Sponsored by:

www.sdp-si.com

brought to you by:

DESIGN GUIDE ON
PULLEYS AND
BELTS DRIVES
PULLEYS
AND BELT DRIVES
DESIGN GUIDE
Belts and pulleys lift loads, use mechanical advantage to apply
forces, and transmit power. They also form the basis of industrial
conveyors big and small. In this exclusive Design Guide, the editors
of Design World review both V and synchronous belt types —
including the fundamentals of their operation. Topics on sizing and
selection are also covered.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
The basics of belt drives....................................................................................2

Quantifying various belt-drive performance values..........................................3

Calculating motor drive torque for belt-based motion systems......................6

Accounting for belt and pulley inertia during system design..........................9

LISA EITEL
The enduring importance of V belts ..............................................................11 Executive editor

Synchronous belts for positioning and more..................................................15

Synchronous belt failures: Six ways they can occur.........................................21

When do synchronous belts need flanged pulleys?.......................................22

Sponsored by:
Belt-driven actuators for a wide range of applications..................................24

Balancing the pulleys of belt drives................................................................26

When to consider Kevlar-reinforced belts for linear motion applications.....30 www.sdp-si.com

© Copyright 2023 WTWH Media

www.wtwhmedia.com I marketing.wtwhmedia.com I www.linearmotiontips.com

THE BASICS
OF BELT DRIVES
B
elt drives in power-transmission and motion designs Belt drives are indispensable in cartoning (cardboard-box folding)
consist of rubber, engineered plastic, metal, or (most applications. Image via Dreamstime
common) multi-material belts that wrap around drive
new forms of independent pieces of machinery run off electric
pulleys — specially grooved or otherwise profiled wheels
motors. Today, highly engineered flat belts still find myriad uses
mounted on a shaft — in turn driven by electric motors. Powered
in conveying and material-handling applications.
by various motor types, these belt drives run axes transmitting
fractional to 7,000 hp or more. Most belt drives in motion However, the faster axis speeds associated with many motor-
designs also wrap the belt around one or more idler pulleys that powered designs necessitated belts with new geometry — so
keep the belt taut and on track. next came V belts having trapezoidal cross sections. Invented by
John Gates in 1917, their easier tracking on pulleys and higher
While industrial belts are generally non-serviceable and
friction (which we’ll explain more on a moment) also allow high
can exhibit wear and vulnerability to oil as well as debris
force transmission even at relatively low tension values. Reinforced
contamination, their benefits abound. The main reasons that
cords embedded in belt backing — the tension-carrying zone —
engineers pick belt drives over other options is that modern
was another innovation still core to modern belt variations.
varieties require little if no maintenance; they’re less expensive
than chain drives; and they’re quiet and efficient, even up to 95%
or more. In addition, the tensile members of today’s belts —
cords embedded into the belt rubber that carry most of the belt
load — are stronger than ever. Made of steel, polyester, aramid,
fiberglass, or carbon fiber, these tensile cords render today’s belt
drives thoroughly modern power-transmission devices.

BELT-DRIVE EVOLUTION OF
DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE

Flat belts are the original design for automated machinery

— first applied in such designs during the first Industrial Cost-effective synchronous timing belt and pulley drive
Revolution and before. In fact, flat belts were and remain systems are used in a wide variety of applications, including
especially important in pump and sawmill operations — and 3-D Printers. Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/
once reigned supreme in driving many axes off common Sterling Instrument
steam-powered line drives through factories. Versions made of
leather quickly gave way to rubber and neoprene — hastened
Sponsored by:
by the innovations of the burgeoning automotive industry and

2 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The basics of belt drives
Recent years have seen convergence of specialty belt drive
systems in mass-produced consumer and light industrial
tools with the standard belt drives integrated into specialty
machine designs. That’s because options have proliferated
for belts with flat and round profiles as well as those with
various V-shaped profiles and toothed belts for synchronous
operation. The Association for Rubber Products Manufacturers
(ARPM) originating from the Rubber Manufacturers Association
(RMA) and the National Industrial Belting Association (NIBA)
along with component suppliers dictate the details of how the
geometries and performance of these industrial belt drives are
standardized and quantified.
Machine designs often employ gear, chain, and belt drives for
power transmission. The latter offer several advantages and come Many manufacturers describe belts and pulleys with five main
in two main subtypes — V belt and synchronous belt drives — to
geometries. Pitch diameter is the drive pulley’s diameter. Center
serve different applications.
distance is the distance between the two pulleys’ centers.
Minimum wrap angle is a measure of how much the belt wraps
Combining flat and V-belt design elements are ribbed or poly-
around the smallest pulley. Belt length is how long the belt
groove V belts — those with a cord-reinforced tension-bearing
would be if cut and laid flat.
face and multiple trapezoidal profiles running the inner belt
circumference. Drives based on ribbed V belts are exceptionally
compact and necessitate lower tensions than flat belts.
Terminology for belt drives is more consistent than that
As we’ll explore in this Design Guide, other innovations came to for other motion components. That said, in some contexts
include the introduction of toothed belts for synchronous chain- the term sheave is used instead of pulley. The terms
like operation; heat-resistant belt insulation layers; elasticized sheave and pulley are interchangeable, with few regions
and other highly engineered working belt surfaces; and pre- and industries differentiating sheave to mean any drive
stretched tensile cords of various materials. pulley — distinct from idler pulleys that have flat (or simply
profiled) outer diameters. Otherwise, sheave can imply a
rugged steel or cast-iron drive wheel that’s less precisely
cast or machined than the pulleys found in motion designs
— which are our primary focus in this Design Guide.

Finally, in the case of toothed belts (also called synchronous

belts) the pitch is the number of teeth per some length — so a
3-mm pitch means that the belt has one tooth every 3 mm, for
example.

Power ratings based on belt and pulley size (along with

motor output) are adjusted for the belt-drive length and wrap
diameters. Traditionally, charts of belt geometries and counts,
horsepower ratings, and speed and force capabilities assist
design engineers in the specification process. Today, sizing and
selection software tools abound to match required values to a
machine axis’ geometry and torque (output force) and speed
requirements. These also provide service-factor adjustments
informed by the belt or other component supplier’s own
Pulley and Belt Geometry. A common synchronous belt profile is historical experience with given industry and application type.
the trapezoidal shape with sides being straight lines which generate
an involute, similar to that of a spur gear tooth. The trapezoidal
shape timing belt was superseded by a curvilinear tooth profile
which exhibited some desirable and superior qualities. Image:
Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument Sponsored by:

3 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The basics of belt drives

Here, flat belt drives on a conveyor support the production of solar cells. Image via Dreamstime

DIFFERENTIATING OTHER applications, drives based on flat belts rely on precisely set
LESS COMMON BELT-DRIVE TYPES tension for maintaining the proper the friction coefficient between
belt and drive pulley.
Because V belt and synchronous belt drives dominate motion
power transmission and motion control (positioning and other Even today, many flat belts are made of natural materials as well
precision) applications, we cover them in more depth later in as synthetic yarns featuring various filament structures. Flat belts
this Design Guide. Following is a brief detailing of the other belt made of polyurethane are common on the ends of conveyors
types used in industrial, robotic, and consumer designs. consisting of roller arrays — to gang powered rollers (integrating a
motor in its cylindrical body) to passive nonpowered rollers.
Modern flat belts are either endless (welded or otherwise
closed into a hoop by the manufacturer) or open. Common on Flat belts with polyester tension members excel where
grinders, fans, grocery conveyors, and other power-transmission high tension (but little stretch) is required; coatings of PVC,
polyurethane, and rubber enable high friction for use on high-
speed axes running to 22,000 feet per minute.

One specialty type of flat belt indispensable in settings subject

to high temperatures and corrosive washdown (or other
chemicals) is that made of thin stainless steel. These flat belts
are precision welded closed to traverse just a few centimeters
to dozens of meters — and often perforated to accept the
positive engagement of studded pulleys. Flat metal belts also
exhibit no stretch or creep, so allow precision positioning
of workpieces — and can protect workpieces sensitive to
electrostatic charges with grounding.

Round belts (sometimes called O-ring belts or O belts) have a

circular cross section; they’re common on axes of consumer-
grade electronics with moving elements, office-grade printers
and scanners, and light industrial equipment such as tabletop
robotics with modest to moderate power-transmission
Shown here is a bucket elevator from Feeco International requirements.
that uses an electric motor through a belt drive with twin
V belts for operation.
Sponsored by:

4 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The basics of belt drives
Most round belts are extruded from neoprene, propylene, or In contrast, belt slip due to improper tension or (worse yet)
cross-linked urethane (either reground or virgin) and then butt improper design can quickly generate heat buildup. Simple
welded together into endless loops. Their elasticity makes them measurements taken of belt temperature along with geometry,
more forgiving of suboptimal installations, but at a sacrifice of vibrations, and sound generated (including squealing upon startup)
power capability. Mating pulleys have semicircular grooves and can accurately indicate the amount of tensioning or retensioning
diameters no less than sixfold the belt’s cross section. Texturized required. Belts transmitting high power require greater tensioning
O-belts have lower coefficients of friction but are better able to or risk slip and other modes of improper operation.
resist abrasion and overheating.
Design tensions are often defined by the ratio of belt drive-side
tension divided by that of the slack side — along with a constant
BELT CREEP, SLIP, AND TENSION wedging design factor (for V belts) and the belt-to-pulley dynamic
Any belts not employing positive engagement (via teeth) can friction coefficient. As we’ll explore in more detail, design tension
exhibit slip and creep. ratios for V belts tend to be higher than those for flat belts.

Creep is a cyclical elongation of belt (with some measure of

elasticity) as it travels around the loaded side to the slack side of
its circuit … and is considered normal. Proper tension holds the
dimensional changes of creep to within 0.5% of the belt’s normal
length and cross section. There is a cyclical stressing associated
with creep as well as the flexing of belt around its pulleys —
which does ultimately limit belt life but doesn’t induce dramatic
temperature increases.

Performance comparison for

different pitch drives. Image:
Designatronics, Stock Drive
Products/Sterling Instrument

Sponsored by:

5 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
CALCULATING MOTOR DRIVE TORQUE
FOR BELT-BASED MOTION SYSTEMS

Image via Dreamstime

B
elt-driven linear systems are common in applications that Torque required for constant velocity: For a belt drive system,
require long travel and high speed, such as gantry robots the motor torque required during constant velocity is simply
and material handling and transport. The motors of choice the total axial force (Fa) on the belt multiplied by the radius r1
for these systems are often servomotors, for their ability to of the drive pulley:
accurately control position, speed, and torque.

Sizing and selecting the servo motor requires determining both

the continuous and intermittent drive torques required for the
application. The continuous torque is calculated by taking the
Where Tc = Torque required during constant velocity, Nm
root mean square of all the torque requirements throughout
the application — torque required for acceleration, torque Fa = Total axial force, N
for constant velocity, and torque for deceleration. In most
applications, the maximum (intermittent) torque occurs during r1 = Radius of drive pulley, mm
acceleration.
η = Efficiency of belt drive system
To determine the root mean square (continuous) torque, we first
calculate the torque values required during each phase of the Notice that the efficiency η of the belt drive system is included
move profile. in the torque equation. This efficiency accounts for losses such

Sponsored by:

6 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Calculating motor drive torque
for belt-based motion systems

For the equations in this Design

Guide section, we’ve assumed
the drive and idler (driven)
pulleys have the same radius,
which is often the case for belt-
driven linear motion systems.

as friction between the belt and pulleys. Also note that we’ve Where m = Mass of moved load — external load plus belt, kg
assumed the drive and idler (driven) pulleys have the same
radius, which is often the case for belt-driven linear motion g = Gravity, m/sec2
systems.
μ = Coefficient of friction of guide
Unlike screw drives, which often encounter axial forces due to
Torque required for acceleration: The acceleration phase of the
external operations such as pressing or drilling, belt drives aren’t
move profile is typically the period when maximum torque is
designed to withstand external axial forces. So the total axial
required from the motor, and this torque value Ta is often taken
force for a belt drive system consists only of the force required
as the intermittent torque.
to move the load, which is the weight (m·g) of the load (both
the external load and the belt) multiplied by the coefficient of The torque required during acceleration includes the torque
friction μ of the guide supporting the load. required at constant speed plus the torque required to
accelerate the load.

Sponsored by:

7 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Calculating motor drive torque
for belt-based motion systems
For the angular acceleration, we assume that the system is
accelerating from zero to some maximum velocity, with N being
the maximum angular velocity and t being the time to accelerate.

Where Ta = Total torque required during acceleration, Nm

Tacc = Torque required due to acceleration, Nm

The torque due to acceleration is found by multiplying the total Where N = Maximum angular velocity, rpm
inertia of the system Jt by the angular acceleration α:
t = Time for acceleration, sec

If the system is accelerating from a non-zero velocity, then the

Where Jt = Total inertia of the system, kg·m2 equation would simply incorporate the change in velocity ΔN
divided by the time over which the velocity increase occurred Δt.
a = Angular acceleration, rad/sec2
Torque required for deceleration: The motor drive torque
Total system inertia includes the inertia of the motor (because
required for deceleration is equal to the torque at constant
the motor must overcome its own inertia) as well as that of the
velocity minus the torque due to acceleration. Td is torque
coupling, pulleys, and load:
required during deceleration in Nm:

Where Jm = Inertia of motor — provided by manufacturer, kg·m2

Now that we know the motor drive torques required during
Jc = Inertia of coupling — provided by manufacturer, kg·m 2 acceleration, constant velocity, and deceleration, we can take the
root mean square of these values to determine the continuous
Jp1 = Inertia of drive pulley — provided by manufacturer, or torque required by the motor:
calculate kg·m2

Jp2 = Inertia of idler pulley — provide by manufacturer, or

calculate kg·m2

Jl = Inertia of load, kg·m2

Although we assumed above that the drive and idler pulleys have Where TRMS = Root mean square (continuous) torque, Nm
the same radius, their inertias may be slightly different, because
ta = Time for acceleration, sec
the drive pulley is toothed and therefore has a slightly larger
radius and higher mass than the idler pulley. The inertia values of tc = Time for constant velocity, sec
the motor, coupling, and pulleys are typically specified by their
respective manufacturers. However, the inertia of the load must td = Time for deceleration, sec
be calculated. Remember that the load includes the mass of both
the external load and the belt, because the motor must generate ttotal = Total time for move — including any idle time between
enough torque to overcome the inertia of the belt: moves, sec

Where ml = Mass of external load, kg

mb = Mass of belt, kg
Sponsored by:
r1 = Radius of drive pulley, mm

8 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 ACCOUNTING FOR BELT
AND PULLEY INERTIA

F
or a motor to accelerate or decelerate a load, it must
overcome the load’s inertia or resistance to change in
motion, as explained in Newton’s First Law. In belt-driven
linear motion systems, the motor must overcome not only
the inertia of the applied load but also the inertia of the belt,
pulleys, and motor coupling.

The inertia of each component can typically be estimated with

sufficient accuracy by using the standard inertia equations for
simple shapes. Because inertia depends upon the axis around
which the component rotates, we can start by considering the
applied load and the belt together, since they both rotate around
the axis of the driven pulley.

The applied load and the belt can be modeled as a point mass
that rotates around the driven pulley, and their inertia can be
calculated as:

Pulleys can serve to change a belt drive’s speed.

Where JL = Inertia of belt and applied load, kg·m2

m = Mass of belt and applied load, kg

r = Radius of driven pulley, m

Belt manufacturers typically provide mass (or weight) information

per unit length, so the mass of the belt can be found by
multiplying the mass per unit length by the total length of the
belt. In calculations, just be sure to use the full circular belt
length — not just the length of the stroke. Also remember that
the applied load is typically mounted to the belt via a carriage or
table, so the mass of this part should be included in the mass of
the applied load.

The pulleys and coupling can be treating as solid cylinders that

rotate about their own axes, and their inertia can be calculated as:

Where Jp = Inertia of solid cylinder — pulley and coupling, kgm2

m = Mass of cylinder, kg

r = Radius of cylinder, m
The belt and load can be considered a point mass that rotates around
the driven pulley.

Sponsored by:

9 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Accounting for belt and pulley inertia

Keep in mind that although the pulleys may have the same It’s common for belt driven systems to use a gearbox to
diameters (and radii) if one pulley is toothed (driven) and the increase torque, reduce speed, and reduce the inertia of the
other is smooth (idler) … as is the case in many belt-driven load reflected to the motor. In this case, the total inertia of the
actuators, they will have different masses and therefore different moved mass (applied load, belt, pulleys, and coupling) should
inertias. be divided by the square of the gear reduction, and then the
inertia of the gearbox should be added. This will give the
Although the solid cylinder approximation shown above total inertia reflected back to the motor, which can be used for
is typically sufficient, more accurate inertia values for the motor sizing and selection.
pulleys and coupling can be found by considering that these
components have a center bore and using the inertia equation
for a hollow cylinder:

Where Jtotal = Total inertia reflected to motor, kg·m2

JL = Inertia of belt and applied load, kg·m2

Where Jph = Inertia of hollow cylinder — pulleys and coupling,
kg·m2 Jp1 = Inertia of first pulley, kg·m2

m = Mass of cylinder, kg Jp2 = Inertia of second pulley, kg·m2

ro = Outer radius, m Jc = Iinertia of coupling, kg·m2

ri = Inner radius, m i = Gear reduction

Jg = Inertia of gearbox, kg·m2

Sponsored by:

10 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
THE ENDURING
IMPORTANCE OF V BELTS

P
ower transmission in linear motion designs is often Polyurethane also boosts the shear strength of the teeth on
through rotary-to-linear mechanical devices, chain synchronous belts covered later in this Design Guide.
drives, or belt drives. The earliest belt iteration — and
one that’s still economical today — is the friction-based The V belt’s most important element — its tension-bearing top
V-belt design. These pair a wedge-shaped belt with a pulley — includes fiber cords for strength to bear the actual traction
(often on an electric motor’s geared output shaft) to provide load. Modern tension-member cords are often aramid, polyester,
reliable operation in myriad end-user and industrial designs. fiberglass, or even steel. Prestretched variations help minimize
stretch. The cords embed into the main belt material that serves
Modern V belts — sometimes called friction belts — are rubber, to hold the belt body together and shed heat. The working
urethane synthetic, and neoprene designs with either a V or side of V belts — which engages the pulley — is a compression
trapezoidal profile. The latter increases the amount of contact section designed to wedge into pulley grooves for reliable
between V belts and pulleys to minimize tension needed to shock-damping engagement. In many instances, a rubberized
transmit torque. Even so, polyurethane outperforms rubber fabric cover protects the belt surface and prevents slipping
thanks to its higher resistance to chemicals and adaptability to (which in turn prevents overheating tension cords).
specialized profiles.

V belt drives are ubiquitous in industrial applications. They pair belts having a
chamfered (typically trapezoidal) profile with pulleys that are circumferentially
grooved to match. A key benefit of this geometry is the way in which the belt
wedges into the pulley groove with increased tension for a corresponding increase
in belt-and-pulley surface friction. That in turns minimizes slippage and boosts
allowable torque transmission. Shown here is a small V belt drive on a motor-driven
axis inside a consumer-grade washing machine. Image via Dreamstime
Sponsored by:

11 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The enduring importance of V belts

One additional note here: Though V-belt slip is usually MORE ON COMMON V BELT STANDARDS
detrimental, it can be a helpful behavior on axes that are truly
jammed — serving to protect more expensive components in the Be prepared to specify V belts by cross section (including the
drivetrain. belt’s top width, V angle, depth of engagement, and depth)
and overall pitch length … defined as a circumferential length
Though they’re versatile and forgiving, improperly sized
along a belt’s pitch line. Then suitable V belts are narrowed
friction-based belt drives can slip (tangentially on the pulley
further by which have sufficient power ratings (determined by
— a form of lost motion) and creep axially. That can make for
rpm and sheave speed) to satisfy design demand of nominal
unreliable speed output. Here are some things to remember if
horsepower (to be transmitted or output at the motor) with
a V-belt drive makes the most sense for a motion axis: Output
application of a service factor.
torque depends on belt resistance to tension and belt-pulley
adherence. The latter is why oils and greases must be kept away Sound complicated? In fact, industry has simplified much of
from belt drives — or threaten drive failure due to slipping. this work with references that list specific V-belt service factors
that adjust for typical levels of special application demands …
The special case of cogged V belts: Not to be confused with
as well as losses from variable loads and rpm, heat, detrimental
toothed (synchronous) belts covered later in this Design Guide
environmental conditions, and shock and vibration.
are cogged V belts. These have notches on the working (pulley-
contacting) belt surface to: V belts with so-called classical geometries just mentioned are a
rugged if moderate-efficiency option. In the U.S., standardized
• Allow airflow for cooler operation
geometries are coded A and B (most common) as well as lesser-
• Boost flexibility — to travel around pulleys with smaller used C, D, and E having progressively larger cross sections.
diameters than otherwise allowable Narrow V belts are named with progressively higher numbers for
progressively larger belts — and have V suffixes. Double-sided
These notched V belts — available in a wide array of classic and V belts are those with a double-angle or so-called hexagonal
narrow configurations — often have a raw-edge design (sans geometry for winding through and driving serpentine drive
cover) for more space in the belt cross section for load-carrying arrangements; these are coded AA, BB, CC, and so on. These
cord. Any standard V belt that is cogged will have a name with codes are listed in specification software and manufacturer
an X suffix — such as BX or 3VX, for example. catalogs as well as printed on the belts themselves … usually
followed by a dash and then a number denoting the total working
Though most associated with heavy power-transmission length of the belt in inches. Even International Organization
applications, V belts do in fact find use in precision motion for Standardization standards such as ISO 8419 (dictating the
designs as well. Embrace the oxymoron: Static motion standards for narrow V belts) lists values in millimeters that reflect
designs — those that only depend on consistent end-of- these standards first established in Imperial units.
move positioning — can tolerate the errors of friction-belt
drives. In contrast, dynamic motion designs require axes that Of course, the latter (length) code does not appear on
move predictably over their complete strokes — even if load adjustable V belts — those made of a series of interlocking
varies during operation. Here, engineers typically specify sections joined by tabs or other fasteners like industrial chain.
low-backlash toothed belts (covered in the next section of These linked belts (suitable for even high-power and high-speed
this Design Guide) needing shallow clearance for pulley axes to many thousands of rpm) are sold in open sections that
engagement. Single V belts for these motion applications often are cut to length and then closed by the installer in the field.
take the form of light-duty or fractional horsepower V belts
denoted by 2L, 3L, 4L, or 5L codes with the latter dimensionally
resembling so-called classical A and B-coded V belts.

Sponsored by:

12 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The enduring importance of V belts

Another V-belt design is that of joined

V belts. Unlike ribbed V belts (covered
earlier in this Design Guide) that have
a common foundation of thickness
sufficient to feature reinforcement
throughout, joined V belts have discrete
trapezoidal sections. These sections are
themselves reinforced but joined by just
a thin layer of tension material. Such
joined V-belts are easier to specify than
matched sets and far less problematic
than separate arrays of V belts running
in parallel — especially on axes subject
to intermittent forces and speeds.
That’s especially true on axes that might
otherwise require a dozen or more V
belts in parallel for sufficient power
transmission.

Axes run off 2-hp or smaller motors under

the control of variable speed drives (never
prompting more than fivefold speed
increases) accept V belts having 4L, 5L, A,
or B notations. Axes with more dramatic
speed variations necessitate other V belt
that’s also standardized and coded — in
this case, with four-digit values and a V
(for narrow) suffix.

SPECIFYING V BELTS BY
HORSEPOWER AND GEOMETRY
Standards established by the Rubber
Manufacturers Association (RMA) and
the Mechanical Power Transmission
Association (MPTA) inform specification
approaches that first satisfy design
horsepower requirements. Using this
approach, a service factor applied to
nominal (rated) motor or axis horsepower
(to accommodate friction, vibration,
heat, and other losses) ensures reliable
and efficient belt-drive operation. These
service factors are published for machine
and drive types typical to various
industries.

Sponsored by:

13 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
The enduring importance of V belts
Power ratings are well documented for all standard V belt and A belt’s pitch line typically corresponds to the location of its
pulley sizes and speeds. But arc and length correction factors internal tensile cord. But improvements in belt construction
(along with the belt-installation center distance and speed ratio have moved the tensile cord to a location higher in the belt.
covered in a moment) affect this basic power rating. Center This resulted in changes to the belt’s pitch length, and in turn,
distance is often presumed for set pulley combinations. That to the sheave’s pitch diameter. (This design change gives the
said, long pulley-to-pulley center distances yield high power tensile cord a larger moment arm and more support below it for
ratings and shorter yield lower ratings. transmitting forces to the sheave walls.)

Next, the driven-to-drive pulley speed ratio (based on any To accommodate the changes in belt pitch length, and thus
difference in their diameters) is calculated to yield output sheave pitch diameter, the datum system was introduced. For
belt speed (sometimes called rim speed). High speed ratios most belts and sheaves, the dimensions formerly referred to as
magnify the effect of center distance changes on drive power pitch length (belts) and pitch diameter (sheaves) are now called
ratings. Then the maximum output rpm or fpm (based on the datum length and datum diameter.
axis geometry, pulley construction, and level of balancing) is
calculated — with multiplane dynamic balancing increasing In terms of sheave dimensions, the pitch diameter is now equal
this value. Finally, work output for a given time (based on to the outer diameter for most standard sheaves. The datum
horsepower x 1.341) yields a value expressed diameter, however, is slightly less than the outer diameter. This
in kilowatts. is important when calculating the length of a belt because
the datum length, which is the norm for standard V-belt
One last design consideration for machines employing V belts is measurements today, is based on the datum diameter of the
the level of balancing required. Refer to Balancing the pulleys of sheave. In contrast, the formerly used pitch length calculation was
belt drives later in this Design Guide for more on this topic. based on the sheave’s pitch diameter.

WHAT ARE V-BELT PITCH LENGTH

AND DATUM LENGTH?
The length of a V-belt can be specified in several ways —
including outside length, effective length, and pitch (or datum)
length. Outside length is measured around the belt’s outer
diameter with no tension but is only an approximation and is
not useful for sizing or selection. Effective length is measured
at the effective outside diameter of the sheaves (pulleys) —
the location on the sheave at which the groove’s top width is
measured. Alternatively, the pitch length is measured at the pitch
diameter of the sheaves. Both effective length and pitch length
are measured with the belt tensioned by a specified amount.

Pitch length is difficult to directly measure because it’s based on

the belt pitch line. According to ISO 1081:2013, the pitch line is
“any circumferential line which keeps the same length when the
belt is bent perpendicularly to its base.” In other words, the pitch
line is the line internal to the belt that doesn’t change length when
the belt is in use. The diameter that is formed on the sheave by
the pitch line of the belt is the sheave pitch diameter.

Sponsored by:

14 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 SYNCHRONOUS
BELTS FOR
POSITIONING
AND MORE
Note the white synchronous belt on the conveyor’s blue slider plate. Image via AdobeStock

W
here friction belts are insufficient for a motion design — Another design — belts with curvilinear teeth — help optimize
as on positioning table, conveyor, and printing-machine pulley-tooth engagement and pressure angles to boost overall
axes needing true synchronous operation, for example power transmission. Many such belts go into automotive
— toothed synchronous belts excel. Such belt drives are also applications, which come with tensile cords and in sizes
indispensable in compact designs that need power-dense linear unsuitable for industrial designs.
drives in awkward or compact design envelopes.

As with V belts, be prepared to specify synchronous belts by

length and axis power demand. Here, additional factors include
the teeth’s maximum shear strength (dictated by their cross
section as well as pulley-engagement dynamics). On the topic
of teeth engagement, remember that synchronous belt drives
need tooth clearances at the engagement with pulley grooves
… so teeth can enter and exit channels sans interference. That’s
why most synchronous belts exhibit some backlash. In addition, a
synchronous belt’s tooth shear strength must be high enough to
withstand maximum application torque demand. As with V-belt
selection, service factors can help engineers pick synchronous
belts having shear strengths to withstand an application’s worst
expected shocks and loading.

Despite the extra considerations, synchronous belts are

indispensable in precision motion designs. A mature technology
is belting with teeth of a trapezoidal shape (not to be confused
with V belts sporting trapezoidal cross sections) — although
modified iterations are suitable for very precise positioning. More
common in new designs are rounded profiles carry more load
than belts with trapezoidal teeth. The belts do this in two ways: 1)
They have inherently higher tooth shear strength and they 2) More
evenly spread load over the belt’s tensile cords.

Standard synchronous-belt products sport MXL, XL, L, H, XH,

XXH, and other codes to indicate set geometries. Generic labels
for synchronous belts with round-profile teeth are variations on
the term high-torque drive or HTD for short — with the latter a
Image via Dreamstime
trademark of belt and rubber-components manufacturer Gates
Corp. In some cases, belts with round-profile teeth can triple
horsepower ratings. Sponsored by:

15 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Synchronous belts for positioning and more

APPLYING SYNCHRONOUS
BELTS IN MOTION DESIGNS

Roughly a quarter of all industrial motors pair with belt

drives. Most common are synchronous or high-torque
drive belts where efficiency or accuracy are objectives.
Applications from consumer-grade home printers to heavy
industrial conveyors use these synchronous belts, because
unlike V belts with trapezoidal cross-sections, they don’t slip.

Many motion applications demand customized timing belts

and sprockets — often taking the form of urethane, double-
sided, mini-pitch, and made-to-order (MTO) belts and
sprockets. Double-sided belts have covered teeth to transfer
up to 100% of the maximum rated load from one or both belt
sides. These come in trapezoidal timing-belt configurations
and HTD curvilinear tooth profiles. Some can run to 14,000
rpm with speed ratios to 10:1, which is enough to replace
gearsets in some cases.

Double-sided belts also excel as serpentine drives in riding

mowers with counter-rotating blades, printing presses, and
textile machines. Urethane belts maximize motion transfer,
especially when incorporating polyester or aramid tensile
members. Their tooth profile is a miniature version of belt with
standard 40° angle teeth. Speed ratios reach 8:1 and torque
output reach a couple lb-in. These belts excel on positioning
axes, thanks to their low torque and minimal backlash — Curvilinear tooth profiles do offer some distinct
especially in printers and copiers that need clean operation. advantages in motion applications employing belt drives.

Performance comparison for different pitch drives. Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument
Sponsored by:

16 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Synchronous belts for positioning and more

Long belting (usually with L or H trapezoidal tooth or HTD Available in a wide range of profiles, materials, and numbers of teeth,
profiles) can exceed 500 feet in some cases. They work for belt drives are particularly useful in applications where layout flexibility
is important. Some of the many applications include medical diagnostic
power transmission and axis synchronization — doing double equipment, robotics, industrial automation, automated teller machines,
duty as conveyors in many cases. Such synchronous belts and DC stepper/servo applications. Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive
compete with rack-and-pinion sets in machine tools and X-ray Products/Sterling Instrument
equipment as a viable drive for linear strokes. One
caveat: These belts spliced transmit a quarter less
horsepower than comparable endless toothed belts.

Made-to-order (MTO) belts take myriad forms, but

most are trapezoidal and HTD. Those that go into
applications involving the assembly or transport
of electronics or explosive substances include a
body and tooth-facing fabric made of conductive
material such as carbon to prevent static discharge.
In contrast, belts for power tools and appliances
are often made of non-conductive materials that
insulate internal components. Belts that run in
harsh environments incorporate oil-resistant and
temperature-resistant compounds.

Tensile members in synchronous belts serve two

functions — help the belt withstand shock loads and
maintain a set length for proper tooth meshing and
positioning accuracy. Steel tensile cords were once
most common, but now aramid and glass fiber cords
dominate.

Engineers can even customize the twist of

members to alternate or go left or right to satisfy
tracking requirements. Another option is thick or
backed belts to convey or grip objects in tandem
with mating belt drives. Backings can also extend
belt life and address vibration.

For industrial applications, most synchronous

belt sprockets are made of either cast or ductile
A belt and pulley drive system is a common method for iron. That said, steel excels in designs that run
transferring motion. The curvilinear profile shown here provides at speeds exceeding those safe for iron pulleys,
timing and indexing accuracy superior to the conventional
trapezoidal belt and has a higher capacity and longer belt life.
even to 20,000 fpm. Likewise, aluminum pulleys
Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument run at high speed and have low inertia to boot.
Another lightweight option is non-metallic pulleys
— common in lawn equipment and power tools

Sponsored by:

17 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Synchronous belts for positioning and more

This is another synchronous (toothed) belt drive — here on a machine to rotate a drum for the forming of chicken nuggets.
Image via Dreamstime

that transmit little torque and have relatively short design life. As mentioned, belts are quieter than other power-transmission
Other synchronous-sprocket options include specialty tooth drive options … but not silent. Noise frequency increases
profiles for better positioning accuracy or custom hub mounts proportionally with belt speed, and noise amplitude increases
and flanges. with belt tension. Most synchronous belt noise arises from
the way in which belt teeth entering the pulleys at high speed
repeatedly compresses trapped pockets of air. Other noise
PROPERLY DESIGNING AND SPECIFYING
arises from belt rubbing against side flanges; in some cases, this
SYNCHRONOUS BELT DRIVES happens when the shafts aren’t parallel.
Some general guidelines are applicable to all timing belts, Synchronous belt pulleys are made of metal or plastic, and the
including miniature and double-sided synchronous belt most suitable choice depends on required precision, price,
variations. First, engineers should always design these belt drives inertia, color, magnetic properties, and the engineer’s preference
with a sufficient safety factor — with ample reserve horsepower based on experience. Plastic pulleys with metal inserts or metal
capacity. Design tip: Take note of overload service factors. Belt hubs are a good compromise.
ratings are generally only 1/15 of the belt’s ultimate strength.
These ratings are set so the belt will deliver at least 3,000 hours
of useful life if properly installed and maintained. The pulley
diameter should never be smaller than the belt width. Sponsored by:

18 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Synchronous belts for positioning and more

Tip: Make at least one pulley in the belt drive

adjustable to allow for belt installation and
tensioning. Also note that in a properly designed
belt drive, there should be a minimum of six teeth
in mesh and at least 60° of belt wrap around the
drive pulley. Other tips:

Pretension belts with the proper recommended

tension. This extends life and prevents belt
ratcheting or tooth jumping.

• Align shafts and pulleys to prevent belt-tracking

forces and belt edge wear. Don’t crimp belts
beyond the smallest recommended pulley
radius for that belt section.

• Select the appropriate belt for the design

torque.
The belt and load are typically modeled as one point mass rotating • Select the appropriate belt material for
around the driven pulley. Pulleys of the same diameters may have the environment (temperature, chemical,
different inertias if one is toothed, and the other is smooth.
cleaning agents, oils, and weather). Belt-
and-pulley systems are suitable for myriad
environments, but some applications need
special consideration. Topping this list are
environmental factors.

Dusty environments do not generally present

serious problems if the particles are fine and dry. In
contrast, particulate matter can act as an abrasive
and accelerates belt and pulley wear. Debris
should be prevented from falling into belt drives.
Debris caught in the drive is generally either forced
through the belt or makes the system stall. In
either case, serious damage occurs to the belt and
related drive hardware.

Light and occasional contact with water—during

occasional washdowns, for example—has little
serious effect. However, prolonged contact with
constant spray or submersion can significantly
reduce tensile strength in fiberglass belts and
make aramid belts break down and stretch out.

In the same way, occasional contact with oils

doesn’t damage synchronous belts. But prolonged
contact with oil or lubricants, either directly or
airborne, significantly reduces belt service life.
Lubricants cause the rubber compound to swell,

Sponsored by:

19 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Synchronous belts for positioning and more
break down internal adhesion systems and reduce felt tensile
Rubber belts aren’t suitable for cleanrooms, as they risk
strength. While alternate rubber compounds may provide some
shedding particles. Instead, use urethane timing belts here …
marginal improvement in durability, it’s best to prevent oil from
keeping in mind that while urethane belts make significantly less
contacting synchronous belts.
debris, most can carry only light loads. Also, none have static
The presence of ozone can be detrimental to the compounds conductive construction to dissipate electrical charges.
used in rubber synchronous belts. Ozone degrades belt
materials in much the same way as excessive temperatures. FURTHER READING ON SYNCHRONOUS BELT DRIVES
Although the bumper materials used in belts are compounded
to resist the effects of ozone, eventually chemical breakdown Trapezoidal, curvilinear, or modified curvilinear?
occurs, and they become hard and brittle and begin The best timing belt tooth profile for high-speed applications
cracking. The amount of degradation depends on the ozone Ratcheting in synchronous belt drives
concentration and generation of exposure.

Most synchronous belt noise arises from the way in

which belt teeth entering pulleys repeatedly compresses
trapped pockets of air. Image via Dreamstime

The SDP/SI Fairloc hub design eliminates many of the issues

associated with other fastening methods. The unique design fully and
accurately supports the pulley on the shaft, reducing any motion and
misalignment after clamping the hub. Phase adjustment as well as
axial adjustments can be made easily and as often as needed without
damaging the shaft. Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/
Sterling Instrument

Sponsored by:

20 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
SYNCHRONOUS BELT
FAILURES: SIX WAYS
THEY CAN OCCUR

Notice the belt drive (red) running along the top of this through-machine
conveyor carrying bag of potatoes. Image via Dreamstime

S
ynchronous belts can transmit high torque without the Excessive tooth wear: Tooth wear is a normal result of the
potential for slip, due to positive engagement between positive engagement between the belt and pulley and is
the teeth of the belt and the grooves of the pulley. But mitigated by belt materials that are wear-resistant. However,
the performance of synchronous belt drive systems excessive wear can result from either too much or too little
can be affected by installation errors, unexpected application tension, misalignment, excessive loading, debris in the drive
conditions, or the use of components that aren’t suitable for system, a damaged pulley, or a pulley that is out of spec or does
the operating requirements. Here are six ways that synchronous not have sufficient hardness. Under normal operating conditions,
belts can fail and their most common causes. tooth wear generally does not affect the service life of the belt.

Flanged pulleys provide tracking for synchronous belts by Tooth shear: Tooth shear is a catastrophic failure that can be
resisting the lateral forces from the belt as it tries to move from caused by shock loads or misalignment. It can also be a result
side to side on the pulley. But in some cases, the belt can ride of insufficient tension, which causes a condition known as self-
along the flange and exert significant force on it, resulting in tensioning — which in turn makes the belt teeth ride out of the
wear on the edge of the belt. Common causes of edge wear pulley. When this happens, the load is no longer carried at the
are parallel misalignment, using a belt that is too wide for the roots of the teeth, but rather further down the tooth flanks. This
selected pulley, or using pulleys that are damaged or have a causes the teeth to bend and rotate, which can cause them to
rough surface finish. tear at their base and separate from the belt.

Cracking: Belt cracking usually occurs parallel to the teeth, in Ratcheting: Ratcheting is a condition in which belts jump or skip
the areas between the teeth called land areas. Cracking is often teeth on the pulley. The primary cause of ratcheting is insufficient
associated with temperature issues – either a temperature that belt tension. One of the benefits of synchronous belts, when
is too low at startup or too high during operation, causing the compared to V-belts, is that once the tension is properly set,
material to harden and crack due to bending. Other causes they do not require re-tensioning.
of belt cracking are a skewed pulley assembly or exposure to
chemicals. While synchronous belt failures can occur in many forms, pulleys
generally fail in one of two ways: tooth wear or flange failure.
Tensile break: This type of failure is typically due to crimping or
severe shock loads to the belt. Crimping often produces a tear Abnormal or excessive pulley tooth wear is typically due to
straight across the belt and can be caused by mishandling of the use in an abrasive environment, although pulley misalignment,
belt, inadequate tension, a pulley diameter that is too small, or excessive loading, and improper tension can also be causes.
debris in drive system. Shock loads often result in an angled tear Pulley flange failure is most often a result of angular or parallel
across the belt and can be accompanied by tooth shear. pulley misalignment.

Sponsored by:

21 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
WHEN DO
SYNCHRONOUS
BELTS NEED
FLANGED PULLEYS?
Shown here are track-roller linear guides and drive belts on flanged pulleys along with screw drives on piece of semiconductor manufacturing equipment.

S
ynchronous belts transmit power via positive engagement However, even when tracking due to tensile cord orientation is
between profiled teeth on the belt and pulley. Although minimized, synchronous belts may still favor one side of a pulley
this tooth engagement (along with proper belt tension) — typically the side that provides a shorter center distance, and
prevents the belt from ratcheting, the belt is free to track or therefore, a lower tension.
move side-to-side on the pulley.
Belt tracking can also be caused by varying loads, primarily due
To prevent the belt from riding off the pulley, and to resist to distortion of the tensile cords. But varying loads can also
the lateral forces caused by the belt’s side-to-side motion, cause angular misalignment between pulley shafts (which is also
synchronous belt drive systems typically require one or more sometimes a product of mounting inaccuracies) and deflection
flanged pulleys. in the drive system structure, both of which contribute to a belt’s
tendency to track to one side.
The orientation of tensile cord twist can cause a belt to
It’s important to prevent the belt from causing significant forces
track to one side of its pulleys. To reduce this tendency,
synchronous belts often use tensile cords with both S against the pulley flanges, which can result in belt edge wear or
and Z twists flange failure. The tracking force is typically higher for shorter
belts than for longer belts because the helix angle of the tensile
cord decreases as the belt length increases. Similarly, wide belts
tend to track with more force than do narrow belts.
CAUSES OF BELT TRACKING
The relationship between belt width and pulley diameter also
The tensile cords in a synchronous belt are twisted in either an affects tracking forces: smaller diameter pulleys (relative to belt
S (righthand) or a Z (lefthand) twist pattern. The direction of the width) tend to cause belts to track with higher forces than do
twist determines to which side of the pulley the belt will tend larger diameter pulleys. Manufacturers advise against using
to track. To reduce this tendency, synchronous belts often use pulleys with diameters less than the belt width because this can
tensile cords with alternating twists. result in excessive tracking forces.

Sponsored by:

22 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
When do synchronous belts need flanged pulleys?

WHEN TO USE FLANGED PULLEYS … FURTHER READING ON

SYNCHRONOUS BELT DRIVE PULLEYS
The general guideline provided by manufacturers is that in all
synchronous belt drive systems, at least one pulley should have How to specify pulleys for synchronous belt drives
flanges. Alternatively, for short-span drives with two-pulleys, How to measure synchronous (toothed) belt tension
each of the pulleys can have a flange on one side. When the Tooth shear in synchronous belts and how to avoid
span (center distance between shafts) is eight times or more the
diameter of the smaller pulley, both pulleys should have flanges.

Most synchronous belt drive systems should include at

least one flanged pulley.

For serpentine configurations, which use more than two pulleys,

proper tracking becomes even more critical, since there are more
instances of belt-pulley engagement. In these arrangements,
flanges should be included on every other pulley. Alternatively,
each pulley should have a flange on alternating sides.

When belts are used on pulleys with vertical shafts — in other

words, the belt is running on its side — gravity tends to pull the
belt downward, so vertical shaft systems should have at least
one pulley with flanges on both sides, and the remaining pulleys
should be flanged at least on the bottom side.

In conveying applications, it may not be possible to use flanged

pulleys due to the product’s orientation on the belt. In these
cases, a flanged pulley can be used as a back-side idler, placed
either near the lead pulley (for unidirectional travel) or midway
between the two pulleys (for bi-directional travel).

WHEN FLANGED PULLEYS MAY BE UNNECESSARY …

In some cases, it’s possible for synchronous belt drives to run
properly without flanged pulleys. Considering the factors
discussed above, large diameter pulleys can sometimes be used
without flanges if the flange face is sufficiently wider than the belt.
In addition, idler pulleys generally don’t need to be flanged, but
they can include flanges if lateral control of the belt is required.

Sponsored by:

23 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 BELT-DRIVEN
ACTUATORS
FOR A WIDE
RANGE OF
APPLICATIONS
Belt-driven actuators can provide long lengths and high speeds.

B
elt-driven actuators are the workhorses of the
Here’s an example of an omega module. Because the
electromechanical world, offering longer stroke lengths
belt is in tension only around the driven pinion, backlash
and faster speed capabilities than screw driven designs,
is eliminated, and repeatability can rival that of some
with less inertia and better resistance to contamination
ballscrew actuators. Image credit: Bell-Everman
than rack and pinion drives. And although linear motors boast
better positioning accuracy than belts, the price-performance
ratio of a belt-driven actuator is difficult to beat.

TRADITIONAL BELT-DRIVEN ACTUATORS:

SIMPLE AND COST-EFFECTIVE
Belt-driven actuators have been used for decades in applications
ranging from high-speed transport to basic positioning. The
most common designs using an aluminum extrusion housing
for protection against contamination, or an open-frame design
for lower weight and reduced cost. Belts are commonly made
of steel-reinforced polyurethane, paired with recirculating ball
linear guides or wheel-based guide systems.

Despite their inherent versatility, belt drive actuators continue to

evolve, with manufacturers introducing new designs to reduce
size, weight, and cost — making them better able to compete
with leadscrew actuators.

To achieve this, recirculating ball or wheel-based guides

are replaced with plain bearing guides made of plastic or
composite, and carriages are made of aluminum or even
thermoplastic. Although plain bearings have lower load
capacities than steel ball or roller-based linear bearings, they
do offer a benefit in harsh environments … withstanding debris
and chemicals better than their steel counterparts. And because
these lower-cost versions aren’t meant for high-accuracy
positioning, non-reinforced neoprene belts are often suitable.

Sponsored by:

24 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Belt-driven actuators for a
wide range of applications

In these designs, not only is material cost significantly reduced, One such design uses two belts — a stationary belt (analogous
but weight and inertia are also kept to a minimum. That means to the rack in a rack and pinion system) and an active belt that
the driving components (including motor and gearbox) can rides through the actuator’s carriage ... in turn containing a
also be downsized for further reduction of overall system cost. driven pinion with an idler roller on each side.

The benefit of this dual-belt, rack-and-pinion-like design is

BELT-DRIVEN ACTUATORS that the belt is only in tension as it rides around the pinion, so
AS CANTILEVERED AXES stiffness is constant along the entire length and belt stretch is
greatly reduced. It also reduces or eliminates backlash, so these
For applications where the carriage is stationary and the belt-driven designs can achieve unidirectional repeatability as
actuator body is the moving part, the traditional configuration, high as ±10 µm — much better than a traditional belt system
with the motor driving a pulley at the end of the actuator — is and approaching that of some ballscrew drives.
less-than ideal. This is because in the carriage-fixed, body-
moving scenario, the entire motor-gearbox assembly must be In addition to new actuator designs, advances in belt
moved along with the actuator body and mounted load. geometries and materials have also allowed new applications
for belt driven actuators. For example, curvilinear and modified
To address these applications, some manufacturers have curvilinear tooth profiles provide higher thrust force capabilities
introduced belt driven actuators that incorporate the pulleys than the traditional trapezoidal tooth profile, while Kevlar-
into the carriage, so the motor-gearbox assembly mounts reinforced belts provide better shock and impact resistance
directly to the stationary carriage. Removing the motor- — and less stretch for a given force — than traditional steel-
gearbox mass — which can be significant — from the moving reinforced belts. Plus, new tooth geometries can reduce belt
part of the actuator reduces the driven load and the reflected noise due to meshing between the belt and the pulleys.
inertia. This, in turn, allows the actuator to move at higher
speeds and accelerations, for more dynamic motion profiles.

As devices grow smaller the demand for miniature

Cantilevered modules — also called omega modules components has increased. SDP/SI manufactures 1
because the belt forms the shape of the Greek letter mm Pitch miniature timing belt pulleys, Part Series A
omega Ω — allow the motor-gearbox combination to 6A18M… . Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/
mount directly to the carriage, where the pulleys reside.
Sterling Instrument

BELT DRIVEN DESIGNS THAT RIVAL

BALLSCREW CAPABILITIES

While some manufacturers have focused on reducing costs

and making belt driven actuators more suitable for simple
positioning tasks, other manufacturers have taken the opposite
view in terms of performance, developing belt drive designs
that mimic rack-and-pinion configurations. These designs allow
belt driven actuators to achieve positioning accuracy that rivals
some ballscrews without the length and speed limitations
inherent to ballscrew driven systems.

Sponsored by:

25 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
BALANCING THE PULLEYS
OF BELT DRIVES

Pulleys are manufactured to exact belt tooth profiles. The benefits are superior performance, longer belt life and reduced noise and vibration.
Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument

O
bjects traveling circular paths generate a conceptual Single-plane or static balancing: According to the Mechanical
centrifugal force that pull the objects outward Power Transmission Association (MPTA), single-plane balancing
from center. In real-world machine designs, any should be performed on all belt drives. Systems balanced this
unevenly distributed mass about a rotational axis way can be conceptualized as a disc having center mass aligning
will cause variable centrifugal forces — in turn inducing vibration with a center mounting-shaft axis. Any voids or excess masses
and accelerated mechanical-component wear. In belt-driven cause imbalance.
designs, the process of balancing aims to recenter pulleys’
lopsided centers of gravity. This process is especially important So virtually all pulleys undergo static balancing after
for correcting the inherent imperfections of pulleys cast and manufacture. This ensures that the pulley’s weight is equally
machined using traditional manufacturing methods. distributed around its center of rotation.

As a pulley rotates, centrifugal forces act on the pulley, and if As its name implies, static balancing can be done while the
its mass is not evenly distributed around the axis of rotation object is at rest and is relatively easy to demonstrate through a
– that is, if it’s unbalanced — these centrifugal forces will also simple experiment. Rotate the pulley by hand and let it come to
be unbalanced and cause the pulley to vibrate. (Uneven mass rest on its own. Mark the point at the very bottom center of the
distribution can be due to imperfections in machining or pulley. Rotate it again and let it come to rest. If it stops with the
inconsistencies in the material structure.) same point at the bottom center, then its weight is not balanced
… and the pulley is heavier at the sinking point.
Pulley vibrations can transfer to the support bearings and
other components of the machine, causing premature or even Correcting this problem is typically done by:
catastrophic failure. Therefore, pulleys used in belt drive systems • Removing mass from the heavy point (which is commonly
almost always undergo some form of balancing. achieved by drilling a small hole in the pulley) or

• By adding mass to a point 180° opposite the heavy point.

Sponsored by:

26 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Balancing the pulleys of belt drives

For a statically balanced pulley, weight is evenly distributed around the center of rotation, but the center of mass does not coincide with the
center of rotation. For a dynamically balanced pulley, the center of mass coincides with the center of rotation.

Static balancing is typically sufficient for pulleys that travel at

6,500 ft/min. (33 m/sec) or less. For speeds above this, or when
the pulley diameter is less than seven to 10 times the face
width, dynamic balancing is recommended.

Dynamic balancing: Also called two-plane balancing, this goes

one step beyond static balancing and ensures that the pulley’s
center of mass is on the same axis as its center of rotation. It’s
possible for a pulley to be statically balanced but dynamically
unbalanced (although the reverse is not true) so dynamic
balance must be measured while the pulley is turning.

Because it involves forces in two planes, dynamic balancing

requires that masses be added in two planes to counter the
imbalances and prevent pulley vibration. The measure of
unbalance is given in units of g-mm (oz-in.) based on the mass
of the pulley and the eccentricity (the distance between the
center of mass and the center of rotation). The MPTA provides Angular misalignment of pulleys can cause belts to track to one side.
guidelines for both static (one-plane) and dynamic (two-plane)
balancing in their standard, MPTA-B2c-2011: Standard Practice
for Sheave/Pulley Balancing.

Sponsored by:

27 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Balancing the pulleys of belt drives

ON A RELATED NOTE: MAKING SYNCHRONOUS

BELTS QUIET AND BALANCED

Synchronous belts are common in precision motion systems

— providing smoother operation and better high-speed
performance than chains and lacking the problems of slipping
and stretching that can plague V-belts in precision applications.
But one downfall of synchronous or toothed belts is the
noise they produce. Although quieter than a chain drive, a
synchronous belt can still generate noise that is unacceptable
for some applications and environments.

The noise from a synchronous belt is for the most part caused
by the very feature that makes synchronous designs a better
choice than chains or V belts — meshing between the belt and
the pulley.

First, the simple impact of the belt engaging with the pulley
creates noise often compared to a slapping sound, which is
especially prominent at lower belt speeds.

Second, as belt teeth engage with pulley grooves, air is trapped

between the two components and then evacuated, making a
sound that can be likened to air escaping from a balloon. This
phenomenon is a significant contributor to belt noise at higher
speeds.

Another factor that contributes to synchronous belt noise is belt

tension. Synchronous belts are typically operated under high
tension and therefore, easily resonate (like a plucked guitar
string). Belt and pulley materials can also play a role in noise.
The classic illustration of inertia is a figure skater For example, polyurethane belts typically exhibit more
spinning on the ice. When her arms are outstretched, noise than neoprene (rubber) materials, and polycarbonate
a part of her mass is far from the axis of rotation, and (thermoplastic polymer) pulleys tend to be noisier than metal
therefore she spins at a relatively slow speed. But if pulleys.
she pulls her arms in close to her body, her rate of spin
increases because her entire mass is now close to the Noise generated by pulleys is also related to the dimensional
axis of rotation. The same phenomenon affects the accuracy of the pulley, which determines the smoothness of
motion of belt-driven systems. meshing between belt teeth and pulley grooves.
Note: Regarding centripetal and centrifugal forces,
Add together the effects of these various factors, and it’s
there is much debate in science, physics, and
easy to end up with a belt driven system that produces
engineering circles about which is correct to reference
uncomfortable or even detrimental amounts of noise —
when discussing forces on a rotating body.
especially when multiple belt systems are operating in
Image via Dreamstime
proximity. But there are ways to reduce the levels of noise
produced by synchronous belts.

Sponsored by:

28 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 PULLEYS + BELT DRIVES DESIGN GUIDE
(continued)
Balancing the pulleys of belt drives

From a sizing and design standpoint, the noise generated by Some manufacturers offer synchronous belts that are designed
a synchronous belt is directly related to the belt width and to be low-noise. From a manufacturing standpoint, noise can
belt speed. Belts with larger widths tend to resonate more, be addressed by applying a nylon covering to the toothed side
and higher belt speeds generate not only more noise but also of the belt, which reduces noise that occurs during meshing.
higher frequency noise. Noise is also inversely related to the And cutting grooves into the pulley provides a low-pressure
diameter of the pulley. Therefore a few easy ways to reduce path for air to escape as the belt and pulley mesh.
noise — if the application allows — are to reduce the belt
speed, use a smaller width belt, or use larger-diameter pulley. Another low-noise modification is to alter the geometry of the
tooth profile to improve the rolling action as the belt teeth mesh
From a mounting and operating standpoint, noise can be with the pulley. One such design uses what is referred to as an
reduced by ensuring the pulleys are properly aligned, since “offset double helix pattern” for the belt teeth. In this design,
angular misalignment (parallelism of the pulley shafts) can the belt has two sets of teeth side-by-side but offset by 180° so
lead to contact between the belt and the pulley flanges. And the frequency of noise generated by one set of belt teeth (one
if the belt isn’t properly tensioned, there can be unnecessary side of the belt) is 180° out of phase with the frequency of noise
interference between the belt teeth and pulley grooves, which generated by the other side, effectively canceling the noise.
is another factor that contributes to unnecessary noise.

Providing engineering development and manufacturing SDP/SI offers standard components, modifications, and
complete custom belt and pulley drive systems. Pulleys are offered in various materials, finishes, bores, and hub
styles to meet specific requirements. Image: Designatronics, Stock Drive Products/Sterling Instrument

Sponsored by:

29 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
WHEN TO CONSIDER
KEVLAR-REINFORCED BELTS

B
oth types of belts commonly used in linear positioning
applications — V-belts and synchronous designs
— have internal tensile cords that serve as the
primary load-carrying component. Or as one engineer
put it, the tensile cords are the muscle of the belt.
V-belts and synchronous belts are offered
with tensile cords of various materials,
including polyester, fiberglass, steel,
aramid (DuPont trade name Kevlar),
and carbon fiber to suit a variety of
application requirements.

For synchronous (toothed) belts in positioning applications — Synchronous (toothed) belts often use Kevlar tensile members for
especially when used in belt-driven linear actuators — steel is resistance to shock and impact loads. For V-belts, Kevlar (aramid)
typically the tensile cord material of choice. It bonds well to tensile cords increase load capacity and reduce belt stretch. For
both synchronous and V-belts, Kevlar tensile cords provide excellent
polyurethane belt material and provides the highest tooth shear
dimensional stability.
strength. V-belts on the other hand see a more even distribution
between the use of various tensile cord materials — polyester,
steel, fiberglass, and Kevlar. Although belts with Kevlar tensile Tensile members made of Kevlar have a lower flexural modulus,
cords can be more expensive, they offer benefits in some or resistance to bending, than steel, giving them a noticeable
applications, depending on the type of belt and the working advantage when it comes to resisting flex fatigue, a common
conditions. cause of failure in V-belts.

Referring to a belt as steel-reinforced or Kevlar-reinforced is Kevlar is also suitable for use with belt materials that meet
a common way to indicate the material used for the belt’s food-grade requirements in applications where steel is
tensile cords. undesirable. However, it’s important to note that while
Kevlar has excellent dimensional stability in dry and stable
One of the most notable benefits of Kevlar tensile cords is that environments, wet environments, or those with fluctuating
they provide better shock and impact resistance than steel humidity levels, can be detrimental to Kevlar-reinforced belts.
or other materials. Kevlar tensile cords also allow the belt to This is because Kevlar cords (and cords made of other aramid
operate at a higher tension, which typically means higher load- materials) experience a change in length as they absorb and
carrying capability. Case in point: V-belts with Kevlar tension release moisture. This length instability can affect the belt’s
cords are rated for higher loads than those with other tension performance — altering the engagement between belt and
member materials. But Kevlar-reinforced toothed belts aren’t sprocket teeth, or affecting the tension of a V-belt, for example.
generally rated for higher load capacities than belts with other
types of tensile members. This is because other components of Although Kevlar is suitable for a wide range of temperatures,
the belt — particularly the belt teeth — are essentially “weaker it has a negative thermal coefficient of expansion, meaning
links” than the tensile members. that it shrinks as the temperature rises and lengthens as
it cools. Since this behavior is the opposite of most other
Kevlar also has a higher tensile modulus (lower stretch) than machine components (especially those made of metal) — which
other tensile cord types, so Kevlar-reinforced belts experience expand as temperature increases and contract as temperature
less elongation over time. This contributes to a more consistent decreases — Kevlar-reinforced belts may not be suitable in
center-to-center distance between pulleys, minimizing the environments with significant temperature fluctuations.
amount of belt adjustment required. Note, however, that re-
tensioning intervals are typically the same for belts with Kevlar
and with other tensile members, because belt tension changes MORE ON BELT MATERIALS
more rapidly for Kevlar tensile members (even though the Urethane versus neoprene in synchronous belts
amount of change is smaller).
Sponsored by:

30
30 www.linearmotiontips.com www.sdp-si.com
 SETTING IDEAS INTO MOTION
Engineering Development & Manufacturers of Small Mechanical Components

CUSTOM SOLUTIONS 100,000 MECHANICAL AND

• In-house engineering and manufacturing • USA ELECTROMECHANICAL COMPONENTS
• World-class quality • Shop 24/7
• Assembly • Competitive pricing
• ISO 7 Class 10000 Clean Room • 3D CAD models
• ISO 9001+AS9100 Certified • Customizable
• ITAR Compliant / DDTC Registered

www.sdp-si.com
1 (516) 328-3300

Our
Ourengineers
engineersare
arejust
justa
Request a quote
Request online
a quote online
aphone
phonecall
callaway.
away.Call
Callus!
us!