Geometri Foto Udara

?
Different size,
shape and
Location of static
objects
Orthorectifying this photo is necessary for practical use since the effects of
relief displacement must be removed.
• On a map we see a top view of
objects in their true relative
horizontal positions. On a
photograph, areas of terrain at the
higher elevations lie closer to the c
amera and therefore appear larger
than the corresponding areas lying
at lower elevations.
• The image of the tops of objects
appearing in a photograph are
displaced from the images of their
bases. This distortion is known as
relief displacement and causes any
obje ct standing above the terrain
to lean away from the principal
point of a photo radially.
(A) Perspective projection (B) Orthogonal Projection
- Radial displacement
- Scale differences
Optical distortion:
• Caused by inferior camera constant, lenses, atmospheric
interference etc.
• Of minor importance in modern aerial photography.

Tilt of the focal plane:

• Caused by aircraft (platform) orientation.

Relief displacement:
• Caused by the terrain undulations.
• The amount of displacement depends on the height of the object
and the radial distance of the object from the image nadir.
• The most important source of positional error.
Panjang fokus pada lensa sederhana
• The function of a lens in photogrammetry is to gather light rays
and bring them into focus at a point.
• A positive lens changes a divergent light bundle, originating
from a point source, to a convergent bundle.
• A negative lens makes the bundle more divergent.
It is not just one lens,
but a set of about 10-
12 lenses that make
up the aerial camera
lens system.
Any remote sensing image will have various geometric distortions.
This problem is inherent in remote sensing, as we attempt to
accurately represent the three-dimensional surface of the Earth as a
two-dimensional image.
All remote sensing images are subject to some form of geometric
distortions, depending on the manner in which the data are acquired.
These errors may be due to a variety of factors, including one or more
of the following, to name only a few:
• the perspective of the sensor optics,
• the motion of the scanning system,
• the motion and (in)stability of the platform,
• the platform altitude, attitude, and velocity,
• the terrain relief, and
• the curvature and rotation of the Earth.
The primary geometric distortion in vertical aerial photographs
is due to relief displacement. Objects directly below the centre
of the camera lens (i.e. at the nadir) will have only their tops
visible, while all other objects will appear to lean away from the
centre of the photo such that their tops and sides are visible. If
the objects are tall or are far away from the centre of the photo,
the distortion and positional error will be larger.
Macam-macam proyeksi.
•
Foto Udara adalah suatu proyeksi sentral
Peta adalah suatu proyeksi orthogonal.
Macam-macam proyeksi:
• Proyeksi pararel
•
Segitiga ABC diproyeksikan pada garis L. Maka A’B’C’ adalah proyeksinya dan
AA’, BB’ dan CC’ adalah sinar-sinar proyeksi yang dalam hal ini adalah
sejajar.

• Proyeksi ortogonal
Sinar-sinar proyeksi semuanya tegaklurus bidang .
• Proyeksi sentral
Sinar-sinar proyeksi melalui suatu titik O, yaitu pusat perspektif
•
1. Optical distortion
- Disebabkan karena masalah kamera

Central projection (Photo) versus orthogonal projection (Map)

Foto Udara (+)

Foto Udara (-)

Distorsi (distortions) :
suatu perubahan kedudukan suatu gambar pada suatu foto yang
mengubah ciri-ciri perspektif gambar.
 diakibat perubahan lokasi foto yang mengubah sifat dasar dari
foto.

Pergeseran (displacement) :
Suatu perubahan kedudukan suatu gambar pada suatu foto yang
tidak mengubah ciri-ciri perspektif gambar.
 disebabkan oleh perubahan dalam ketinggian dari mana foto itu
diambil.
Tipe Distorsi Tipe pergeseran
1. Pengerutan film dan gambar 1. Lengkungan bumi (Curvature of
cetakan (Film and Print the Earth)
Shrinkage) 2. Kemiringan sumbu kamera (tilt)
2. Pembiasan berkas cahaya di 3. Bersifat topografis atau relief ,
dalam atmosfer (Atmospheric termasuk tinggi obyek
refraction of light rays) (Topography and relief)
3. Gerakan Gambar (Image
motion)
4. Distorsi lensa (Lens
Distortions)
5. Malfungsi kamera : shutter
malfunction, failure of the film-
flattening mechanism in the
camera focal plane
 Dipengaruhi :
• Kuliatas film dan kertas cetak
• Perubahan suhu (panas atau dingin)
Perubahan kecil kira-kira 0.025 mm

Efek dari penyusutan film, atmosfer refraksi biasanya diabaikan dalam banyak kasus
Koreksi :

Where:
x is the corrected photocoordinate along the x-axis for a point a,
y is the corrected photocoordinate along the y-axis for a point a,
xc is the calibrated fiducial distance along x-axis,
yc is the calibrated fiducial distance along y-axis,
xf is the measured fiducial distance along x-axis,
yf is the measured fiducial distance along y-axis,
xm is the measured photocoordinate for point a along the x-axis,
ym is the measured photocoordinate for point a along the y-axis, and
xc/xf and yc/yf are the correction factors along x-axis and y-axis respectively.
Example :

Suppose that the calibrated distances between the fiducial marks on the camera are
23.25 cm along x-axis and 23.30 cm along y-axis. The corresponding distances
measured on a photographic print from the same camera are 23.33 cm and 23.36 cm.
If the photocoordinates, x and y, of a point measured on the print are 8.15 cm and
11.04 cm, what are the corrected photocoordinates of the point.

foreknown: Solution:
xc = 23.25 cm
xf = 23.33 cm
xm = 8.15 cm
yc = 23.30 cm
yf = 23.36 cm
ym = 11.04 cm

question:
x = ……?
y = ……?
Pembiasan terbesar
dekat “ground surface”
karena kepadatan
atmosfer
Where :
Z0 = Flying height above geoid (sea level), in km
ZP = Mean terrain height above geoid (sea level), in km
c = camera constant (mm)
r = radius for a point (x’,y’) in the image (mm)
Akibat pergerakan kamera (atau wahana) ketika exposure, yang
mengakibatkan noda (smearing) dan kekaburan (blurring) pada FU.

Untuk interpretasi dan pemetaan yang baik pada FU, pergerakan

gambar kira-kira 0.05 mm (0.002 in).
Meskipun Pergerakan gambar 0.353 mm (0.014 in) masih dapat
digunakan.
 3.1.

3.2.

Where:
M = the image motion (movement) on the photograph (in millimeters in
equation (3.1.) and in inches in equation (3.2.)
0.2778 = a constant, with units: meter hours per kilometer second (in equation (3.1.)
17.6 = a constant, with units: inch hours per mile second (in equation (3.2.))
V = the ground speed of the plane in kilometers per hour in equation (3.1.) and
in miles per hour in equation (3.2.)
t = the shutter speed in seconds
f = the focal length of the camera lens (in mm in equation (3.1.) and in feet in
equation (3.2.))
HD = the flying height of the aircraft above the datum (in meters in equation (3.1.)
and in feet in equation (3.2.).
In both equations the term f/HD corresponds to the photo scale.
Therefore, the equations above may be rewritten as:

Where PSR is the photo scale reciprocal (1/photo scale or 1/(f/HD)).

Example :
Suppose that an airplane was flying 3000 meters (9840 feet) above the ground at 500
kilometers (about 310 miles) per hour. Suppose also that the camera was taking
photographs with a 305-mm (12-in.) focal length camera lens and a shutter speed of
1/40th of a second (0.025 s). What would be the image motion?

foreknown:
H = 3000 m
v = 500
km/hr
f = 305 mm
t = 0.025 s

question:
M = ……?

Solution:

( 0.025 s )
Berdasar rumus gerak gambar (persamaan 3.1. Atau 3.2.), ada banyak
cara untuk mengurangi gerakan gambar atau blur, yaitu dengan :
1. Menggunakan shutter speed yang lebih cepat (t)
2. Menggunakan pesawat terbang lebih lambat (v)
3. Terbang pada ketinggian yang lebih tinggi (hd) di atas tanah
4. Menggunakan panjang fokus lensa (f) yang lebih pendek (f)

Masalah gerak gambar kadang-kadang membuat sulit dihindari pada foto

skala besar, terutama ketika menggunakan pesawat cepat dan film warna
yang memiliki kecepatan film yang relatif lambat.
Example :

Suppose this time that an aircraft was flying at a speed of 450 km (about 280 miles)
per hour and taking photographs with a shutter speed of 1/125th of a second using a
focal length of 152.4 mm (6-in.). What should be the flying altitude of the aircraft
above the ground to assure the acceptable image motion of 0.05 mm (0.002 in) on the
photographs?

Solution:

Notice that the two results are slightly different due simply to data conversion between the English and the metric systems. In
fact, 450 km = 279.6768 miles (not 280) and 0.05 mm = 0.0019685 in (not 0.002 in). If we use these two values (279.6768 miles
and 0.0019685 in instead of 180 miles and 0.02 in ), we will find the exact number (about 10,000 ft) as in the metric equation.
This is another indication that your measurements and your input data (aircraft speed, shutter speed, and focal length) must be as
accurate as possible to obtain reliable and satisfactory photographs
Koreksi sistematis terhadap distorsi lensa menurut the
Bureau of Standards USA :
< 0.01 mm (0.0004 inch) pada bagian tepi FU
Efek dari penyusutan film, pembiasan atmosfer dan
kelengkungan bumi biasanya diabaikan dalam banyak kasus -
pengecualian adalah proyek pemetaan yang presisi.

Distorsi (distortions) lensa ini biasanya efeknya kecil.

Pergeseran (displacement) biasanya masalah / efek
terbesar mempengaruhi analisis.
adalah pergeseran bayangan karena kelengkungan
bumi yang arahnya radial menuju ke titik nadir.

H’ . r3
Dr = --------------
2.R.f

Dimana :

Dr = Kelengkungan bumi
H’ = tinggi terbang
f = fokus kamera
R = jari-jari bumi
r = jarak radial antara bayangan dan titik nadir
The object space coordinate system (Ground Coordinate System) used in
photogrammetric formulas is a cartesian orthogonal right-hand system
with Z upwards.

However, control point coordinates often refer to some geodetic system,

where Z is the height relative to the sea level, geoid, ellipsoid or some
other curvedsurface.

There are different ways to deal with this problem;

1. Transform geodetic ground control point (GCP) coordinates to
(orthogonal) geocentric coordinates.
2. For limited areas, use tangent plane corrections for GCP Z-
coordinates and leave XY as they are.
3. Apply Earth curvature correction to image coordinates (or to the model
coordinates, but not as common).
a. An error in the position of a point on the photograph due to
indeliberate tilting of the aircraft
b. Due to instability of aircraft
c. May be due to tilting of the aircraft along the flight line
and/or perpendicular to the flight line
d. Increases radially from the isocenter
Gangguan kedudukan kamera karena kedudukan posisi pesawat.
Berubahnya ujud hipotetik yang berupa petak-petak bukursangkar seperti
pada gambar.
Airplane attitude is based on relative positions of the nose and wings on the natural horizon.
The distance between the nadir & the principal point was measured to be 0.5 inches.

What was the angle of tilt of the camera at the time of exposure if a 6 inch CFL lens
was used?
Menentukan nadir yang menggunakan perpanjangan-perpanjangan
sisi-sisi gedung vertikal yang tinggi
 DISTORSI FOTO UDARA
Akibat Pergerakan Pesawat
z

y Variasi skala

x
z

y Rotasi terhadap Rotasi terhadap

sumbu X,Y,Zdan skala
sumbu Z

x kappa

z
Rotasi terhadap
y sumbu X
Rotasi terhadap
sumbu X,Y& Z

x omega

Rotasi terhadap
y sumbu Y Rotasi terhadap
sumbu X & Y

x phi
Koreksi/cara mengatasi :
Menggunakan sistem giroskop (gyroscopic system) pada sensor
untuk mengatasi roll.
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Roll distortion
- about its flight axis
- roll compensation

Crab distortion
- caused by deflection of aircraft due to crosswind
- corrections: on the plane or by computer

Pitch distortion
- result in local scale change
- can be ignored in most analyses
Phototilt (t)
• Amount of tilt of the aircraft (and
thus the camera lens) with respect
to the vertical axis
• Angle of tilt between the line
perpendicular to the horizontal
datum and the line perpendicular
to the lens
Where:
t = phototilt
Sa = scale of first point, projected to the principal line
Sb = scale of second point, projected to the principal line
y = distance between a and b along the principal line
Hmge = flying height with respect to the mean ground
 Yang dimaksud dengan pergeseran relief adalah pergeseran posisi
bayangan suatu titik di atas foto yang disebabkan karena adanya
ketinggian titik obyek di atas bidang datum.

Pergeseran relief pada gambar :

• Pergeseran posisi p’p disebut pergeseran relief.
• Arah pergeseran ini radial menjauhi pusat foto
karena titik p terletak di atas bidang datum.
Sebaliknya untuk titik Q yang terletak dibawah
bidang datum bayangannya adalah q sehingga
pergeseran reliefnya q’q yang arahnya radial
menuju ke pusat foto.

Pergeseran relief pada foto vertikal

Radial Displacement
: Relief Displacement
Relief displacement from Nadir (Center )
Efek height displacement
pada gedung yang lebih
tinggi
Relief Displacement increases with the radial distance.
Ayman F. Habib
Tinggi Objek (h) = …. ?
Perhatikan
 ONA   PQA

h/H = D/R
h = H*D/R

dimana :
R = Jarak puncak ke dasar objek
D = jarak puncak objek ke dasar objek
H = Tinggi terbang
Perhatikan  AA’A”   LOA”

D R
-------- = --------
h H

Dengan menyatakan jarak D dan R

pada skala FU akan diperoleh :

d r
-------- = --------
h H

r.h
d = ----------
H

Dimana :
d : Pergeseran letak oleh relief pada foto /
Relief displacement (mm)
r : Jarak radial dari titik nadir ke obyek (mm)
h : Tinggi obyek di atas (+) atau di bawah (-)
bidang rujukan (m)
H : Tinggi terbang
Dari rumus ini harga pergeseraan relief akan bertambah besar bila :
a. jarak radial ( r ) dari titik nadir ( pusat foto vertikal ) bertambah besar.
b. ketinggian suatu titik terhadap datum (h) bertambah besar.
c. tinggi terbang makin rendah
• Relief Displacement is directly proportional to:
– Radial distance.
– Object height above the datum.

• Relief Displacement is inversely proportional to:

– Flying height above the datum.

• Relief displacement causes occlusion.

Using this figure, determine
the height h of the building to
which are drawn white arrows
to distances d (photo
displacement from bottom to
top) and r (to building top). On
the actual photo (not your
screen) d = 0.5 inch and r =
3.0 inches. Scale of the photo
is 1:3600. Aircraft altitude is
1800 ft.

It is necessary first to convert

inches on the photo to feet on
the ground. Divide 3600 by
12, so that the scale can be
stated as 1 inch = 300 feet.
Then d becomes 150 ft and r
becomes 900 ft. Substituting
in the equation h = Hd/r =
(1800 x 150)/900 = 300 ft.
Contoh :

Jarak obyek yang tergambar pada foto ketitik nadir = 45 mm, tinggi terbang di atas bidang
datum = 3.000 m, tinggi obyek di atas bidang datum = 30 m. Berapakah pergeseran letak oleh
relief dan ke arah mana ?

Diketahui :
r = 45 mm
h = 30 m
H = 3000 m

Ditanya :
∆r = ……?

Jawab :
Soal
Pada sebuah foto udara tegak dengan format baku terdapat gambar sebuah
gedung bertingkat. Jarak antara titik tengah foto udara dengan dasar gedung
76 mm, sedangkan jarak antara gambar puncak gedung ke titik tengah foto
udara tersebut adalah 81,46 mm. Tinggi terbang pesawat pemotret adalah
1475 m, dan elevasi dataran tempat gedung berdiri adalah 427 meter.
Tentukan berapa tinggi gedung tersebut.
Soal Ujian
Assume that the relief displacement for the summit of the tower is 5.3 mm
(measured from the bottom, b, to the summit, s, of the tower on the
photograph) and the radial distance measured from the photo center (assuming a
true vertical photograph) to the base (b) of the tower is 59 mm. If the scale of the
photograph is 1:10,000, as printed on the photograph, and the focal length used
to take this photograph is 152.4 mm, how tall is the tower?

Solution:
From equation 7.14, we notice that in order to solve for ho, we first need to
determine the; flying height (HD) of the aircraft above the datum. The formula for
the photo scale is f/HD.; Therefore, 1:10,000 = f/HD , thus: HD = 10,000 x f =
10,000 x 152.4 mm = 1524 m

Finally, substituting in equation 7.14, we obtain:

Variasi Pergeseran karena relief (Relief displacement), karena :
1. Ketinggian objek, semakin tinggi objek semakin besar relief
displcement
2. Jarak objek dari titik Nadir, semakin jauh dari titik nadir
semakin besar relief displacement
3. Ketinggian Terbang (semakin tinggi terbang semakin kecil relief
displacement sehingga citra satelit di luar angkasa (H>>>705
km (Landsat))
Ad.1. Ketinggian Objek
Contoh :
2 (dua) menara yang tergambar pada FU benar-benar tegak diambil dari 2500 m dpal. Jarak
puncak masing-masing menara ke titik nadir FU sama yaitu 8.35 cm. Jika ketinggian menara
pertama adalah 120 m dan ketinggian menara 2 adalah 85 m.
Berapakah besarnya relief displacement masing-masing menara pada FU tersebut. Beri
kesimpulan dari hasil perhitungan.

Diketahui :
H = 2500 m
r1 = 8,35 cm
r2 = 8,35 cm
h1 = 120 m
h2 = 85 m

Ditanya :
d1 = ……?
d2 = ……?

Jawab :
r.h
d = ----------
H
8,35 cm . 120 m
d1 = ------------------------
2500 m

d1 = 0,40 cm h1 > h2 → d1 > d2

8,35 cm . 85 m
d2 = ------------------------
Kesimpulan :
2500 m semakin tinggi objek semakin besar relief
d2 = 0,29 cm
displacement
Ad.2. Jarak objek dari titik Nadir
r

Negative Image

H-ho

HD
Contoh :
Menara pertama dan menara kedua mempunyai ketinggian yang sama 100 m di atas bidang
datum. Jarak puncak menara pertama ke titik nadir 6,55 cm, sedangkan jarak puncak menara
dua ketitik nadir 9,21 cm. Ketinggian terbang adalah 2500 m. Hitunglah relief displacement
masing-masing menara tersebut. Berikan kesimpulan yang Anda peroleh.
Diketahui :
r1 = 6,55 cm
r2 = 9,21 cm
h1 = 100 m
h2 = 100 m
H = 2500 m

Ditanya :
d1 = ……?
d2 = ……?

Jawab :
r.h
d = ----------
H

6,55 cm . 100 m
d1 = -------------------------
2500 m

d1 = 0,262 cm r1 < r2 → d1 < d2

9,21 cm . 100 m
d2 = -------------------------- Kesimpulan :
2500 m
Semakin jauh dari titik nadir semakin besar relief
d2 = 0,368 cm displacement yang terjadi
Ad. 3. Ketinggian Terbang (semakin tinggi terbang semakin kecil relief displacement
sehingga citra satelit di luar angkasa (H>>>705 km (Landsat))
Contoh :
Pada sebuah FU tergambar menara A yang mempunyai ketinggian 50 meter terukur jarak puncak
menara ke titik nadir 5 cm, diambil pada ketinggian terbang 500 m. Sedangkan pada citra
penginderaan jauh yang lain menara A terukur jarak puncaknya ke titik nadir sama yaitu 5 cm
tetapi diambil oleh sebuah wahana dengan ketinggian 750 km. Hitunglah relief displacement
masing-masing menara tersebut. Berikan kesimpulan yang Anda peroleh.

Diketahui : Jawab :
r1 = 5 cm r.h
r2 = 5 cm d = ----------
h1 = 50 m H
h2 = 50 m
H1 = 500 m 5 cm . 50 m
H2 = 750 km = 750000 m d1 = -------------------------
500 m
Ditanya :
d1 = ……? d1 = 0,5 cm
d2 = ……?
5 cm . 50 m
d2 = --------------------------
750000 m

d2 = 0,0003 cm = 0,003 mm

H1 < H2 → d 1 > d2

Kesimpulan :
Semakin tinggi, tinggi terbang semakin kecil relief
displacement yang terjadi
Contoh :

(H>>>705 km (Landsat))
On an island, with a height h = 20 m above sea level, there is a
lighthouse on the highest point. An image is taken from an
altitude of 800 m above sea level. In the image we measure the
radius r’B = 54 mm to the base B’ of the lighthouse, and the length
of the radial displacement (along the vertical edge of the
lighthouse) Δr’= 2.4 mm. How high above the sea level is the top
of the lighthouse?

h = ....?
Occluded Area