Experiment no 8

FLOW PROCESS MODULE

Evaluation Table:

Organization and Analysis of

Components / Conclusion Total
Content Results
Weightage (3) (10)
(3) (4)

Obtained marks

Apparatus:

Objective:
-To understand the operation of a closed loop ON-OFF control system using
the level sensor as a flow sensor.
-To understand the effects of the hysteresis on the control.
List of Equipment:
● Digital Multimeter
● Set of Leads
● Flow Process Rig
Working Principle:

An ON/OFF controller, also known as Hysteresis controller, is designed to activate or

deactivate the control element in response to a specified set point. When the set point is
received, the controller initiates the pump, leading to an increase in the flow rate until the set
point is reached. Afterward, the pump is promptly turned off, and if necessary, a valve is opened
to manage the liquid flow. However, practical systems often experience delays in the
controller's response, resulting in some notable effects. When the pump deactivates, residual
momentum causes the liquid level to briefly overshoot the set point before stabilizing.
Conversely, when the flowrate drops below the set point, controller delays can lead to further
decreases before corrective action occurs. This phenomenon, known as hysteresis, introduces
oscillations in the system as it strives to maintain precise control over the flowrate.

Theoretical Background:

What is Flow?

In the context of fluid dynamics and engineering, "flow" refers to the movement of a fluid,
which can be a gas or a liquid, through a conduit, pipe, or any other channel.

Importance of Flow Measurement

Accurate measurement and control of flow are essential in many industries to ensure the proper
functioning of systems and processes.

What are Flow Controllers?

Flow controllers are devices or mechanisms used in various engineering and industrial
applications to manage, regulate, or control the flow of liquids, gases, or other substances
through a system. The primary purpose of flow control is to ensure that the flow rate of a
substance is consistent and within desired parameters. This is crucial for a variety of reasons,
depending on the specific application.

Importance of Flow Control:

Flow control is essential in many processes and systems for several reasons, including safety,
efficiency, and performance optimization. Here are the key aspects of flow controllers and their
importance:

 Regulation of Flow Rate: Flow controllers are designed to control the rate of flow of
a fluid, which can be critical in many applications. This control can involve maintaining
a constant flow rate, varying the flow rate as needed, or shutting off the flow completely
when necessary.
 Precise Control: Flow controllers are often used when precise control of flow rate is
required. For example, in chemical manufacturing, pharmaceutical production, or
semiconductor fabrication, even small variations in flow rate can lead to product defects
or safety issues.
 Safety: In various industrial processes, controlling the flow of potentially hazardous
materials is vital for safety. Flow controllers can prevent overflows, pressure surges, or
excessive flow that may result in accidents or damage to equipment.
 Efficiency: Efficient use of resources is a key consideration in many applications. By
controlling flow rates, flow controllers help minimize waste and energy consumption.
For example, in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, flow
controllers can optimize the use of energy by adjusting the flow of air or water to meet
the current requirements.
 Consistency: Flow control ensures that a consistent and desired flow rate is maintained,
which is crucial in applications like chemical dosing, water treatment, and food and
beverage production.
 Process Optimization: Many industrial processes depend on precise flow control to
optimize production efficiency and quality. For instance, in food processing, the flow
rate of ingredients and temperature control are essential to maintain product quality and
consistency.
 Fluid Distribution: In distribution systems, such as irrigation or plumbing, flow
controllers help distribute liquids or gases evenly to different parts of a system, ensuring
that each area receives the appropriate amount of the fluid.
 Pressure Control: Flow controllers often work in conjunction with pressure control
devices to maintain desired pressure levels in a system, which is essential for preventing
equipment damage and ensuring proper operation.
What is a Control System?

A control system is an integrated set of components or devices that work together to maintain
or modify the behaviour of a system or process. Control systems are designed to achieve
specific objectives by continuously adjusting the system's inputs or outputs based on feedback
information. These systems are indispensable in industries ranging from manufacturing and
transportation to healthcare and aerospace.

Importance of Control

Control systems serve several critical purposes:

● Stability: Control systems help maintain system stability, ensuring that processes
operate within acceptable bounds, preventing instability or catastrophic failures.
● Precision: They enable precise regulation of processes, leading to higher product
quality and consistency.
● Efficiency: Control systems optimize resource usage, leading to energy savings and
cost reduction.
● Safety: They enhance safety by monitoring and responding to unsafe conditions,
reducing risks to personnel and equipment.

Types of Control Systems

Control systems can be categorized into several types based on their characteristics and control
strategies:

Open-Loop Control Systems

Open-loop control systems, also known as non-feedback or feedforward control systems, are a
fundamental type of control system. Open-loop control systems provide a constant input to the
system without considering the actual system output. These systems are simple but lack the
ability to respond to changes or disturbances in the system.. In open-loop control, the control
action is determined solely by the input command or setpoint, without considering the actual
system output or the system's response to the control action. This control strategy relies on the
assumption that the relationship between the input and the desired output is well-defined and
predictable.
Closed-Loop (Feedback) Control Systems

Closed-loop control systems, also known as feedback control systems, incorporate a feedback
loop that continuously compares the system's output to a reference value (setpoint). Based on
this comparison, a controller adjusts the system's inputs to maintain the output close to the
desired setpoint. Closed-loop systems are widely used for their ability to handle disturbances
and maintain system stability.

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control:

PID control is a common control strategy used in closed-loop systems. It combines

proportional, integral, and derivative control actions to achieve precise and stable control. The
proportional term corrects the current error, the integral term eliminates past errors, and the
derivative term anticipates future errors, resulting in a well-balanced control response. . In PID
control, the three control actions work together to provide precise and stable control in a wide
range of applications.

Control Action Description

 Proportional control, often referred to as P-control, adjusts the system's input
in direct proportion to the current error, which is the difference between the
desired setpoint and the actual system output. The control output is
Proportional
calculated as Pout=Kp⋅e(t), where Kp is the proportional gain, and e(t) is the
Control
error at time t. This control action corrects the current error but does not
consider past or future errors, potentially leading to oscillations and steady-
state errors.
Integral control, also known as I-control, addresses steady-state errors by
accumulating the past errors over time. It continuously adjusts the system
input based on the integral (sum) of all previous errors. The control output
Integral Control is given by Iout=Ki⋅∫e(t)dt, where Ki is the integral gain and ∫e(t)dt represents
the integral of the error with respect to time. Integral control eliminates
steady-state errors and provides improved system stability. However, it can
lead to control windup if not implemented properly.
Derivative control, or D-control, anticipates future errors by considering the
rate of change (derivative) of the error. It adjusts the system input based on
the rate of change of the error with respect to time. The control output is
Derivative Control determined as Dout=Kd⋅dtde(t), where Kd is the derivative gain, and dtde(t)
represents the time derivative of the error. Derivative control helps dampen
oscillations and improve system response. However, it can amplify noise if
the error signal is noisy.

ON/OFF Controller:
An ON/OFF controller, often referred to as a two-position controller, is a fundamental control
system used in various applications to maintain a specific process variable within a desired
range. Its operational principle is based on switching a control element, such as a pump, heater,
or valve, either fully ON or fully OFF, contingent upon the deviation of the process variable
from a predefined set point.
Working of an ON-OFF Controller
The working of an ON/OFF controller can be elucidated as follows: It starts with a set point,
representing the desired value for the process variable, like a target temperature or liquid level.
The primary goal of the controller is to sustain the process variable as close as possible to this
set point. It continuously measures the real-time value of the process variable via a sensor or
sensor system, tailored to the specific application, and then compares it to the set point. If the
measured value closely aligns with the set point, the controller remains idle without taking any
action. However, if there is a significant deviation from the set point, surpassing a predefined
threshold known as the hysteresis band, the controller initiates action.

Figure 1 Characteristics of an ON-OFF Control Action

Hysteresis and Control Action

When the measured value falls below the set point minus the hysteresis band, the controller
activates the control element to turn it fully ON. Conversely, if the measured value surpasses
the set point plus the hysteresis band, the controller deactivates the control element to turn it
fully OFF. This ON/OFF action is repeatedly executed as necessary to uphold the variable
within the desired range.
Key Characteristics of ON/OFF Controllers
Essential characteristics of ON/OFF controllers encompass the following: They execute
operations in a binary manner, with the control element in one of two states—fully ON or fully
OFF. This binary approach may result in oscillations or cycling around the set point,
particularly when the process variable approaches the desired value. To mitigate rapid cycling
and oscillation, ON/OFF controllers include a hysteresis band, a predefined range around the
set point where no control action is triggered. This feature assists in reducing wear and tear on
the control element and minimizes unnecessary switching.
Applications and Practical Use
While ON/OFF controllers are straightforward in design and suitable for applications where
precise control is not a primary requirement and a certain degree of variability around the set
point is acceptable, they may not provide exceptionally tight control and may exhibit steady-
state errors, particularly when the process variable is in proximity to the set point.
Consequently, they are commonly employed in various practical scenarios, such as residential
heating and cooling systems (e.g., thermostats), basic tank level control, and certain household
appliances, where more intricate control systems are unnecessary.
Hysteresis in Control Systems

Hysteresis is a phenomenon frequently encountered in control systems and sensors. It refers to

the system's tendency to exhibit different responses for the same input, depending on the
previous history of that input. Hysteresis means that the system's output may not precisely
follow the input when the input is changing, and it can vary depending on whether the input is
increasing or decreasing.

Causes of Hysteresis
Hysteresis in control systems can be attributed to various factors, including mechanical friction,
material properties, and internal delays within the system. In the context of pressure sensors
used in level control, hysteresis may arise due to the elasticity of diaphragms, nonlinearities in
sensor response, and delays in signal processing.
Effects of Hysteresis on Control

Hysteresis can significantly affect the performance of control systems:

● Control Offset: Hysteresis may introduce a persistent offset between the system output
and the desired setpoint, leading to inaccuracies.
● Control Oscillations: In cases where the control system is near the setpoint and the
input is within the hysteresis range, oscillations or "hunting" may occur.
● Extended Response Time: Hysteresis can cause delays in response times, as the
system needs to overcome the hysteresis range before accurately tracking changes in
the input.

MitigatingvHysteresisvEffects:
Calibration and Compensation: Calibration is a key approach to address hysteresis. The
control system is characterized to understand its hysteresis behavior, and compensation
techniques are employed to correct for the hysteresis effects. These techniques may involve
applyingicorrectionifactorsioriusingiadvancedicontrolialgorithms.
Sensor Selection: Choosing sensors with minimal hysteresis characteristics can also mitigate
hysteresis effects. Pressure sensors, for example, come in various designs and materials,
allowing selection based on specific application requirements.

Procedure:

1. Connect, through leads, pin No. 8 of the PUMP DIRIVER to the bush of SET POINT
No, 9 to adjacent bush and pin No. 10 to its adjacent bush.
2. Connect pins No.1 and 2 of the flow sensors to its adjacent pins of the relevant.
3. At 12.5, 25 and 37.5% hysteresis, flow rate reading was noted after each 10 sec for 3
minutes.
The time and flow rate were plotted for different hysteresis percentages.
4. On and off time at both hysteresis were noted.
5. OFF the main switch.
6. Remove all the connections.

Laboratory Precautions:

● Turn on the main switch after cables have been connected.

● Do not touch the apparatus with wet hands as it might result in electric shock.
● Connect the wires carefully.
● Perform experiment carefully and with responsibility.

Circuit Connections:
Observations and Calculations:

Hysteresis 12.5%

Hysterisis = 12.5%
Time flow rate Set Level
(s) (l/min) (l/min)
0 4 4
0.07 4.6 4
0.59 0.5 4
0.66 4.6 4
1.25 0.5 4
1.32 4.6 4
1.91 0.5 4
1.98 4.6 4

Hysteresis=25%

Hysterisis = 25%
Time (s) Level (cm) Set Level (cm)
0 4 4
0.05 4.7 4
0.97 0.5 4
1.02 4.7 4
1.99 0.5 4
2.04 4.7 4
3.01 0.5 4
3.06 4.7 4
Hysteresis = 37.5%

Hysterisis = 37.5%
Time (s) Level (cm) Set Level (cm)
0 4 4
0.06 4.8 4
1.3 0.5 4
1.36 4.8 4
2.66 0.5 4
2.72 4.8 4
4.02 0.5 4
4.08 4.8 4

Discussion and Conclusion:

There are a few different things we noticed from the observations of this experiment.

First of all let us compare the Upper limit set point for all three different percentages of
Hysteresis. The upper limit set point when hysteresis was at 12.5% was 4.6L/min. The upper
limit set point when hysteresis was at 25% was 4.7L/min. The upper limit set point when
hysteresis was at 37.5% was 4.8L/min. This shows that as the percentage of set hysteresis
increases, the upper limit set point also increases. This means that when you introduce
hysteresis into the control system, it allows the controlled variable to reach a higher value
before the controller to takes action.

Now let us observe the lower limit set point for all three different percentages of Hysteresis.
The lower limit set point when hysteresis was at 12.5% was 0.5 L/min. The lower limit set
point when hysteresis was at 25% was 0.5 L/min. The lower limit set point when hysteresis
was at 37.5% was 0.5 L/min. The increase in hysteresis should have caused a drop in lower
limit setpoint however no such observation can be made here.

References:

 "Principles of Industrial Instrumentation" by D. Patranabis, Publisher: Prentice-Hall,

Year: 1997.
 "Instrumentation and Control Systems" by William Bolton, Publisher: Newnes, Year:
2006.
 "Flow Measurement: Principles and Methods" by Henry V. Moyer, Publisher: Wiley,
Year: 2015.
 "Process Control: A Practical Approach" by Myke King, Publisher: Wiley, Year: 2014.