use toilet papers or newspapers to clean yourself and not walls of the toilet

How to use water closed toilet

In the water closet waste matter is carried away by water in pipes to septic tanks then sewage

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 raise the lid
 sit on the seat (not standing on the seat)
 Do not urinate on the floor
 use toilet papers or soft papers to clean yourself and not stones, sticks, leaves or walls of
the toilet

Disposal of rubbish

1. Composting – breaking down of waste materials into organic compound which can
be used as manure

2 Burning the refuse – bring all refuse together and burn

3. Use of landfills – the use of landfill involves digging a pit and filling it with refuse.
The pit is then covered with soil

4. Recycling – refuse can be recycled to produce new materials e.g. newspapers can be
recycled to produce toilet papers

Dangers of improper refuse disposal

Refuse if not properly disposed can lead to problems e.g. transmission of infections and
diseases, environmental pollution, injury, creating unpleasant and filthy surroundings

1. Infections and diseases

Improper refuse disposal can become breeding grounds for pests, insects, rats, germs
that cause diseases. Skin diseases, eye problems, diarrhoea and cholera are some of
the health risks

2. Environmental pollution

Improper refuse disposal can pollute our neighbourhood e.g. water sources such as
rivers, streams and degrade the environment. It also pollutes the air and creates bad
smell.

3. Create filthy and unpleasant surroundings

It destroys the usual beauty of natural or man-made environment

4. Injury and poisoning

When children play at such places they can be physically injured from broken
glassware or sharp objects. In addition if they eat things from the rubbish it may
cause poisoning

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TOPIC 6 : HEALTHY LIFE STYLES

Being healthy include:

 having absence of diseases

 having a clear and socially healthy mind that is able to think, judge and make decisions
properly

Examples of life styles that promote healthy living

1. Physical exercises e.g. running, walking

Exercises help to keep muscles in shape and stimulate flow of blood. They also help
to get rid of wastes from the body e.g. sweat

2. Seeking medical attention

Seek medical attention immediately we feel sick. This helps to get the right treatment
to cure a particular disease and it prevents symptoms of diseases from developing into
serious health problems that may end into death.

3. Having adequate sleep and rest

It helps the body to recover after the day‟s work and thereby leaving the body
energetic.

4. Drinking plenty of water

Drink plenty of safe and clean water. Water serves as a solvent and carries many
dissolved substances around the body. It replaces water that is lost through urine,
faeces (stool) and sweat.

5. Avoiding casual sex

This helps to prevent STIs and unwanted pregnancies

6. Eating nutritious foods

Helps to maintain a healthy body weight and reduces risk of developing diseases.

7. Keeping constant body weight

Body weight should be proportional to the height and age. If the body weight is
higher than recommended one may suffer from high blood pressure and obesity
(abnormal fatness). It is good for health to keep our body at a recommended constant
weight

8. Smiling most of the time

Smiling make our face look composed and young. It is therefore good for your health
to keep smiling all the time

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9. Proper dressing

 underwear must be used at all times to protect genitals from physical harm
infection or dust
 the clothes must be kept clean and dry. If you cannot dry them in the sun, make
sure you iron them to avoid infection
 if a man is fond of wearing tight pants the testes are forced to be close to the body
and sperms are exposed to high temperature, hence they die. This could result in
infertility

10. Body cleanliness/general hygiene

 reproductive organs have to be cleaned regularly with soap to get rid of dirt, micro-
organisms and to reduce body odour.
 it is also good for health to keep genitals dry all the times. This helps to reduce
the growth of micro-organisms.
 it is good habit to remove pubic hair to keep the genitals dry.

11. Circumcision

 circumcision is the removal of the foreskin of the penis

 the most effective circumcision is done at the hospital

Importance of eating nutritious food

Food nutrients, sources, functions and deficiency diseases

Nutrient Sources Function/importance Deficiency

disease
1 Carbohydrates Nsima, rice, cassava,  Giving our bodies Marasmus
potatoes etc energy to do work
 Converts to fat and
stored under the skin
2 Proteins Meat, eggs, fish, beans,  Body growth Kwashiorkor
avocado pears, etc  Body repair
 Production of
Antibodies
3 Vitamins Vegetables, oranges,  Improved night vision Rickets, beriberi,
mango, sunlight, butter  Blood clotting pellagra, scurvy
 Healthy gums and
teeth
4 Lipids Cooking oil, meat, milk,  Keeping our bodies Marasmus
(fats & oil) egg york, butter, warm
groundnuts and many  Protection of internal
more organs
 Providing energy

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 5 Mineral salts Iodised salt, vegetables,  Protection from other Anaemia, goitre,
eggs, liver, cheese, diseases like goitre fatigue, tiredness
 Formation of red and tooth decay
blood cells
 Normal functioning of
the heart
 Arousing appetite
6 Water Water, thobwa, soft  Helps in excretion of Causes
drinks e.g. Fanta etc waste matter dehydration
 Regulating body
temperature
 Transports nutrients
and it the component
of blood

Foods that boost blood levels include: eggs, sea food (fish and crab), beef, beans etc.

Haemoglobin is the protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen from lungs to the rest of
the body. Since iron is an important component of haemoglobin; eggs, beef and beans can
raise your haemoglobin levels

Why is eating nutritious food important?

 Provide nutrients to the body - Nutrients help to give energy, strengthen bones and
muscles
 Lowering the risk of diseases – helping to reduce the risk of anaemia, goitre, night
blindness, blood pressure, diabetes etc
 Help to live long – a person who eats nutritious foods stays healthy and is likely to live
long
 Maintain a healthy body weight
 Enable the body to heal itself during and after recovery from an infection or disease

Cultural practices that promote unhealthy eating habits

i. Forbidding children from eating eggs

 Some cultures believe that eggs destroy the umbilical cord of a child as such children are
not allowed to eat eggs
 Therefore, children to miss nutrients that are found in eggs
ii. Intra-family food distribution
 It is the practice of serving the best portions (parts) of food to the father while children
eat leftovers
 Feeding young children with gravy only instead of the meaty portions
 It causes children to suffer from malnutrition
iii. Eating times and amounts
 Meals are supposed to be served three times a day. E.g breakfast, lunch and supper with
snacks in between meals if possible

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  Some families eat once or twice a day in large amounts of the carbohydrates with little
relish for the sake of filling their tummies.
 This results in malnutrition among children
iv. Refraining from eating indigenous protein-rich foods
 Most indigenous vegetables and fruits are rich in food values. But some people avoid
eating these indigenous foods
 E.g. foods like insects mice, crabs, caterpillars, uwende/utchazo/luwende. Wild
vegetables include : bonongwe, chisoso, luni, mwamunaaligone. Wild fruits include:
malambe, bwemba, masawu, masuku, mbirima
 People are encouraged to eat indigenous foods because they are the main suppliers of
proteins, vitamins and minerals which are needed by the bodies and they are found
locally.
v. Adding a lot of oil in the food when cooking
vi. Believing that maize meal is the only food that can serve as main meal
vii. A large number eating from one plate. The practice is called Chintilatila
viii. Boiling traditional vegetables for long period of time before being eaten. This removes
vital nutrients

How to promote healthy living

This refers to the practices and habits that support, improve, maintain and enhance health

 Promoting immunisation and vaccination campaigns

 Encouraging people to do physical exercises
 Encouraging environmental hygiene
 Promoting safe sex
 Promoting sexual reproductive health activities
 Promoting healthy living

TOPIC 7: HEALTHY SERVICES

Health services are services which are provided by health institutions or facilities.

The health institutions are:

- Hospitals - Rehabilitation Centres

- Private clinics - Health Centres
- Mobile Clinics - Counselling Centres
- Pharmacies - Drop in centres
- Dispensaries - Drug and Resource Centres
- Maternity clinics
- African doctors (these are not effective because they do not have equipment to
identify cause of sickness

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Types of Health Services

1. Diagnosis of diseases

 The process of identifying the disease one is suffering from

 This helps us to take the correct medicine

2. Curative

 This is the treatment of illnesses. Treatment of diseases should be obtained from

people who are experts in that field

3. Family Planning

 Family planning is the art of deciding how many children one wishes to have and at
what interval.
 Family planning is achieved through methods such as pills, injections, condoms and
vasectomy
 Banja La Mtsogolo is the leading institution on family planning issues in Malawi but
this service is also offered by institutions such as hospitals, private clinics e.t.c

4. Ante-natal

 When women are pregnant they should go for pre-natal services. This helps doctors
to check if the pregnancy has complications
 Women are advised how to take care of the pregnancy
 Vaccines against other diseases are also given to pregnant mothers for the good
health of the unborn child
 At the beginning of eighth month of pregnancy of pregnancy, expectant mothers
should go and wait at the ant-natal clinic to wait for delivery as this reduces maternal
death
 Ante-natal helps to :
 Prevent pregnancy related complications
 Diagnose disease in early stages and treating them
 Monitor health of a child
 Detect early signs of problems

5. Counselling

 Counselling is a job or process of listening to people and giving them advice about
their problems.
 People who are suffering from disease that have no cure are advised on how to live
positively e.g. HIV
 Others are counselled when they are not following prescriptions made by doctors
 Men fond of beating their pregnant wives are also counselled

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6. Rehabilitation

 These are centres for drug addicts and other under privileged people. They go for
assistance such as reformation. Rehabilitation as a health service s provided to:
 Delinquents – these are people who fail to do what the law or duty requires them.
 Polio victims – these are people who re physically challenged
 Convalescents – these are people who are recovering from illness gradually
 Undernourished children – these are children that suffer from malnutrition.
Their service include how to plan and prepare nutritious food and how to feed
them correctly
 Physiotherapy – the use of physical methods to assist recovery of damaged
tissue, muscles or joints.

7. Health education

 Providing information how to behave to avoid spread of diseases e.g. importance of

using pit latrines and rubbish pits,
 advise on healthy eating, cleanliness and caring for babies and little children

8. Blood screening – to check the body for infections and other Sexually Transmitted
infections including HIV

9. immunisation – to protect under five children against diseases like polio, measles

Importance of Accessing health services

Access to health services means being able to get quality health services when you need
them. This should be quickly, easily and affordably. It is important to access health services
because it helps a person to:

 Have overall physical mental and social health status –it helps people to live a healthy
life thereby contributing to development of their country
 Prevent diseases and disability – immunisation to under five children against infectious
diseases such as measles prevents diseases
 Detect and treat health problems – ensures early detection, diagnosis and treatment of
diseases
 Prevent death – early diagnosis and treatment helps to prevent death
 Improve life expectancy – a person is able to live longer since diseases are detected early
and treated before they get worse

Barriers to accessing health services

Long distance – in most rural areas you can hardly find a health centre within a radius of
15km. In such cases, it is difficult to go to a health centre for medical treatment

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High cost – if the nearest hospital is a paying one, it is difficult for the poor to access health
services

Lack of insurance coverage – insurance coverage or medical schemes are not common in
developing countries because they are expensive. This denies people a chance to quality
health services

Medical Check up

It is advisable that people develop a habit of going for medical check-up regularly, not only
when they seek treatment

Areas of the body that need medical check up

 Breast and cervical cancer early detection

 Cholesterol
 Colorectal cancer screening
 Diabetes
 High Blood pressure
 HIV/AIDS
 Oral health for adults
 Viral hepatitis
 Lungs
 Heart
 Liver
 blood

Importance of regular medical check-up

 Early diagnosis of diseases – it helps to find problems before they start. This leads to
proper of treatment of diseases before they worsen e.g. cancer
 Save a lot of money – medical check-up is less costly than paying for full treatment of the
disease. A medical check-up therefore helps to save money
 It gives peace of mind especially when they realise they are disease free
 It enables one to get information from a health practitioner on how to maintain a healthy
lifestyle
 Getting right health services, screenings and treatments help to increase chances of living
a longer and healthier life

Proper usage of prescribed drugs

Prescribed drugs are medicines that have been given by a doctor for treatment of a
particular infection or disease

Proper sources of prescription

 Medical doctors

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  Clinical officers
 Medical officers

Buying drugs from vendors is dangerous because vendors :

 can sell things which are not medicine

 cannot give accurate prescription on how to take the medicine
 they do not have proper storage facilities for the medicine

Guidelines for safe use of prescription drugs

 Follow instructions carefully

 Do not change dosages without consulting your doctor
 Do not stop taking prescribed medications on your own
 Do not crush or break pills unless specifically instructed to do so
 Be aware of the effect the drug may have on your driving and other activities
 Find out how the drug may react to alcohol and to other medication prescribed by doctors
 or purchased over the counter
 Do not share your prescribed drugs

TOPIC 8 : BLOOD DONATION

 It involves collecting blood from a person so that it can be used to treat someone.
 Malawi Blood Transfusion Service (MBTS) is an organisation responsible for collecting
and supplying safe blood to all hospitals
 The person that donates blood is known as a blood donor

People that need blood

 Pregnant women e.g. during delivery

 Those involved in accidents
 Those that have undergone surgery (operation)
 Children that are anaemic due to malaria and malnutrition

Blood in our Bodies

 The person‟s body has almost 5.5 litres (5500ml) of blood

 350ml – 450 ml of blood is taken for our bodies at a time depending upon the weight of
the donor
 Human blood has no substitute. It is the magic portion that give life to another person

Characteristics of a blood donor

 Must be between 16 and 65 years of age per MBTS recommendation

 Must have a normal pulse rate, blood pressure and body temperature

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 Must be HIV negative
 Must not have abnormal bleeding tendencies
 Should not have a history of epilepsy
 Should not be pregnant
 Should not have severe asthma
 Should not have cardiovascular disorders
 Should not have psychotic disorders
 Must be free from any infections that are transmitted through blood e.g. STIs
 Must not be taking any medications e.g. antibiotics
 Must not have had a tattoo and ear or body piercing recently
 Must be someone whose lifestyle does not put him/her at a risk of contracting infections

How often can we donate blood?

 It is recommended that healthy adults can donate blood regularly

 Men can do it every 3 months while women every 4 months
 Women are given more time before making another donation because the menstruation
periods make them loose blood.

Responsibilities of a blood donor

 He must be willing and ready to donate blood

 He/she must understand the need for donating blood e.g. giving it for free except the
feeling of personal satisfaction about saving life
 They should protect the life of recipient by being truthful in giving information about
his/her medical history, current health life. This helps to donate safe blood
 Protecting his/her life by knowing when to donate blood e.g. the intervals between
donating blood

Importance of donating blood

 It improves your health – it enhances production of new blood cells in your body and
also lowers the risk of heart attack because it reduces the amount of iron in your body.
 It brings personal satisfaction – you have a sense of satisfaction after saving someone‟s
life
 It offers you free health screening service – you get tested for malaria and screen for
blood pressure before donating blood
 It ensures availability of blood in hospitals – health facilities are assured of having
blood if you donate regularly

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TOPIC 9 : SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED INFECTIONS

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) are diseases that are mainly transmitted through
sexual intercourse

Types of STIs

 There are many STIs. Some are curable while others are not.
 E.g. gonorrhoea, syphilis, chlamydia, herpes, genital warts, trichonosomiasis etc

Signs and symptoms of STIs

Type of STI Cause Signs & Symptoms Treatment
Gonorrhoea Bacteria called  A cloudy puss-like discharge Antibiotics
Neissena gonorrhea from the penis or vagina
 Pain on passing urine
 Irregular bleeding in women
 A person becomes sterile if not
treated early enough
 Itching of genitals
Syphillis Bacteria called  Swollen lymph glands Antibiotics
Treponema  Painless sores on the penis or which will kill
Palledium vagina the bacteria
 Non-itching rash on the body
 Hair loss
 Fever
 Possible death or bone
deformation in new born if
mothers are not treated in early
stages of pregnancy
 Sores appear 10 to 90 days after
exposure
Chanchroid Bacteria called  Painful sore on the penis on the Antibiotics
Haemophilus penis or vagina
ducreyi  Inflammation of lymph gland
on one side
 Greatest risk factor for HIV
transmission
 Sores appear 3 to 5 days after
exposure
Genital ulcer Bacteria or virus  Sores on the genitals Antibiotics
 Pain on the genitals depending on
 Swollen inguinal glands the cause of the
 Discharge from the vagina ulcers
Genital warts Virus  Appearance of warts on or No cure. but
inside the genitals, anus, throat can be removed
 Itching in the genital area by surgery to
 Bleeding during intercourse reduce spread
of the virus

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Trichonomiasis Protozoa  Discomfort when urinating Antibiotics
(Trichomonalis  Watery fluids from the penis
Vaginalis)  Apart from sexual intercourse
the disease can also spread by
wet towels, clothes
Herpes Virus  Sores on the mouth or genital No cure. The
organs usually inside the vagina drugs are given
and on the head of penis just to relieve
the pains of
active sores
Thrush Fungus  Sores on genitals Fungicides
 Inflammation on genitals,
mouth and throat
Candidiasis fungus  Itching on genitals fungicides
(Mauka)  Sores on genitals

Consequences of STIs

 Infertility
 Mental illness
 Damage of brain
 Skin disease/rashes
 Damage of reproductive organs
 It can cause death of new born babies
 Blindness of new born babies
 High risk to HIV infections

Ways of preventing STIs

 Abstinence – effective way is to abstain from sex

 Avoiding having multiple sexual partners – stay in a long term mutually monogamous
relationship with a partner who is not infected
 Blood screening –it is important to screen blood for STIs before it is transfused.
 Practicing protected sex – use of condoms helps to prevent STIs
 Getting vaccination – Getting vaccinated before sexual exposure. STIs that can be
prevented this way are Hepatitis A and Hepatitis B
 Seeking information – By seeking information on modes of transmission, signs and
effects young people understand risks of sexual activity
 Avoiding casual sex – do not look for sex partners on internet, bars etc. Not knowing your
sexual partner well increases risks of possible exposure to STIs
 Keep the genital area well aerated by wearing cotton pants or loose pants e.g. for
candidiasis

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TOPIC 10 : BASIC FACTS ABOUT HIV & AIDS

HIV – Human Immuno-deficiency Virus

Human means the disease affects people

Immuno-deficiency means the virus reduces the body‟s ability to resist or fight infections

o the body‟s ability to resist infections is called immune system

o when the body loses its immune system it becomes weak and the person easily suffers
from a lot of diseases or illness

Virus – a germ that causes AIDS

AIDS – Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

Acquired means “got from” someone

Immune means “protected”. The body is protected from diseases by white blood cells

Deficiency means “lack of”. With AIDS there is lack of immunity against diseases

Syndrome means “a group/collection of diseases”

Where did HIV come from?

The first known case was found in blood sample of a man from Kinshasa in Democratic
Republic of Congo in 1959.

Body Fluids which could transmit HIV

HIV lives and reproduces in the following body fluids of infected people:

 blood
 semen
 pre-seminal fluid (pre-cum)
 Rectal (anal) mucous
 Breast milk
 Vaginal fluid

Body fluids and waste products that cannot transmit HIV & AIDS

The following fluids and waste products do not contain enough HIV to infect a person unless
they have blood mixed in them:

 Nasal fluid (from the nose)

 Saliva
 Sweat
 Tears

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  Urine
 vomit

The following do not transmit HIV

 casual contact e.g. handshakes, hugging. The virus dies quickly when outside the
body
 mosquito bites
 toilet seats
 sharing eating utensils
 food or objects handled by people with HIV or AIDS
 spending time in same house, business, public place with a person with HIV or AIDS

Modes of Transmission of HIV Infection

There are three (3) main modes of transmission from one person to another:

a) Unprotected Sexual Intercourse

 HIV is mainly spread through unprotected sexual intercourse with an infected

person.
 Spread of HIV is made easier by presence of STIs particularly those that cause
genital ulcers (wounds)
 HIV is transmitted through semen or vaginal fluids during unprotected sex
 Body movement during sex make vagina and penis to have scratches, cuts which
allow HIV to move from one body to another
 The thin layer of cells in young girls can also be bruised easily during sex

b) Blood to Blood contact

 HIV lives in the blood stream

 The following are ways through which HIV can be transmitted:
Blood transfusion
 If a blood donor is infected and the blood is not screened HIV can be
transmitted through blood transfusion
 This type of transmission can be controlled by screening the blood before giving
it to any person
Unsterilized instruments
 Objects which come in contact with blood pose a threat of HIV transmission if
two people use them in turns and one of them is HIV positive
 Instruments like razor blade, toothbrushes, shaving machines and needles if
used by more than one person (and one of them is infected) can transmit HIV.
 Do not share razor blades, tooth brushes, shaving instruments, needles of home
 In circumcision use one instrument per person. Do not share.

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  Instruments used in ear piercing and cutting incisions (mphini) should not be
shared.

c) Infected mother to child Transmission

 It is possible for an infected mother to transmit to her unborn child

 A mother can transmit HIV to her child at the following times:
 Before birth (during pregnancy)
 During birth (on delivery)
 After birth (through breast feeding)

Ways of avoiding mother-to-child transmission

 Being on treatment right away

 Receiving proper treatment during birth
 Breast feeding for only a short period of time
 Avoiding pregnancy when infected

Concurrent Partners

 Concurrent means “happening at the same time”

 Concurrent sexual partners means one person having different sexual relationships with
different partners at the same time
 Having multiple sexual partners is known as “Kangaude”

Dangers of having multiple concurrent partners

 If one person is infected the rest can also be infected in a short time
 It can leave the rest of the community infected
 The only way to avoid „kangaude‟ is through abstinence

HIV and AIDS develops in stages after the initial infection. There are 3 stages :

i) Window Period

 This is when a person has just been infected

 At this stage a person cannot test HIV positive until after 6 to 8 weeks of infection
 This is a dangerous period because HIV can be transmitted unknowingly

ii) Asymptomatic period

 The person is healthy with no signs and symptoms

 When tested the results may show positive
 It is also a dangerous period because you cannot judge an HIV positive or HIV
negative person
 The best way is to refrain from sexual intercourse

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 iii) Symptomatic stage

 An infected person shows signs and symptoms of many diseases e.g. chronic
cough, chronic diarrhoea

General signs and symptoms of HIV and AIDS

 Weight loss (over 10% of total weight)

 Chronic diarrhoea
 Persistent fever
 Coughing for more than a month
 Multiple infections e.g. mouth sores
 Severe drug reaction
 Swelling in neck and armpit
 Skin rashes
 Night sweats
 General body weakness

Life Skills required to resist contracting HIV

 Abstaining from sexual intercourse

 Being faithful to one uninfected partner
 Avoid unprotected sex
 Avoid sharing used instruments for piercing or tattooing the skin, tooth brush, razor blades
etc
 Wear gloves when giving first Aid
 Hospitals should ensure that all blood is screened before it is given to a patient
 At the barber check that their hair clipper or scissors has been sterilized with methylated
spirit

Living positively with HIV

 It refers to making choices which are good for your health and making the best of your life
with or without HIV and AIDS
 HIV testing is free. It can be done at public and private hospitals, Banja La Mtsogolo etc

Life skills required to live positively with HIV

 Eat a variety of balanced food

 Have regular exercise
 Have enough sleep and rest
 Avoid smoking and taking alcohol
 Practice safe sex
 Be faithful to a partner
 Seek guidance and counselling

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 Having self-control

UNIT 11 : SOCIAL AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE FAMILY

Family

 A family consist of husband, wife and children

 Other families extend to other people e.g. relatives
 Members of a family are related by marriage, blood or adoption.

Types of relationships in the family

1. Husband - wife relationship

 They are related through marriage

 They need to work together in making decisions for the family
 They make commitment to live together the rest of their lives
 They should be faithful to each other

2. Children - parent relationship

 They are related through blood

 Parents should be exemplary to the children
 Parents should guide and counsel the children

3. Child - child

 They are related through blood if born of same parents

 They should show love to each other
 They should work together as a team
 Equal treatment from the parents helps to unite the children

4. Child – relative

 The relationship results from adoption

 The children may be adopted from reatives

Social and moral responsibilities in the family

 Cooking food
 Fetching firewood and water
 Cleaning the surroundings
 Promoting family welfare
 Respecting each other‟s human rights

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Note: family members are different in their abilities and disabilities because of their
differences in sex and age

-as such they may differ in their roles or what type of work they can do

Roles of members of the family

Parents

 Providing food – parents provide nutritious food to ensure healthy children

 Providing shelter - parents rent, buy or build a house where they can stay
 Providing love to their children – love from parents gives children a sense of belonging,
feel wanted and accepted and a sense of security
 Providing safety – parents protect children from accidents, injuries and from unknown
persons
 Providing education – parents ensure children go to school and provide them with
adequate resources to learn well.
 Providing clothing – parents provide children with clothing to protect them against
weather, heat etc. Clothes are also used for identity, self-respect and beauty
 Socialisation – parents teach children appropriate behaviours and cultural traditions.
Socialisation helps to integrate the children into the society
 Intellectual development – parents ensure children access health services for physical
and mental development. Children are able to learn if they are physically and mentally
developed

Children

Boys

 looking after animals

 doing heavy work e.g. slashing

Girls

 doing household chores

 cooking after brothers and sisters
 fetching water and firewood

The needs of family members

Every member of the family has his/her own needs

a) Needs of the father

 he needs support from all members of the family

 he needs support from the state in security and health services for his family

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b) Needs of the mother

 to be loved by the husband

 to be assisted by all family members in household chores
 to be respected by all members of the family

c) Needs of the children

 to be raised by their parents

 to be sent to school
 to be provided with basic needs e.g. food, shelter, clothes

TOPIC 12: PEACEFUL CO-EXISTENCE IN THE FAMILY

Peaceful co-existence means living together in peace rather than in constant conflict or
hostility.

Factors influencing peaceful co-existence in the family

1. Faithfulness

 it is an act of being loyal and trustworthy to someone else

 this can lead to peaceful co-existence in the family

2. Fair distribution of resources

 equal distribution creates a feeling of contentment and satisfaction

 it therefore leads to peaceful co-existence in the family

3. Promoting gender equity

 it involves giving both women and men equal opportunities to excel in life.
 If this is promoted no one feels disadvantaged
 The people live together in harmony

4. Tolerance

 Family members may hold different views on certain matters

 They may also hold different behaviours from each other
 Tolerating each other helps to promote peaceful co-existence in family

5. Effective communication

 Peaceful co-existence exists if members communicate with each other clearly

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6. Promoting respect for each other

 Peaceful co-existence exists if members respect each other‟s rights and freedom

Factors affecting relationships in the family

The following can destroy /affect relationships in the family.:

 Unfaithfulness – where infidelity (committing adultery) occurs relationship between

husband and wife breaks down.
 Dishonesty – family members are not honest to each other on issues like money, school
grades, sexual relationships. This affects relationships
 Spirit of unforgiving – when disagreements arise, members may fail to resolve them
peacefully. Sometimes they also fail to forgive each other even after the issue has been
resolved
 Lack of love – family relationships are built on love. If love fades, relationships are
affected negatively
 Jealousy –when someone thinks that another person has something they want but may not
get it, jealousy may exist hence destroying the relationship
 Inequality – when females and males are given different treatment one group feels
discriminated leading to animosity between the two sides
 Discrimination – discrimination in a family may be based on sex, age and disability.
When discrimination exists the family is affected negatively
 Deviant behaviour – when parents attempt to stop children from bad behaviours, children
resist and sometimes resort to violent reactions such as assaults
 Breakdown in communication – if members do no communicate there is usually lack of
trust, respect and love. They also make wrong assumption and are suspicious about each
other
 Poverty –a family that lacks basic needs spends much of its time quarrelling, disagreeing
and fighting

Factors that promote relationships in the family

 Love - when family members love each other they behave in a kind and caring way
towards each other
 Honest – members need to be sincere and truthful. They should not deceive other
members of the family or break family rules
 Gender sensitivity- members should treat each other with respect regardless of gender.
Male and female members need to be given equal opportunities
 Spirit of forgiving and forgetting – resolve conflicts peacefully without resorting to
violence
 Forgive and apologise to each other to promote good relationship-
 Promoting hard work = this improves economic status of family Absence of poverty a
promoting hart work are area

A.K Ndacheredwa (Mrs) Page 36

 promoting peace and harmony – when members are at harmony they are able to co-
operate and relate well to others. They are also able to contribute well to the family
welfare.

TOPIC 13: MORALS AND VALUES

Morals

 They are a set of beliefs or guidelines that people follow based on their culture or society
 They are standards of appropriate conduct and behaviours to the individual or the society
to which an individual belongs

Values

 They are beliefs or standards that influence behaviours

 They are ideas, beliefs and behaviours that a person considers important

Acceptable morals and values by the family and community

 Each family and community is governed or guided by acceptable morals and values
 Some of the morals and values that are acceptable are as follows:

1. Respect
 Respect for oneself or others
 If you respect oneself you are likely to respect property as well

2. Justice
 Fairness when dealing with others.
 It involves respecting other people‟s rights and giving them what they deserve

3. Courage

 This is when one is ready to face challenges and difficulties times in order to achieve
something desirable

4. Prudence

 It means thinking carefully about consequences of an action before making a decision

or taking action

5. Temperance

 It involves self-control and avoiding extremes of actions, thoughts and feelings

 Avoiding too much of everything

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6. Tolerance
 Accepting other people‟s view, opinions, beliefs that are different from others

7. Responsibility
 Being responsible means to be honest, reliable, trustworthy

8. Co-operation
 It means working with each other or helping each other for a particular purpose
 E.g. doing community activities such as clearing paths

9. Obedience
 It is doing what you are told to do without raising unnecessary questions

10. Discipline
 Doing things on our own without being supervised
 It helps to develop individual initiatives

11. Generosity
 It is the quality of being kind, helpful and unselfish
 It is giving more than what is expected of you

12. Empathy
 Ability to understand another person‟s feelings or situations

13. Fortitude
 Ability to stick to one‟s convictions or values by not being moved by peers

14. Humility
 Thinking that other people are as important as you are

Value Clarification process

 Value Clarification is a process that demands examining critically what you believe in.
 Value Clarification is a process by which a person discovers his/her own values.
 Value Clarification is identifying and clarifying your values
 Value Clarification of thinking about our values in order to choose the most appropriate
one‟s

Value Clarification has 3 stages:

1. Choosing

 Identify values freely without pressure from teachers, parents or anyone

 This is done after considering consequences of each alternative

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2. Prizing

 Rank the values according to the order of importance and merit

 Affirm your choice publicly

3. Implementation

 Act on your choice in ways that are consistent with the choice you made.
 Demonstrate a pattern of behaviour based on the choices you made

Importance of Value Clarification

 It helps resist peer pressure –one is able to make decisions without being influenced by
others
 It helps to make right choices – one is able to assess alternatives before him/her in
relation to issues and challenges and make the right choice
 It helps to develop assertiveness – people who clarify values are assertive and are able
to state their opinions clearly. They stand by their values
 It help to exercise self-control – one is able to control oneself when someone is forcing
them to do something they consider immoral
 It helps to avoid social and health problems – one is able to avoid risky behaviours.
Therefore, they avoid social and health products such as STIs, school dropout etc
 A person is able to develop life skills such as critical thinking and problem solving skills

TOPIC 14 : CULTURAL PRACTICES THAT DO NOT PROMOTE HIV AND AIDS

IN COMMUNITIES

Common cultural practices in Malawi

 Widow/death cleansing (kulowakufa)

 Widow/wife inheritance (chokolo)
 Lobola
 Hyena (fisi)
 Spouse swapping or Sex orgies (chimwanamayi)
 Dust cleansing (kusasa/kuchotsa fumbi)
 Bulangete la mfumu
 Traditional Dances
 Initiation ceremonies (chinamwali)
 Traditional wedding (Chinkhoswe)
 Chief installation ceremonies
 Polygamy (mitala)
 Male circumcision/female circumcision

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 Monogamy
 Chitengwa
 Chikamwini
 Bonus wife (Mbiligha)
 Extended family system
 Eating on a round table using one plate
 Incisions or tattooing (mphini)

Cultural practices promoting the spread of HIV

1. Initiation ceremonies

 They mark transition from childhood to adulthood

 They are most common in Southern and Central region

2. Widow inheritance

 A widow is inherited as a spouse by a relative of the late husband

 It is common in Northern Malawi

3. Polygamy

 Men marry more than one wife

4. Death cleansing

 A man sleeps with a woman whose husband has died

 It is common in Nsanje and Chikwawa

5. Dust cleansing

 It is performed on newly initiated girls to test their womanhood.

6. Bonus wife

 A young sister is offered to a husband as reward for good behaviour etc

 It is common among Ngonde in Karonga

7. Fisi

 It is used in different situations such as:

 Moto – when a house accidentally catches fire, a man is called to have sexual
intercourse with the woman whose house has caught fire to prevent the fire
from occurring again
 In initiation ceremonies – a man is given the role of having sex with newly
initiated girls
 In a childless family - a man is called to assist the family with a child where
the problem is believed to be the man

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Cultural practices that do not promote spread of HIV

1. Extended family practices

 It is composed of nuclear family plus other relatives

2. Counselling of young people by elders

 A practice in which young people are instructed, advised and counselled by elders
on various issues that threaten their lives
 It happens in initiation ceremonies and other functions etc

3. Monogamy

 Marrying one wife only

 It is common in communities where Christianity is dominant

4. Traditional/ customary weddings

 They are conducted to celebrate the entering into marriage of a man and woman
who have decided to get married

Cultural practices that do not promote Cultural practices that promote spread of
HIV HIV
 Monogamy  Mbiligha/Hlazi (bonus wife)
 Extended family practices  Polygamy
 Traditional weddings  Widow inheritance (chokolo)
 Lobola  Dust Cleansing (kusasa/kuchotsa fumbi)
 Counselling of young people by elders  Hyena (fisi)
 Traditional dances  Death cleansing (kulowa kufa0
 Chie installation ceremonies  Circumcision
 Chitengwa  Spouse swapping
 Chikwamwini  Bulangete la mfumu
 Lobola
 Eating on a round table using one plate
 Child rearing practices

Identifying bad elements in some cultural practices

Cultural practice What makes it a bad practice

 Initiation ceremonies  The use of a hyena

 The kusasa fumbi practice
 Circumcision  Use of unsterilized tool for more than
one person
 Tattooing  Use of unsterilized tool for more than
one person

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Other practices that help to fight spread of HIV

 Abstinence
 Delaying sexual intercourse
 Observing virginity before marriage

1. Abstinence

 this involves refraining from sexual activities because they lead to early pregnancies,
early marriages and spread of HIV. Abstinence is good and should therefore be
encouraged
2. Delaying sexual intercourse
 young people should not have sexual intercourse until they get married. This will help
to lessen spread of HIV
3. Observing virginity before marriage
 young girls are encouraged to stay away from sexual relationships until they are
married. Preserving virginity greatly lessens spread of HIV

Ways of dealing with cultural practices that promote the spread of HIV and AIDS in
the community

 It is important to do something on the bad cultural practices so as to bring change to our

communities
 The table below has the suggestions:

Cultural practice Suggested ways to correct them

1. Polygamy (mitala)  Sensitize the community on the dangers of the
2. Wife inheritance (chokolo) cultural practices
3. Death cleansing (kulowa kufa)  NGOs and government should work together with
4. Spouse swapping (chimwanamayi) chiefs to condemn such cultural practices
5. Hyena (fisi)  Promoting assertiveness
 Ask religious institutions to condemn polygamy
 Conducting HIV and AIDS awareness
6. Tattooing  Avoid using unsterilized instruments
7. Female circumcision  Use one needle/razor blade for one person
8. male circumcision
9. girls initiations  Do not invite fisi (hyena)
 No kusasa fumbi (dust cleansing)

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TOPIC 15 : VULNERABLE PEOPLE IN THE SOCIETY

Vulnerable people

 They are not independent

 They require the favour, help and support of others to assist them to meet certain needs
 These people are often and easily abused, exploited or taken advantage of by other people
who are more advantaged than them

Vulnerability is the state of being disadvantaged by being exposed to danger

EXAMPLES OF VULNERABLE PEOPLE

There are many groups of people who are vulnerable to HIV. Some of them are:

Name of Group of Reasons why they are vulnerable to HIV and AIDS Infections
people
Women There are biological and social (cultural) factors that put women at a
risk of HIV.
Biological factors
 Women receive greater quantities of possibly infected fluids
during sexual activities
 Women have a wider surface area of mucous membrane than men
which allows HIV to penetrate into blood easily
 Use of natural substances to dry out the vagina may cause tearing
during sexual intercourse
 Vagina is an internal organ and women are less likely to know that
they have sores from other STIs and this facilitates HIV
transmission
Social (cultural) factors
 Polygamy –where a man marries more than one wife. If one person
is infected it will be transmitted to all
 Spouse swapping (sex orgies) – exchanging wives or sexual
partners with friends. If one person is infected it will be
transmitted to all
 Men‟s preference for dry sex – it encourages women to put drying
agents in the vagina that can cause tearing
 Extreme poverty – it encourages women to exchange sex for
money, food, school fees etc
Children  Are dependent on their parents and other well to do people
 They face abuses and exploitation because of this dependence
 Other people offer children cheap things in exchange of sex
 They are at a risk of contracting HIV which can be transmitted to
them through the mother before, during and immediately after
delivery
Widows  May have difficulties to have basic needs if they depended on the
husband.
 Property grabbing by the deceased relatives
 Exposed to sexual, financial, emotional and psychological abuse

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  They are at a risk of contracting HIV due to cultural practices such
as kulowa kufa and chokolo
Orphans  They lost one or both parents at tender age due to HIV and other
problems
 They lack peace of mind because of the challenges they meet
 Female orphans are more vulnerable to HIV
 Selfish people take advantage of their lack of income and abuse
them sexually
 HIV can be transmitted through such acts
Migrant workers  They move from their home to other places for employment
 It results in getting involved in casual sexual activities
 This behaviour makes them vulnerable to HIV
Commercial sex  They are found in bottle stores, pubs, taverns
workers  they sleep with different people
 They indulge in sexual activities in exchange with money
 This makes them vulnerable to HIV infections
Mobile business  They move from one place to another to buy and sell goods
persons  Are away from home for long time
 Due to lack of self-control they indulge in casual sexual activities
 This also puts them at a risk of HIV
Prisoners  They are denied basic needs
 They are subjected to overcrowding in prisons
 They are often beaten by prison staff
 They are at a risk of contracting HIV due to homosexuality
activities which are common in prisons. These activities are done
at will or by force
People with  They have physical and mental challenges e.g. the deaf, blind,
disabilities dumb, mentally challenged
 They may be abused, exploited, ridiculed because of the challenges
 Access to jobs, education and opportunities to get married, may be
denied
The elderly (Aged)  Have limited means of generating income
 They are weak physically and have no energy to do manual work
 Have problems in decision -making
The sick  Because of illness, they have physical, mental and psychological
problems
The poor  They lack basic needs e.g food, clothing, shelter
 They live a very low quality life and are at a risk of contracting
diseases
 Are marginalised (excluded) from making important decisions
Truck drivers  They move from one place to another to load and offload (deliver)
goods
 Sometimes they stay away from home for longer time
 This forces them to indulge in casual sexual relationships
 It puts them at a risk of HIV
Sexual partners of the  The vulnerable people may contract HIV from casual sex
vulnerable groups
 This puts their partners at a risk of contracting HIV from them

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Needs of vulnerable people

General needs of vulnerable people can be grouped into :

Material needs  To be helped in household duties

 E.g. washing, sweeping, fetching water (for the elderly, the
sick) etc
Economic needs  Need to be provided with financial support
 E.g. credit facilities (for the poor, sex workers)
Psychological needs  Orphans, the sick, widows have problems of fear, depression
 Therefore, need support like listening to their concerns, chatting
with them, showing attention and love
Physical needs  For their physical wellbeing they should be provided with food,
shelter, potable and safe water, clothing (e,g, children, orphans,
the poor, elders)
 To be protected from abusers (e.g children, people with
disabilities, widows
Spiritual needs  Praying with them and preaching
 Giving spiritual counselling
 This gives them hope, comfort and encouragement

TOPIC 16 : SEX, SEXUALITY AND GENDER

Sex

 Biological differences between males and females

 Sex is biologically determined and it does not change with culture or age

Sex roles

 Those things a person can do by virtue of being male or female

 E.g. females breastfeed, get pregnant, give birth, produce ovum (eggs)
 Eg males produce sperms, impregnate

Sexuality

 It is the total expression of who we are as human beings

 Sexuality is shaped by our values, attitudes, behaviours, physical appearance, beliefs, likes
and dislikes, spiritual beliefs, emotions, personality
 It develops and changes with time and it is acquired from birth

Gender

 It is a set of beliefs and behaviour expected from males and females by society
 Roles assigned to males and females by society

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Gender roles

 They are behaviours that are considered appropriate for male and female members in a
particular society
 Hence, they are socially constructed
 Gender roles can be affected by factors such as time, education, development, economic
conditions

Sex Sexuality/Gender
 It is natural. It is given from birth  It is acquired from childhood as
determined by society
 It is universal. It does not vary among  It can vary between cultures
different nations
 It is permanent (it does not change with  It can change over time and according to
time) situation (dynamic)
 It is obvious (one is either male or female)  It is not always obvious

Your Value as a sexual being

All humans are sexual beings. As such they experience many things either as young people
of adults, as female or male.

 They experience sexual excitement in response to sexual fantasies and physical

contact with another person
 They are physically or emotionally attracted to people of the opposite sex. For this
reason they start to look for someone to marry

All these are a totally normal part of being human.

Components of Sexuality

These are sensuality, sexual intimacy, sexual identity, sexual health and reproduction,
sexualisation.

a) Sensuality

 Being aware of and feelings about your own body and those of others especially
the opposite sex
 It enables people feel good about what their bodies look like, feel like and can do,

b) Sexual intimacy

 The ability and need to be emotionally close to other people and have that closeness
returned.
 Sharing intimacy is what makes personal relationships rich

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c) Sexual identity

 It is understanding who one is in the sense of being male or female (the physical
make up and being aware of your sex). It encompasses:
 Gender identity – knowing whether you are male or female
 Gender roles – behaviours that are considered appropriate for males or
females in a particular culture
 Sexual orientation – knowing what type of sex one is attracted to e.g.
 Homosexual – being attracted to people of same sex
 Heterosexual – being attracted to people of opposite sex (this is a
common cultural norm)
 Bisexual – being attracted to both sexes

d) Sexual health and reproduction

 The capacity to reproduce and the behaviours to keep relationships healthy. It

covers:
 Pregnancy
 Sexual intercourse
 Feelings and attitudes
 Family planning
 Information on STIS and HIV prevention
 Facts about child health
 Fertility and infertility

e) Sexualisation

 Using sex and sexuality to influence, control and manipulate other people e.g.
 To punish – sex becomes an expression of anger/revenge
 To win or return favours – sex is given as payment to or return a favour offered
by someone
 To control behaviour – e.g. getting pregnant so that you be given permission to
marry
 To exploit selfishly – to use the other person for physical satisfaction without
regard for that person‟s well being or without regard for the consequences

Sexualisation also includes sexual abuse and sexual harassment, flirting, seduction,
withholding sex from partner, selling products with sex message

How components of sexuality affect human behaviour

 Helps young people to know if they are lovable or not. This makes them look for
someone to love
 Helps to know if one is sexually attractive or not. This makes girls to dress seductively
 Helps to develop sexual curiosity. It increases desire to have sexual intercourse
 Influences young people develop rudeness, desire for independence

A.K Ndacheredwa (Mrs) Page 47

Venn diagram showing components of sexuality

Sexual
intimacy
Sensuality Sexual
identity

Sexual health
sexualisation and
reproduction

Sources of Information on Sex and Sexuality

a) Reliable sources include:

 Health facilities – e.g hospitals. They provide information on family planning,

prevention and control of STIs, responsible sexual practices etc
 Parents and guardians – they teach young people acceptable codes of conduct and
behaviour. However, they are not free to talk with their children for the following
reasons:
 They feel uncomfortable and embarrassed to talk about sex and sexuality
 They are uninformed and do not know how to explain issues on sexuality such
as menstruation to their children and wards
 They are afraid that the knowledge will lead to sexual experimentation
 Literature such as books
 Religious counsellors and institutions - e.g church and mosques. They teach moral
behaviours such as abstinence and faithfulness in marital relationships
 School – they teach benefits of family planning, prevention of STIs and HIV and
AIDS, benefits of abstinence, teenage pregnancies etc
 Non-Governmental Organisation (NGOs) – they teach youth about HIV and AIDS.
 Media –e.g. TV, radio, magazines, newspaper and internet. However, some forms of
media cannot be trusted as the information comes from personal opinions
 Personal experiences – young people learn by observing what goes on in their bodies
as they grow up as well as through interaction with members of the same sex

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b) Unreliable sources include:

 Peer e.g agemates, school mates, friends

 Community e.g initiation ceremonies, traditional dances, funerals, weddings.

TOPIC 17 : SEXUAL HARASSMENT AND ABUSE

Harassment

 It is a behaviour that annoys or upsets someone

 It is unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favours and other verbal or physical
conduct of a sexual nature

Abuse

 It is also known as molestation

 It is to use or treat someone wrongly or badly

Sexual abuse

 It is forcing of undesirable sexual behaviour by one person upon another

Sexual Harassment and abuse

 It is the practice of satisfying one‟s sexual desires through another person without seeking
that person‟s consent

Forms of sexual harassment and abuse

 Physical action (sexual imposition) – e.g. making a child touch someone‟s private parts,
touching intimate parts of a girl such as breast, whistling, forced kissing, physical assault
and rape etc.
 Verbal sexual advancement – using sexual and demeaning language such as honey, love,
babe, sexualised jokes, mocking a female‟s body
 Use of offensive materials – showing to girls pornographic materials e.g. videos or
pictures
 Sexual exploitation – enticing women or girls with money or other things in order to have
willful sex

Factors that lead to sexual harassment and abuse

1. Social attitudes
 Societies have set bad standards for females and males regarding behaviours e.g. boys
are expected to be sexually experienced while girls should maintain virginity
 Boys/males therefore entice female to have sex with them

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2. Cultural practices
 E.g. ritual of fisi in initiation ceremonies

3. Socialisation
 Girls are taught to be submissive while males are taught to be aggressive
 Therefore, girls are taken advantage of and forced into sex

4. The media
 It potrays women as objects and property to be used
 As a result women are taken advantage of

5. Misinformation
 Includes wrong information and myths
 E.g. one becomes rich if he sleeps with a virgin or baby

6. Seductive dressing
 The way males/females dress make others to be attracted to them sexually
 E.g. miniskirts, tight clothes attract offensive sexual remarks

7. Family disruptions
 E.g. divorce, death, separation, migration
 Females become helpless and can be easily taken advantage of by males

8. Peer pressure
 Young people are forced into sexual intercourse by friends

9. Economic status
 Women have low incomes for their survival
 Men therefore take advantage of this to harass and abuse them sexually

10. Drug and substance abuse

 It interferes with sense of judgement and proper thinking
 The user can easily engage in behaviours like sexual harassment

Effects of sexual harassment and Abuse

 Psychological problems –e.g anger, confusion, depression, anxiety, stress, fear,

embarrassment and trauma.
 Pregnancy – it may lead to unplanned pregnancies and eventually the victim may try to
terminate the pregnancy
 Contraction of STIs and HIV – the abuser and victim are at a risk of contracting STIs
and HIV. This may lead to death and unnecessary pressure on health facilities

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 Imprisonment of the abuser – abuser can be arrested and jailed for committing the
offence
 School drop out –due to psychological problems the victim may decide to drop out of
school. They may also drop out of school for fear of being mocked or fear of further abuse
 Withdrawal (or weakening of support network) – the victim may distance themselves
from others. Friends and family may also distance themselves from the victim
 Destruction of self esteem – a person subjected to sexual abuse such as rape and
demeaning language loses their sense of self esteem and confidence

Structures that Support Victims of sexual harassment and abuse

 NGOs e.g.Centre for Human Rights Education, Advice and Assistance (CHREAA)
 Government agencies e.g. Social welfare
 Police e.g. Victim Support Unit
 Health facilities e.g. hospitals
 Religious institutions e.g. church, mosque
 Parents or gurdians
 School e.g. teachers
 Employer - if the victim is an employee
 Court – magistrate court

Skills for Protecting Oneself from sexual harassment and abuse

 Dressing properly – do not dress in ways that make other people desire you sexually
 Moving (travelling) in groups – it is easy to be harassed if you move alone
 Reject forced sexual intercourse – say „NO‟ with your mouth and body
 Avoid using drugs and substance abuse – drugs make a person to lose their sense of
judgement and thus can easily be abused
 Use physical defence – use anything around you to protect yourself. Also run and yell
 Planning ahead – arrange with friends to be together when going places with people you
do not know.
 Communicate – let family or friends know where you are going and expected time or
return
 Beware of strangers – Never accept a ride from strangers as some may have bad motives
 Avoid being in lonely places – others may take advantage of you

Skills for overcoming the effects of sexual harassment and abuse

Sexual harassment and abuse creates fear, anger, shame, guilt and other negative effects in
the victim. The following can be done to deal with these problems:

1. Seeking counselling – victims should be assured that the abuser will be dealt with
accordingly

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2. Doing sporting activities – it helps to keep busy and reduce the period of thinking about
the problem

3. Forgiving and forgetting – this helps to release hatred, anger, guilt. The longer the victim
keeps thinking of what happened the more it hurts him or her.

4. Telling someone about them – if victim feels the effects of sexual harassment and abuse
they should tell someone about them.

5. Go for holiday – it is better to go to another environment for a short holiday if the scene
reminds them of what happened to them

6. Spiritual talk – victims can feel comforted if they get spiritual talk

UNIT 18 : THE WORLD OF WORK

Employment and Entrepreneurship

Three main reasons why people get employed:

 To get paid and earn a living

 To gain experience
 For enjoyment

Forms of Employment

1. Formal employment
 A person in formal employment is paid a salary after an agreed period : weekly,
fortnightly or monthly.
 Examples include teaching, medicine, driving, engineering
 Institutions that offer formal employment include : government, company, NGOs,
statutory bodies or parastatals
 A person is entitled to annual leave, pension scheme
 A person may also get an emergency and general purpose loan upon request

2. Informal employment
 A person is given wages not salaries
 In most cases it is temporary or seasonal
 Wages are paid after an agreed period or after completing a specific amount of
work
 Examples include :piece works, tea picking

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3. Self- employment
 It means working for oneself
 You decide your own salary, work at your own pace, no fear of being sucked etc
 Examples include : selling fish, shoe repair, a doctor owning a clinic

4. Voluntary employment
 Providing a service without any payment
 Young people go into voluntary work in order to gain experience in the job they
desire
 Self-help projects and the works or organisations such as Red Cross

Importance of various forms of employment

1. Improving living standards

 The income enables them to support their families thereby improving living
standards

2. Reducing poverty
 The income generated helps to meet needs of the family
 The income helps to meet the needs of the poor and relatives

3 Promoting self-reliance
 Self –employment helps someone to gain income so that they become self reliant
 A school leaver can engage in tailoring. The money generated is used to meet
personal needs

4. Assisting Communities
 Voluntary employment helps to develop communities
 E.g. roads, schools, roads are built on voluntary basis

5. Reducing unemployment
 Self-employment and voluntary employment helps to reduce unemployment
 Crime rate is also reduced

6. Source of government revenue.

 Taxes from salaries is a source of government revenue to be used in various social
services

Entrepreneurship
 It is any form of business or activity a person does to generate money
 It is the production or purchasing of items that are in turn sold in order to get reasonable
profits

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Ways of becoming an Entrepreneur

1. Becoming a partner
 Becoming a partner in an already established business or firm is the easiest way of
becoming an entrepreneur

2. Inheriting a business
 Inheriting a business of a relative, parent or guardian.

3. Buying an established business

 A person can buy a successful business that can provide reliable income
 A person can buy a business that is not performing well to make it profitable

4. Becoming a consultant
 A consultant is a person who gives professional advice to people or organisation on
a particular subject
 A consultant is paid for the service
 A person can provide consultancy in education, human resources etc

5. Running a home business

 It can be established and run on a part time basis until it becomes successful
enough to expand.

6. Buying a business from the employer

 A person can buy a company which he has been working for if the owner wants to
retire or sell the business

7. Becoming a landlord/landlady
 A person can build or buy houses which he can rent out
 If successful he can invest in other real estate and expand the business

8. Joining a co-operative
 A Co-operative is a business or organisation run by people who work for it or
owned by people who use it.
 These people share is benefits and profits

9. Buying shares in a business

 When a person buys shares he becomes a shareholder and share the profits

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Importance of Entrepreneurship
These include:

1. Improving living standards

 Money generated as profits is used to improve living standards
 It also raises the quality of life for the community where he does the business
 People in the community obtain commodities from the business and hence
enjoying good quality of life

2. Providing employment
 People find jobs as salesmen, messengers and sales managers thereby reducing
unemployment

3. Reducing poverty
 Poverty is lack of basic necessities e.g. food, shelter, clothes
 The income generated is used to meet daily necessities, needs and wants

4. Ensuring proper utilisation of resources

 Resources such as soil, water, land are used to make bricks which can be sold at a
profit

5. Promoting economic empowerment

 the money generated can be used for other investments or expanding already
existing businesses

6. Helping to pass time profitably

 entrepreneurial activities keep a person occupied and busy
 idleness is reduced by being busy
 it also helps to reduce worries and tensions in life

Income Generating Activities

Income generating activity is a term used to describe a small scale investment or business
activity that makes money to benefit an individual or groups of people.

The following income generating activities can be taken in a community:

1. Cash for work projects

 people in communities are involved in labour intensive public projects e.g.
construction of roads, bridges and school blocks.
 They are able to get income from the projects to meet their needs

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2. Raising livestock and poultry
 These include raising goats, chickens
 Some organisations provide credit facilities and technical assistance to these people

3. Agriculture production
 It involves the growing of vegetables, tree nurseries, fruits
 They get income for their living from the sale of these items

4. Food processing and preservation of activities

 Activities include production of jam, fruit juices, cooking oil
 These can be done by an individual, families or in groups

5. Traditional craft activities

 These are done using local materials and skills acquired informally from the
community
 Examples include: basket and mat making, curio production, knitting, doormats

6. Bee keeping
 it involves keeping bees in order to collect honey and other products e.g. beewax
 production of bees for sale to other bee keepers

7. Shop keeper activities

 vending
 hawker
 grocery shop

8. Providing services
 hall decorations e.g. for weddings
 car washing
 Director of ceremonies e.g in weddings, business top-up

Skills required in income generating activities

Lack of skills in managing income generating activities can make the activities not to
succeed.

The skills include planning, budgeting, production, quality control, marketing,

communication, literacy, numeracy, negotiation, creativity, human relations and problem
solving.

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1. Planning
 Think of :
 Where you will get capital
 How many people will be involved
 Amount of production per day to match market needs
 Set up short, medium and long term goals

2. Budgeting
 It is an advance plan on how to spend money on something over a period of time
 It helps you to organise resources that are required and how to spend it.
 It also helps to avoid overspending by using money on planned items

3. Production
 It is the making or manufacturing goods from raw materials
 It is an act of creating output, goods or services which have value

4. Quality control
 it ensures quality by maintaining standards in making products or rendering
services

5. Marketing
 marketing skills are needed to do income generating activities
 the person should be able to identify customer needs and wants
 the person should find ways of satisfying the needs and wants
 the person should create and maintain good relationships with customers

6. Communication skills
 he needs to communicate effectively with customers, creditors and investors
 needs of customers must be prioritised

7. Literacy and numeracy

 Literacy is the ability to read and write
 Numeracy is the ability to deal with numbers e.g. addition, subtracting, multiplying
and dividing
 It helps to keep records and make informed decisions if the business is making
losses or profits

8. Negotiation
 It is the process of using discussion to reach an agreement
 He needs to negotiate on daily basis with customers, creditors and employees
where necessary

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9. Creativity
 It involves coming up with new ideas on your products and new ideas how to meet
customer needs/demands
 It helps to offer unique products or items on the market

10. Public relations

 the need to interact, communicate and get along with other people as well as
creating good image of themselves and their business

11. Problem solving and decision making

 people in income generating activities often face challenges and problems.
 Challenges and problems may also create a lot of opportunities
 Problem solving and decision making skills are necessary to deal with the
challenges well

Ways of Acquiring skills which are needed in income generating activities

1. Trainings before work

 Business skills can be acquired in a training school or college (e.g. TEVET)
 E.g. if you want to start rearing chicken you can do a training on chicken
management

2. In-service education and trainings

 These are trainings done while doing business or working in similar field
 E.g. a farmer can go for training on “Ulimi wa mtaya khasu” to learn new farming
methods methods

3. Refresher course
 These are trainings given to people that have previously gone through similar
training.
 These trainings act as reminders on what was learnt many years ago

4. Hands-on Training
 Doing a business with basic knowledge and then gaining experience as time goes
by and while still working
 A person becomes an expert by practicing a particular job

notes taken from :

 Success Criteria, Revision notes and Practical work by Aubrey Chirwa (2014)
 Excel and Succeed Life Skills Book 1 by Fritz Kadyoma (2014)
 Arise with Life skills Student’ Book 1 by Samuel Mandauka (2013)

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ESSAY WRITING

An essay is a short piece of writing on a particular topic or subject. Before beginning writing
an essay, it is necessary to understand what the question is demanding.

Contents of an essay

 Title
 Introduction
 Body
 conclusion

1. Title or heading

 this is the frame from the question that you have been asked
 a good essay must have a title which is short and centralised and written in capital
letters
 a title if written in small letters must be underlined
 a title must not be a mere repetition of the question to be answered
 e.g. explain the process of planning

THE PLANNING PROCESS

The Planning process

2. Introduction

 the essay must be opened by an introduction which can be a definition of the key
words in the question and a simple statement of the objective (main purpose) of the
essay
 An introduction must be kept short (it should be one paragraph only)
 E.g. A plan is an outline of activities to be achieved within a specified time. This
essay will explain the process that is involved in planning.

3. Body

 Here is where you explain all the points you have been asked. Each paragraph
must contain one idea or point
 Once a point has been raised, it should be explained and an appropriate example
must be given to expound it
 Use short and clear sentences as long sentences may distort meaning
 Imagine that you are writing to a reader who is not knowledgeable about the topic
at hand. Be an expert of the topic
 Leave a line between paragraphs
 For proper boundaries of paragraphs use „signalling devices‟. These are used for
logical and thorough flow of information
 Paragraph 1 – use firstly, to begin with, in the first place

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  Paragraph 2 – use secondly, apart from point above, in the second place
 Paragraph 3 – use thirdly, in the third place, in addition to points above,
furthermore
 Paragraph 4 – Use finally, lastly (assuming paragraph 4 is the last one)

e.g. To begin with, identifying activities is the first step in the planning process. It
involves identifying the needs at hand and then prioritising them. For example, if a
person has a need to write an assignment and also to go to a football match, he or
she may decide to write the assignment first.

4. Conclusion

 Must be a short statement closing the discussion.

 Do not repeat the points raised in the body
 Use the following devices : In conclusion, In summary, To conclude, To sum up,
To summarise
 E.g. In conclusion, the essay has explained the process that is involved in planning

Note : do not use bullets, dots, colon, numbering, sub titles or sub headings

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