UNIT

OPTICS
6

REflECTIOII! Of UGilT @ , Image formed by plane mirror is virtual, erect, of same

• Reflection is the phenomenon by virtue of which a light size and is formed at same distance from the mirror as is
beam after interacting with a surface separating the two the objet."t i.e., u = v.
different media bounces back into the same medium. hnage formed by plane mirror is laterally inve1ted,. i.e.,
right side of the object appears as the left side of the
Laws of Reflection
image and vice-versa.
e First !.aw �f reflection states that the incident taJ\ retlected B
ray and nomial to the surrac, lie in the same plane,
A 1·

C __ .:c
11/llll�/lfflll D D'
• Second law of refle.L'tion states that angle of reflection o A plane mirror can forn1 a real image only when a
is equal t o angle of incidence. convergent bea...m of light fulls on the plane min'nr.
:; These laws of reflection hold true for regular
reflection at all lcind of surfaces i.e., _plane or curved.

){-
,I;, \,
,,, § '
t r
,£
i,
0

t:::
\ f
(::' s On keeping the incident ray fixed, if the mirror is turned
Plane mirror Convex wirror Concave mirror
through an angle 0, !hen the reflected ray turn.s by an
o For angle of-incidence i :::: -0° , angle of reflection r is
0

angle 2fl from its initial parh.

also sap:1e i.e,, r = 0 ° .
t:rncident Beam

i Refleeted Beam

IJIIIIIIFll/1/1/11

Plane mir:or Convex m.:r:or Concave n:rrrnr

Reflection at P!am, Mirror
Aiii"C.:----c-"T"---j ... ., ....... ., . : ,,i:4' m' ,
�

B
�-- -
p
.. I B'
····--·ye·---·m2
m2

• To view full image, a person needs a plane mirror of

length equal to half the height of person,
J
_u_
Opilcs 211

Head 360°
For example, if e =a 75� then m=----=4.8
75°
Eye and n = Int [4.8] = 4
[f the reflecting surface is smooth1 then the regular
reflection take place and images can be formed, but if
the surface is rough, diffused reflection take 'place where
the reflected rays scatter in different directions so, tI1e
image cannot be funned by such reflection. This is \vhy
i.ve can see our image while loo.king into a steel container
Feet
hit we do not �bserve the image while reading a news
So� to observe the complete image of a person of height paper.
2 h)t'le minimun:;,height of1rii1Torreqvired 1s (H + h),
• If there are two plane lJllJ.--rors perpendicular to each other,
then the ray of light after su:ff{:r,ng reflection from both i
the rriirrors become ax1tiparalleL

lii@ttiBM,ii
�!hat is the minimum length ofa mirror required for
a person to see his or her full image?
90G � i i'- S(lln.:
...;('
/�<'f",-.. i . �
?J.
i;
�

•
/J/f)//1// 4 /1/11//i::: Eye
Iftwo plane mirrors are parallel to each other, then infinite
-images of an object placed bet.veen th�'ID are formed. If
the first image is d dista::ice behind the lillITOI, then an
other consecutive lmages are 2d distance apart
Foot level

<
) ®�__2_d_-r•
The total height of the person from top of the head
1'1 I'z
T t o bottom of the feet F i s l'F. E' is exactly
appropriate to E1 the eye ieve1 of the person.

• I From the foot F, the incident ray is reflected at B, the

If there are t\vo plane mirrors inclined at angle 0 with level end of the mirror to reach the eye level of the
each other1 then the number of possible images of a i person at E Due to incident ray equal to ::eflected
point object are ray, as shm,vn by e.
n=m-1 I
360° E'B c· c . -EF =
1f n, = - - is even number I 2 2
h,
360° I A similar argument provc:s AE1 TE=
r-or example, if 0 � - 60 then m;;;:;;----::--6 2 2
........,c_
°
60° Here of the mirror to show a full-sized
and n = 6 5
(b) n = m
I of the person is half sized i.e.,

11
360 ? .
. ,, m = -----1s o d d number. I AB"' AE' E'B
h h..,
___!_ + _____£_
2 2
3
360'
For example, jf 8 """" 72 ° then m =--=5 IO@Miih,fi
Two adjacent walls of a room perpendicular to each other
7 2°
anC n :a= 5 are covered folly by mirror, how many images ofyoursea:
(c) n = Int[m] wiH you see if you stand in that room.
So!n.: 0 = 90°
. 360°,
1f m = ---1s a fractwnal number. 360 360
e 4 i s even,
e 90
212

hence number of images you see = n Transverse or linear magnification

= 4-1=3 size of image
m= --v
size of object = u
SPHERICAL MIRROR
• A spherical mirror is part ofa spherical reflecting surface.
• Here -ve magnification implies that image is inverted
with respect to object while +ve magnification means
Spherical mirror is of two types that image is erect with respect to object.
o Concave mirror • Longitudinal magnification : When an object lies along
o Convex mirror the principal axis, then its magnification is known as
Concave Mirror longitudinal magnification. For small object, it is given by
• When the reflection takes place from inner surface and dv
outer surface is polished, the mirror is known as concave mL =- du
mirror. • Superficial magnification : When a two dimensional
object is placed with its plane perpendicular to principal
Convex Mirror
axis, then its magnification is known as superficial
• When the reflection takes place from outer surface and magnification or areal magnification and is given by
inner surface is polished, the mirror is known as convex area of image
mirror. m =-----=m2
s area of object
1 1 l
• Mirror's formula, -+ -=
U V f
where
u = distance of object from the pole of the mirror
v = distance of image from the pole of the mirror.
• Newton's fonnula isf2 =;iy, wherex is distance of object
from the focus and y is distance of image from the focus
Concave mirror
of the mirror.
lllustratiol'.l 3
Assume that a concave mirror has a focal length of 10 cm.
Locate the images for object distances,
(a) 25 cm (b) 20 cm (c) 15 cm
(d) 10 cm (e) 5 cm.
Describe the image in each case.
Convex mirror
where 1 1 1
Solo.: (a) -+- =
P= Pole of mirror V u f +ve

F = Principal focus u =-25 cm

C = Centre of curvature and f=-10 cm
PC = R = Radius of curvature l 1 l·
PF= f= Focal length :::::} -+-- = F
V -25 -}Q'
Sign Conventions v = - 16.7 cm
• All distances have to be measured from the pole of the
mirror. - .
• Distances measured in the direction of incident light are m = -v -( 16 7) = -0.667
=
u -25
positive, and those measured in opposite direction are v is -ve, means image is formed on the same side of
taken as negative. the mirror as the object, image is real. The magnification
• Heights measured upwards and nonnal to the principal is -ve, implies the image is inverted. Tue magnification
axis of the mirror are taken as positive, while those is less than 1, hence image is diminished.
measured downwards are taken as negative.
1 1 1
(b) u = -20 cm, f= -10 cm:::::} �+
_20 _10

=��)
Spherical Mirror Formula
• The focal length ofa spherical mirror ofradius R is given by = -20 cm
v

� = -(
f "'�
= - l.
v
m =
• f (or R) is negative for concave or converging mirror and The image i s real and formed at the same position as
positive for convex or diverging mirror. the object. When object is at the centre of curvature
Optics
of a concave mirror, (u = R = 2f= 2 (-10) = -20 cm) Absolute refractive index : Refractive index ofa mediu.."ll
the image is also formed there itself. m = -1 =? image with respect to vacuum (or in practice air) is knovn1 as
is same size and inverted. absolute refractive index of the mediun:;_
(c) u = -15 cm andf= 10 cm c �"Peed of light in vacuum
I I µ = -:;; ""' speed of hght in medium
+ -­ =; v = -30 cm
v - 15 -!O General expression for Snell's law
-v ( -30) '
Image is rea1 m = - = - -- = --2
�J _
(

u \. �15 f12 l
Image is invert..e d and enlarged, = l;.-"-1-
+ '

µl· = v2
u = -JO cm and / = -JO cm 1'.l_.,,-

1 1 1 where c is the speed of in v1 a nd v2 be the

-+--
v -10 -10 speeds of light in medium 1 and medium 2 respectively.
V = According to Snell's law.
When the object is at the focus, image is formed at
This means, the reflected rays travel ns,,sllel to each other. sin l sin i
s:in r or µ1 sin i = I-½ sin r
-v ( cc \
m = -;; -l -10) = = ¥/hen a light travels from one medium to another, its
frequency rew..ains constant but its wavelength as well
(e) u = --5 cm andf = -JG cm
as velocity changes.
1 1 I ; Normal
- ·; - - - -·· ':;:,::} ,1 + 10 cm When a light passes from a rarer 4/vq;
··5 -J O
to denser medium (�t�� > µ 1), it will v Q./Jt>·i'J
V
Image is virtual. It is fonned inside the mirror. 1'\arer .J.,
bend towards the normai a s Dense �-�-
.- ��.,._--"___
·0 /J2
m= .::_: = j\._l_-5,J
�\ = + 2 shown in the figure. :, r �
u �
The i!llage is erect and enlarge-d. • Vlhen a light pa�ses from a denser ·o--

REFRACTION OF LIGHT medium to rarer medium (µ1 > µ,)

e When a ray of lig11t passes from one medium to another, it will bend away from the nounal as shown in the
in which it has a different velocity, there occurs a change
in the direction of propagation of light except when it
strikes the sur:ftice of separation of tvvo media normat;.y.
This bendmg of a ray of l ight is kno1Nn as refraction.
e TI1e angles made by the incident :ay and the refracted
ray with the normal to the sey,an,tir,g stLrfu.ce at the po]nt
of incidence are k:novvn as the angles of incidence and
of refractio11 respectively.
•
Laws of llefrn<tio11
The two lav,s of refraction are as follows:
® The incident ray, the normal and the refracted ray ail lie ® lf a light rny passes through a number media
in the same plane. and if the first and the Jas: medium are same. lne
,r,, The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray as shm:v n In
angle of refraction for any tv,ro media is constant for a
light of definite colour. This constant is denoted by below.
or �1 called the refractive index of the second medium
v.ith respect to the first, the subscripts 1 and 2 indicating
that the light passes from medilliu l_ to medium 2.
sin i
Sin T 1µ2
(2) Glass

This is also k:no,vn as Snell's law.

where i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction.
• 1 � is a characteristic of the pair of media and aiso
(3) Water

depends on the wavelength of ligllt but is independent

,A.Jr
of the angle of incidence.
X
214
real depth
apparent depth _
- .
. md ex (µ)
refractive
Hence, • If there is an ink spot at the bottom of a glass slab, it
appears to be raised by a distance

d = t - t = t (1 - t)

where t is the thickness of the glass slab and �t is its

Optical Density
• It is a measure ofa refractive index ofa medium. A medium refractive index.
with a relatively high refractive index is said to have a
high optical density while one with a low refractive index • If a beaker is filled with immiscible transparent liquids of
is said to have a low optical density. refractive indices µF µ2, µ3 and individual depth d1 , d2, d3
• Optical density should not be confused with mass respectively, then the apparent depth of the beaker is
density, which is mass per unit volume. It is possible dl -=-d, d3
that mass density of an optically denser medium may be µ1 µ2 µ3
=- + +-

less than that of an optically rarer medium. For example,

turpentine and water. Mass density of turpentine is less
Refraction Effects at Sunrise and Sunset

than that of water but its optical density is higher than • The sun is visible a little before the actual sunrise and
water. until a little after the actual sunset due to refraction of
light through the atmosphere.
Optical Path
It is defined as the product of geometrical distance and
K)JluStfation' 4
•
the refractive index of the medium. (a) Find the refractive index o f glass with respect to
y <' \{i

Optical path = p.d 3 4

where d is the distance travelled by the light in the water. Given: µg = and µw = ·
2 3
medium. (b) A source of yellow light placed in air is observed by
The optical path represents the distance light travels a person swimming under water. If the wavelength of
in a vacuum in the same time it travels a distance d in yellow light in air is 6000 A, then find its speed,
the medium. wavelength and colour as observed by the person.
Lateral Shift
• When the medium is same on both sides of a glass slab,
then the deviation of the emergent ray is zero. That is
the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray but it
does suffer lateral displacement/shift with respect to
the incident ray and is given by C3 X 108 rn/s 9
or = -= =} Cw = - X 10 8 m/s
sin (i - r) 4/3 4
C

• Lateral shift, d t or Cw = 2.25 X 1 0 8 m/s

= cos r
µw

where t is the thickness of the slab. 1c 6000 A 6000 x 3

Now' µw · Aw = 1... orAw = - = ---4/3 = · --- 4
µ..,
A
4
=> \,, = 500 A.
Colour for the human eye depends on the frequency.
Since frequency is independent of the media, the light
as seen by the person inside water will be yellow.
. lllustrati,on '5,,1
Real Depth and Apparent Depth When a ray passes through a
• When one looks into a pool of water, it does not appear glass slab of thickness t at an
to be as deep as it really is. Also when one looks into a angle i with an angle of
slab of glass, the material does not appear to be as thick refraction r, what is the lateral
as it really is. This all happens due to refraction oflighl
shift of the emergent ray?
• If a beaker is filled with water and a point lying at its
Solo.: Using Snell's law, for
bottom is observed by someone located in air, then the
bottom point appears raised. The apparent depth is less ray 1 and its refraction,
than the real depth. It can be shown that sin i = µ sin r and sin e = µ sin r
=> Li = Le
Optics 215

The emergent ray is paraHel to Lhe incident ray, Wht,'Il incident angle is greater than 0c ' the ray cannot
Further, refract, but instead refleds totaUy. This ph.enon1en,011 is:
' '
AN /
called total internal reflection.
AB
cos r
B
cos r For i\, Sneil's law is �.tD sin e,: �tR si:1 90°
And BC = AB sin (i - r)
=> lateral shift (tf)
;:;:::} Sin 0c = or 8 c
= -·- sin (i - r) I.In
cos r UsWl.lly, = 'U,Jiff.
lil@HffiiH1il
A stone S is on the bottom of a swimming pooL The depth Then.• 0C = sin -' l-
/J'
I
of the lying pool is d and index of refraction of water is
µ)
11
µ. What is the depth of the swima1ing poo! visible to a
normal eye? Check the results with d = 6 ft and µ 1 .5.
1 @¥U ijhil
In the figure sho"vn for an angle of incidence i at the top
Soln.: A point source S i.s observed from air at a small angle
of the surface, ·what is the minimum refractive index for
r;, to the normaJ . Even if you see nornia1 to the surface
total internal reflection at the vertical surface.
of water, the image is fonned by a cone of light entering
the pupil of the eye. (a -·> 0) Soln.: The ray will total internally reflect at the vertical
�ow, µ sinj3 = 1 sino: surface if 8 > 8c·
Vi/hen 6 -? 0, sin 3 = ta:28, ;'Jow, r � (90° - 8) and
IIere, ta.no. sinet Saell's law is sin i µ sin r
and tan� = sin� sin t
µ tantl = tana ·= sin (9ff' - B)

sin i
PQ PQ µ
µ • PS PS'
· 2 r.
s
sm
PS' I
-;-J
d or sin .J1 - cos 2 e
'
i

=> Gf
( PS'
or d'
a """ �fl -
PS
'CC

µ l, If O > �\-. then sin a > sin

"-

(As: sin 0 is an increasing

PS
=> SS' = PS PS' PS - functwn for O < (l < 90 °)
µ
! sin 2 i
Apparent shift d( >
\
1

', µ
1-..:.)
\
p- µ
for d = 6 feet and µ = 1 .5.
'' sin2 i
d 6 >
Apparent depth, a= � = 1 5 4 feet.
µ - sin2 i > l or (µ2 - 1 ) >
A 6 feet deep pool appears to be 4 feet deep to the eye.
lf total internal reflection has to be larger for all
Most people are rnller than 4 feet and shorter than
foe above inequality must be satisfied fo: ail
6 teet A person could get into the pool here and expect
to find the ground 4 feet. Hhll expectation is behind and (sin2 i)nnx 1
the co:isequences could be dangerous. => µ2 - 1 > l or µ > fi,
This total internal reflection phenomenon :s used in
TOTAL INTEIUlAL REFLECTION fibre optics to bend light in a curved path.
\Vhen a ray is incident from
a denser medium to rarer REFRACTION FROM A SPHERICAL SURFACE
medlum, it bends away The portion of a refracting medium, whose curved
from the normal. The Rarer Medimn
)' ®

surface forms the part of a sphere, is known as sphericai

incident ray l , refracts as (µ.,,)
refracting surface.
l � away from the nonnaL It
also partially reflects as 1 ".
® Spherical refracting surface are of WIO types :
The angle of incidence of COff'i,rex refracting spherical su:r:fu.ce
a certain ray 2, that refracts Concave refracting spherical surface
3"
3

at an angle of 90" is called l'

ccnventions for spherical refracting smface are the
same as those for spherical mirrors.
2 @

the critical angle E\.

216

• When the object is situated in rarer medium, the relation Lens Maker's Formula
between µ 1 (refractive index of rarer medium),
µ2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) 7 = (µ - l) (� - R� )
and R (radius of curvature) with the object and image where R1 and R2 are radii of curvature ofthe two surfaces
distances is given by of the lens and µ is refractive index of material of lens
_ µl + µ2 = µ2 - µI w.r.t. medium in which lens is placed.
u V R • This formula is valid for thin lenses. It is valid for both
• When the object is situated in denser medium, the relation convex and concave lenses.
b etween µ 1 , µ2, R, u and v can be obtained by
• As per sign convention, for a convex lens, R1 is positive
interchanging µ 1 and µr In that case, the relation becon;ies
and R2 is negative and for a concave lens. R1 is negative
_ µ2 + µl _ µl - µ2 or _ µI + µ2 _ µ2 - µl and R2 is positive.
u V R V u R
These formulae are valid for both convex and concave • When the refractive index of the material of the lens is
spherical surfaces greater than that of the surroundings, then biconvex
Lens lens acts as a converging lens and a biconcave lens acts
• A lens is a portion of a transparent refracting medium as a diverging lens as shown in the figure.
bound by two spherical surfaces or one spherical surface
and the other plane surface.
• Lenses are divided into two classes :
Convex lens or converging lens
Concave lens or diverging lens fl2 > µ1
• Convex lens or converging lens : When a lens is thicker • When the refractive index of the material of the lens is
in the middle than at the edges it is known as convex smaller than that of the surrounding medium, then
lens or converging lens. These are of three types biconvex lens acts as a diverging lens and a biconcave
Double convex lens or biconvex lens lens as a converging lens as shown in the figure.
Plano convex lens
Colicavo convex lens
µI

Biconvex Plano Concavo

lens convex lens
Thin Lens Formula ·
convex lens
• Concave lens or diverging lens : When the lens is thicker
at the edges than in the middle it is known as concave where
lens or diverging lens. These are of three types : u = distance of the object from the optical centre of the
o Double concave lens or biconcave lens lens
o Plano concave lens v = distance of the image from the optical centre of the
lens
f = focal length of a lens
o Convexo concave lens

Il [ [
f is positive for converging or convex lens and / is
negative for diverging or concave lens.
Linear Magnification
size of image (I) v
Biconcave lens Plano Convexo
m = size of object (0) - -;; ·
concave lens concave lens
Sign Conventions • m is positive for erect image and m is negative for
• The sign conventions for thin lenses are the same as inverted image.
those of spherical mirrors except that instead of the pole Power of a Lens
of the mirror, we now use optical centre of a lens. I
=
p focal length in metres ·
 217

• The SI unit ofpower of lens is dioptre (D). Case 1. v = +30 cm

! D = l m ·1 • l ! l 1 !
- - - - - => -· - - => u = - 1 5 cm
For a convex lens, P is positive. v u f 30 u lO
For a concave lens, P is negative. + 30
m= --- 1 5 = - 2
-
\",'hen focal length /fJ of!ens is in cm, then u
V

100 . If the object is placed 15 cm before the a real

P ' cm) dioptre.
f (m image is formed 30 cm away from the lens. Its
magnification is 2 and the image is inverted,
Cnmbinatini'I of Thin Le.1ues ill Ccntad Case 2. v -30 cm
• 'w'hen a number of thin lenses offoral lengthf,,J;, ...etc.
are placed in contact coaxially, the equivalent focal length
V U f
F of the combination is given by
1 !
-30- - - => u -7.5 cm
- u 10
=-
r = f, +
1 l l 1
+ + .... '
s The total po1,,ver of the combination is given by m
V (: 'O 1 = + 4. -=-�
P = PI + P2 + + ... u \-7.:>J
® The total I!lagnification of t..he combination is by If the object js placed, 7 .5 cm before the lens. a virtual
is formed 30 cm from the lens. 1t is 4 ti1nes
m = m1 x m2 :x m� ....
enlarged and erect.
• \!Vhen two thin lenses of focal lengthsJ; andJ, are placed
coaxlally and separated by a distance d, the focal leBgth l'ii'MWMUI
of a combination is by A lens has a power of + 5 dioptres in air. What wi11 be
1 1 l d its power if completely immersed in water? Given,
-=-+
F f,
µ, = and µ.- =
3 4
• In terms ofpower, P = P, + P2 -- dP,P,. 3.
f1fz'
2
Mot!t0¥BM:i•i
Calculate the focal length of a biconvex lens if the radii
Soln.:
Jw
f' = µw [ �g
• w
-1]·[-!---!-j
Ii,
/1-,
' ...(i)
of its surfaces are 60 cm and 15 cm, and index of refraction
of the lens glass = 1.5. 1 . I 1 1
pau = f. =
- [µ - 1]1 - -- - ...(i:)
R1 "' 60cro R, "" 15 cm g LR1
eqn. v \11_ , gives
.; arr-
i · I") .
.J'
") ...--

µ,\.......(:;\ µ (µg - µwl\

1'

Soin.: v 1:.rr
- 1)

Using the Lens maker's Formula, x 5= - x5

1i6
1/2

I f 1.5 1 l - II l
-; =
, l
1 -.- -1Y
; 60 -Jj
1l- -- J = (0 . 5) ! - + ­]
L 60 15 Tue power cf the lens gets altered inside water.
REFRACTION Tl!ROUGH A !'!USM
]

l
(0 S) l- ; =>f = +24 cm.
Cl 4]
f o {) P:rism : It is a homogeneous, transparent medium
enclosed two plane surfaces inclined at an angle.
These surfaces are caHed the refracting surfaces and
A magnifying lens has a focal length cf l O cm between them is known as the refracting angle -or
(i) Where should the object be placed if the image is to the angle of prism.
be 3C cm from the lens? • The angle between the incident ray and the en:ergent
(ii) What will be its magnification? ray is known as the angle of deviation.
Soln.: f = + 1 0 cm • For refraction through a prism it is found that
v - ± 30 cm
218

where µ = µv ; µR = mean refractive index

Dispersion without deviation

• Suppose we combine two prisms of refracting angles A
and A', and dispersive powers m and w' respectively in
such a way that their refracting angles are reversed with
o = i + e -A where A = r1 + r2 respect to each other.
When A and i are small • For no deviation, the condition is
.-. o = (µ - l ) A o + o' = o
In a position o f minimum deviation, o = om, i = e, and -
(µ - 1 ) A + (µ' - 1 ) A' = 0 or A' = - (µ l) A
r1 = ,.2 = r (µ' - 1)
Under this condition, net angular dispersion produced
:. i= (A�0m ) and r = 1 by the combination
• The refractive index of the material of the prism is
= (ov - oR ) + (o� - 6�) = (µv - µR ) A + (µ� - µ�) A'
Sill Deviation without dispersion
2
. [(A +om )]
µ :::: The condition for no dispersion is
�sin �
(t)� (µv - µR) A
This is known as prism formula ( µy - µR ) A + ( µV' - µR' ) A' - 0 or A' = -
(µ� _ µ�)
where A is the angle of prism and o,,. is the angle of Under this condition, net deviation produced by the
minimum deviation. combination is
DISPERSION OF LIGHT = 8 + 8' = (µ - l ) A + (µ' - l ) A'
• It is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its
constituent colours on passing through a prism. This is
Illustration 11

because different colours have different wavelengths A ray of light is incident on one face of a prism at an
(AR > Av)- According to Cauchy's formula angle of 60 ° _ The refractive index of the prism is 1.5 and
angle of prism is 60° . Find the angle of emergence and
µ = A +� +� the angle of deviation.
/1,2 /1,4
where A, B, C are arbitrary constants. Therefore, µ of sin i sin 60° Ji
Soln. : sin r1 = -- = = 0.577
material of prism for different colours is different µ 1.5 2 X 1.5
(µr > µR). As o = (µ - 1 ) A, therefore different colours turn r1 = sin-1 (0.577) = 35 °, r1 = A - r1 = 60 ° - 3 5° = 2 5 °
through different angles on passing through the prism. sin e = µ sin r2 = 1.5 sin (25 °) = 1.5 x 0.423
This is the cause of dispersion. sin e = 0.634 ==} e = sin-1 (0.634) = 39 °
Now, i + e = A + 8
=} 8 = i + e - A = 60 + 39 - 60 = 39 .
red
° ° ° °

yellow Illustration 12
What is the required condition, if the light incident on
Angular dispersion one face, does not emerge from the other face?
• The difference in deviation between any two colours is Soln.: For no emergence, r2 > 0c
known as angular dispersion. A - 1·1 > 0c
Angular dispersion ov - O = (µv - µR)A sin (A - r1) > sin 0c
where µv and µR are the refractive index for violet and red 1
R

rays. sin A cos r1 cos A sin r1 >

µ
-

5
Mean deviation, 8 = v; I\( . sin i]
sin A [cos r1 ] - cos A [ >
µ µ
. _ angular dispersion (ov - BR )
ff1spers1ve power, m - 2_ -
mean deviation (8) µ sin A ��l-
_-_
sin
__ r.1 cos A sin i > 1
-
=}

(0
= µV µR ,
(µ - 1)
Optics 219

To observe the rainbow. back of observer must be

/·' sin 2 i \ I *
;;;::;,. µ sin A � I l - J > 1 + cos A sin i towards the sun.
V 1' .
2
*' Generally; there are two kinds of rainbows
=> sin A · ,jµ - sin2 i > (1 + cos A sin i)
o Primary rn.inbow
Squaring both sides,
o Secondary rainbow
sin2 A (µ1 - sin2 i) > (1 + cos A sin i)2
Primary rainbo·rv : Primary rainbow occcrs due to one
µ2 sin 2 A sin2 A sin2 i > l + cos2 A sin1 i + 2 cos A sin i
®

internal reflection and two :refractions from the water

µ2 sin.2 A > 1 -r- (cos2 A + sin2 A) sin.2 i + 2 cos A sin i
drops suspended in air. Violet colour is on the inner
sin2 A > 1 + sin2 i + 2 cos A sin i
and red colour is on the outer edge.
The greatest value of sin i = 1
Secondary rainb0¥'/ � Secondary .rainbow occurs due to
=> µ2 sin2A > l + 1 -+ 2 cos A
,ii,

two total internal reflections and two refractions from

( ,2 . " A , A i
µ2 , .L sm- � cos- - ; > 2 ( 1 ""7 cos A) the \Valer drops suspended in air. Red colour is on the
\ 2 2) inner edge and violet colour is on the outer edge.
A The secondary rainbow is fainter than :he primary
A
· 2 - A
4 sm cos2 > 4 cos2 � =;> µ' > rainbow.
2 2 . ... .A.
2 OPTICAL i�lSTi!UMENTS.
S1TI..: -·
(4\
µ > cosec I :_ 1- Humai'I
\. 2 J
Eye is one of the most important optjcai biological
illtMtMU+IM instru..i.uoot fitted within us.
Calculate the dispersive power of crown glass where Ciliary muscles
= 1 .522 and µR = l.514.

So!n.: w = Aqueous
µ -! blLtnOUT
1 .522 + 1.514 Optic nerve
1.518 '
Pupil--+f-,
2 lris---1'\-
1 .522 L514 Cornea
0.015.
l.518 - 1
::::::} U) =
Vitreous humour
SCA1TEIIING Of LIGHT
• Light enters through the curved from surface called
B: As sunlight travels through the earth's atmosphere, it
cornea. Then It passes through the which is
gets' scattered (changes its direction) by the atmospheric the cen.tTal hole in iris. Tl,1e size of can change
particles. Light of shorter wavelengths is scattered much
under control cf muscles. Thus, amount nf light or
more than light of longer wavelengths. lne amount of
intensity of light entering the eye is controlled by
scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth pm,ver \
of the wavelength. This is knovm as Rayleigh scattering, the size of pupil.
• Ciliary muscles control the curvature of the lens in
lll11strations of Scattering llf light the eye and change the effective focal of
o Blue colour of sky crystalline lens of the eye. 'When muscles are fully
o \Vhite colour clouds relaxed, focal length is maximum which decreases
o The sun looks reddish at the time of sun rise and sun set when muscles are strained.
o Da.*lger signals are red. • Light is focused by the eye lens on the retina, The
retir1a is a film of nerve fibres covering the curved
Rainbow
back sudllce of the eye. It contains cells in the shapes
@ Rainbow is a beautiful arc of seven colours seen in the of rods and cones, which sense light intensity an.cl
sky after rainfull. colour respectively, and transmit eleerric signals via
The rainbow is an example of the dispersion of sunlight the optic nerve to the brain which process
this in:tbnnation.
®

by the water drops in the atmosphere. This i s a

For image to be dear, it must be formed on retina.
phenomenon due to c.ombJned effect of dispersion,
Thus, image distance is fixed for dear vision and is
refraction and reflection of sunlight by spherical \vater
equal to the distance of the retina from the eye hens,
droplets of rain.
It is about 2-5 cm for a grown up person.
220

• Focal length of eye lens

is maximum when ciliary
muscles are fullyrelaxed B
and is equal to the
distance between eye
lens and retina i.e., 2.5 • Persistence of vision : If the time interval between
cm for a grown up person. two consecutive light pulses is less than 1/16 s, then
So, when umax = oo and v = + 2.5 �m eye cannot distinguish between them and the light
1 I I 1 I I 1 pulses are then observed to be continuous. This is

fmax V U"'"" 2.5

Then -- = - - -- = - - - = - - 0 = -
2.5 2.5
called persistence of vision.
Defects of Eye
00

or fmax = + 2.5 cm •

• The closest distance for which the lens can focus

Defects of eye are mainly of four types:

light on the retina is called the least distance of distinct

o Myopia
o Hypermetropia
vision D, or the near point, which is 25 cm for normal o Presbyopia and
vision. So, focal length of eye lens is minimum when o Astigmatism
ciliary muscles are fully strained and object is at near (a) Myopia or Near Sightedness : In this defect of eye,
point. the eye lens becomes too thick and cannot focus
So, when umin = - 25 cm and v = + 2.5 cm the image of distant objects on the retina, due to
1 1 1 1 1 11 which eye is not able to observe distant objects clearly.
Then -- = - - -- = - + - = - . In this defect, lens converges incident light of distant
fmin V Umin 2.5 25 2 5 object to a point well before the retina, and maximum
25 focal length is less than distance between lens and
or fmin = - = + 2.27 cm
11 the retina i.e., less than 2.5 cm.
• So, focal length of eye lens can change within the Far point P of a myopic
range of 2.27 cm to 2.5 cm by the action of ciliary eye is the farthest
muscles, in order to maintain the same image distance distance of the object
(2.5 cm). This property ofeye is called accommodation. from the eye, of which
clear image is focused
The ability of the eye by virtue of which it can adjust
its focal length to see objects at infinity to at a closest
on retina.
distance of 25 cm from it, i s called power of
This defect is removed
accommodation.
by introducing an appropriate concave .lens between
the eye and the object. Concave lens with. right
• Visual angle is the angle subtended by the object at diverging effect focuses the image of distant object
the eye lens. on the retina, and the parallel rays from infinity, appear
to be coming from far point P to the eye lens. If the
far point P is at distance x from eye lens, then the
incident rays from infinity should appear to be coming
from far point P, after diverging from concave lens.

Size of the object, as observed by the eye depends

upon the visual angle. When the object is close, visual
angle is large and object appears large. When object
' !·�
is far, visual angle. is small and same object appears ;far point

.,,:::::::�:·t?S
to be smaller. Visual angle is maximum when the object
is at the least distance of distinct vision D.
• Resolving power of eye is the reciprocal of the smallest
angle 0 subtended by two close objects, so that they
So, for u = - oo, v = - x
appear separately visible, when observed through the
eye. This angle 0 is called limit of resolution of eye
- = - - - - - - - - - - + O or f == -x m
and is less than 1 minute or 1/60° . 1 1 1 1 l l
f V U -X oo X
Optics 221

then suffer from both myopia and h:ypennetropia.

This gives the focal length and P = - _! D gives the This is overcome either by using two separate
X
power of the concave lens re-quired to correct the spectacles, one for myopia and another for
defect of the given myopic eye. or by using a single spectacle having
(b) Hypumetropia sightedness) : fa th.is defect 1:he bifocal lens.
eye lens becomes too thin and car.not focus the image (d) Astigmatism : II is the derec! cf eye which occlll'S when
of nearby objects on the retina, due to which eye is the cornea is not spherical in shape. For e:xrunple, if the
not able to observe near by objects clearly. In this cornea :have a larger curvature in the vert:cal pfane tha'1
defect! eye converges incident light of hear by object in the horizontal p1ane, then on looking at a horizontal
to a point beh1nd the retina, and minimum focal le!Igth line:, focusing in the vertical plane is needed for a sharp
is more than distance betn:een the lens and the retina image. But due to astigmatism, lines in one direction are·
i.e., more than 2.5 cm. weU focus� while those in perpendicula-r dire<:tfon are
Near D of a hypermetropic eye is the closest not. It is corrected by a Jens with one cylindrical surtace.
distance of the object from the eye, of which clear A cylindrical su...face focuses rays in one but nc.t
image is focused on retinE.-, in a perpendicular plane. By choosing the radius cf
curvature and axis direction of the cylindrical surface,
astigmatism can be corrected, Astigrr,atism can occur
along with myopia or hypermetro_pia.

! It is also k,'10\lirn as magnifying glass or simple

It consists of a convergent lens with object between its
@

focus 2:n.d optical centre and eye close to h. The image

furmed by it is erect, vi."1ual) enlarged and on same sidi
O': of lens between object and infinity.
a lVIagnifying power
angle subtended by image at the eye � £.
,,if angle subtended by the object at the eye tan a a
where both the object and image are situated at the least
distance of distinct vision.
0, -· ·
�

� ® Vlruen the image is formed at infinity (far

This defect is removed by interposing an appropriate M�D
convex lens between the eye and t..lie object_ Convex f
lens with the right converging effect focuses the image 0 '\¥hen the image is formed at the least distance of dis::lnci:
of nearby object on the retina and the ray from the vision D (near point),
object at th-e least distance of distinct vision (25 cm),
appear to be coming from near point P to the eye Ni = 1 + D
lens,
If the near point is at distance y from the eye lens, C"mp!!111ul Mic,ouope
then the incident rays from the object at the least * It consists of two convergent lenses of shorr focal
distance of distinct vision (25 cm) 1 appear to be coming
lengths and apertures arranged ca�axially. Lens (of focal
from near D. after converging from convex lens. So,
length/,,} facing the object is knmvn as objective or field
for u - 0.25 m, v = - y m
lens while the lens (of focal length f'e) facing the eye, Is
1 1 1 I 1 I y :n lmown as eye-piece or ocular. 'The objective has a smaller
= - - = - - + -- = - - + 4 or -- aperture and smaller focal length than eye-piece.
/ v u y 0.25 y
• Magnif;fag power of a compound microscope
4y I
This gives the focal length and P = --- D 14 = m' x m"
y
the power of the convex lens required to correct the When the final image is fonned at infinity (normal
defect of the given hypermetropic eye. adjustment)1
0

(c) Presbyopia : It ls an old age disease. At old age, ciliary }vi =

V (D\
-·-J
n:uscles ioose their elasticity and cannot change the i -•o ,fe
1'0

focal length of eye lens effectively. Due to this eye lens

Length of tube, L = v,
looses its power of accommodatio�1� and person can
222

• When the final image is formed at least distance of objective for normal adjustment (far point adjustment).
(a) find the angular magnification (b) :find the length of
distinct vision,
the microscope tube.
M = vo +
uo
(1
fe
E._) Soln.: (a) Using lens equation for the objective,
I 1 1
where u0 and v0 represent the distance of object and
u f
image from the objective lens,f. is the focal length of an
V

eye lens. · I
v0 (-1.2 cm) (1cm)
Length of the tube, L = µ0 + ( fe D ) => v0 = 6 cm.
fe + D
v 50.
Astronomical Telescope (Refracting type) Mfar point = - [ o )[!}__ ) = -(� )( lScm ) = -
fe l.2 cm 2.5 cm
• It consists of two converging lenses. The one facing the
(b) For far point adjustment, the first image formed by
11 0

object is known as objective or field lens and has large

the objective should be formed at the focal length of
focal length and aperture while the other facing the eye
the eye-piece.
is known as eye-piece or ocular has small focal length
and aperture. � L = v0 + fe = 6 cm + 2.5 cm = 8.5 cm.
• When the final image is formed at infinity (normal dllustration 15·
adjustment), An astronomical telescope has an angular magnification
of magnitude 5 for distant objects. The separation between
M = f" the objective and eyepiece is 36 cm and the final image
f,
is formed at infinity. What are the focal length of the
Length of tube, L = f. + .f�
objective and eyepiece?
• When the final image is formed at least distance of
d_istinct vision, Soln. : For astronomical telescope, 1ml = [ i) = 5
M = f. (1+ J, ) and L = f0 + fe = 36
f, D
� 5fe + fe = 36 or fe = 6 cm => f0 = 30 cm
f
Length of tube, L = fo + e D
. fe + D WAVEFRONT AND HUYGEN'S PRINCIPLE
Reflecting Type Telescope A source of light sends the disturbance in all the directions
• Reflecting type telescope was designed by Newton in and continuous locus of all the particles vibrating in same
order to overcome the drawbacks of refracting type phase at any instant is called as wavefront. Phase speed
telescope: In a reflecting type telescope, a concave mirror is the speed with which a wavefront m·oved outwards from
of large aperture is used as objective in place of a convex the source.
lens. It possesses a large light gathering power and a For example, when we throw a stone in still water, circular
high resolving power. Due to this, it enables us to see ripples are produced. Each circular ripple is a wavefront
even faint stars and observe their minute details. of water waves generated. Generally the wavefronts have
the shape similar to the source.

®
• In normal adjustment For example, a point source produces spherical wave fronts,
a line source produces cylindrical wave fronts and a parallel
Magnifying power, M = f; = ( f) beam of light have plane wavefronts. A wavefront always
lies normal to the direction of propogation
!, f.
where R is the radius of curvature of concave mirror. of waves i.e., normal to the rays of light.
• Spherical wavefront : For a point source
• Reflecting type telescope is free from chromatic
all such points which are equidistant from S
aberration because light does not undergo refraction. point source will lie on a sphere.
• By using paraboloidal mirror, spherical aberrations can
be eliminated in reflecting type telescope. • Cylindrical wavefront : For a
source of light linear in shape,
Illustration 14 such as finerectangular slit, locus
A compound microscope has an objective of focal length of all such points which are
I cm and an eyepiece of focal length 2.5 cm. An object equidistant from linear source will be
has to be placed at a distance of 1.2 cm away from the a cylinder.
Optics 223

® Plane wavefront : For a parnHel beam of light or a Constructio�

small portion of a spherical or cylindrical wRveftont at • In order to geometricaHy construct the position or a
large distance from source will be a plane ,vavefront new wavefront after time {, we use Huygen's principle.
As e very poin t acts as new source on primary
wavefront, AB, so by taking any po1nt on primary
\vavefront as centre, we dravv small spheres of radius
ct showing envelope of secondary wavelets in tir,1e
t, Now a tangent to these A 'B' gives the
position of new secondary wavefront after time t,
® Ray of : Whatever is the shape of a wavefront,
the disturbance travels out\vards along straight lines
emerging from the source, i. e. , the energy of a wave
travels i n a direction perpendicular to the wavefront.
An arrow drawn perpendicular to a wavefront in the
direction of propagation o f a wave is called a ray.
If \Ve measure the separation between a pair of wavefronts
along any ray, it is found to be a constant.
This illustrates tvvo general principles B" B B'
1. Rays are perpendicuiar to wavefronts, Huyge-ns' geometric.al construction for the
propagation of (a} spherical, (b) plane wavefront.
2. The time taken for light to travel from one wavefront
to another is the same along any ray.
• Huygen argued that the amplitude of the secouda,,--y
\ vvavelets is maximum in the forward direction and zero
in case of a plan.e wavefront, the rays -+----+-4------.
in the backward direction. Thus, Huygens could e:-:plain
are parallel (figure a) ' Ray
'
the absence of back.'-
v,ravefront Jf 'B".
In case of spherical wavefront, the • Voigt a n d Kirchoff mathematically proved that the
rays either converge to a point contribution of wavelet in a direction making an
(figure b) or diverge from a point Figure {a) 0 with rhe normal to the wavelet is proport!onal to
(figure c).
� (1 + cos0).

4""
Converging SF\V Diverging SFW contribution of the wave1et in backward directio n
s at e = 180D is ZCfQ.
Ray laws "' Reflection
0 Let us consider a plane wavefront AB incident cm
Figure (c) the plane reflecting surface .1-y . Incident rays are normal
Figure (b) to the \Vave:front AB.
ll!1ygens' Prindpie :
Huygens principle i s the basis of wave theozy of light. It
is lli!eful for finding the position and constrnction of new
wavefront of any moment. It also teUs how a wavefront
propagates througb a medium.
B
It states that '"Every point on the given primary wavefront
B'
acrs as a source of secondary wavelets, sending out Let in ti.me ''f the s:econdaiy wavelets reaches B I covering
distiirbance 1n all directions in a simliar manner as the a distance ct. Similariy frcm each point o n
original source of light does. The nev., position of the wavefront AB, seconda.-ry wavelets start growing wifo the
wavefront at any instant called secondary wavefront ls speed 'c'. To find reflected wavefront aftertime 'r', let us
the envelope of the secondary wavelets at that instant" draw a of radius 'ct' taking �B· as centre a n d now
Let us discuss the same p1indple i n points. a. tangent is drawn from B' o n the sphere the tangent

X
(i) Each point o n a wavefront acts as a fresh source of B'A' represent reflected wavefront after time t.
new disturbance, called secondary waves or wavelets. _,/
(ii) The secondary wavelets spread out in aH directions
with the speed of iight i n the given medimn. � �--:·� ::{' .
'.
·· · �i
The new wavefront at any later time is given by the .- :
,/ :··, , ,
fonvard envelope (tangential surface in t h e forward
direction) of the secondary wavelets at that time.
" '-'
X � l
B
"·Xv '' �y
:
B'
(iv) The secondary waves or wavelets have sa m e For every point on wavefront AB, a corresponding point
:frequency� wavelength as original waves but h a s reduced He on the reflected wavefront A'Bf .
intensity. So, comparing two triangle AfJAB' and Af3'A'B
224
We find that be constructive and at the points of destructive
AB' = A'B = ct interference, resultant intensity is minimum.
BB' = common
Conditions for sustained interference of light
LA = LA' = 90 °
• Toe two sources should continuously emit waves of the
Thus two triangles are congruent, hence Li . = Lr
same wavelength or frequency.
This proves first law of reflection.
Also incident rays, reflected rays and nonnal to them all • The amplitudes of waves from two sources should
lie in the same plane .. This gives second law of reflection. preferably be equal.
• The waves emitted by the two sources should either be
Laws of Refraction by Huygens' Principle
in phase or should have a constant phase difference.
Let us consider a plane wavefront AB incident on the
plane refracting surface .xy. Incident rays are normal to • The two sources must lie very close to each other.
the wavefront AB. • · The two sources should be very narrow.
A Intensity distribution
• If a, b are the amplitudes of interfering waves due to two
coherent sources and qi is constant phase difference
between the two waves at any point P, then the resultant
amplitude at P will be
R = �a2 + b 2 + 2ab cos q>
Let in time t the secondary wavelets from A reaches B' If a2 = Ii', b2 = 12, then
covering a distance ct. Similarly from every point on primary Resultant intensity I = R2 = a2 + b2 + 2 ab cos(j>
wavefront AB, secondary wavelets start growing which travel l = I1 + 12 + 2 [1;i; cos cj>
with speed c in air and with speed 'v' in denser medium. If11 = /2 = 10, then
To find refracted wavefront after time 't' let us draw a ·
sphere of radius 'vt' in the denser .medium, taking B as
centre and now a tangent is drawn from B' on the sphere.
I== 10 + 10 + 210 cos qi = 4/0 cos2 t
The tangent B'A' represent refracted wavefront after time I = I1 +I2 + 2 ji;i;_ coscj>
't'. For every point on primary wavefront AB, a
corresponding point lies on the refracted wavefront A'B'.
When cosq> = 1; I,nax == 11 + 12 + 2Ji}; = (.Ji: + ji;_f
When COS cj> = - 1, Imln -= (.Ji: -Kt
I,,,.,,
=( Jfi + .ji;f
Jmin (Fi -Fit
If 11 = 12 = 10, then
I= = 410; Imin = 0.

I= 410 cos2!
2
If the sources are incoherent, I = 11 + 12
In MBB' and M'B'B
Snell's law can be proved Young's Double slit Experiment
sin i ct I BB' c • Young's double slit experiment was the first to
demonstrate the phenomenon of interference of light.
sin r = vt I BB' -; = a µg
So, first law of refraction can be proved. Using two slits illuminated by monochromatic light
Also, the incident ray, refracted rays and normal to . the source, he obtained bright and dark bands of equal width
rays, all lie in the same plane. This gives the second law placed alternately. These were called interference fringes.
of refraction. \Vhen a wave passes from one medium to • For constructive interference (i.e. formation of bright
another then change in speed v take place, wavelength ).., fringes)
also changes, whereas its frequency u remains the same. For nth bright fringe,
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
• It is the phenomenon of redistribution of energy on Path difference = x. � = nJ..
account of superposition of light waves from two
coherent sources. Interference pattern produce points where n = 0 for central bright fringe
of maximum and rnmimum intensity. Points where n = 1 for first bright fringe,
resultant intensity is maximum, interference is said to
Optics 225
n 2 for second bright fringe and so o n
d distance between two slits
IU#ii5iHriti
The interference pattern of two identical slits eepamted
D = distan� of slits from the screen by a distance d = 0.25 mm is observed on a screen at a
x,, = distance of nm bright fringe from the centre.
distance of 1 m from the plane of the slits. rne slits are
.D
x,1 = n1�-d illuminated by monock-omatic light of wavelength 589.3 run
(scdiuzn D) travelling perpendicular to the plane of rhe
e For destructive interferen c e (i.e. formation of dark slits. Bright bands are observed on each side of the
fringes). i central maxima. Calculate the separation between adjacont
For n" dark fringe, bright bands?
1
Pall,. dilferenre
. = x - d_ = (2n - 1) � D), (1 m)(589.3 x 1 0 -9 m)
"D 2 Solo.: Fringe width (13) =
where d (0,25 X 1 0 -3 ) ffi
n J fur first dark fringe, = 2 x lW:, m = 2 mm,
n = 2 for 2 dark :fringe and so on.
lil@ttOM,ifi
nd

x11 = distance of nth dark fringe from the centre

In a "il)SE, the shts are 2 mm apart and are illuwJnated
AD
:. x, = {2n-1) ,r with a mixture of two wavelengths A = 7 50 nm a n d
2
}./ = 900 nm. At what distance from the common central
• Fringe width : The distance between any two consecutive
bright fringe on a screen 2 m. frorn the s lits will a bright
bright or dark fringes is known as fringe width.
fringe from one interference pattern coincide with a bright
_. ·=• " 1D
l"nnge Wlum, !-' = d fringe from the other?
Sol!L: The nth bright fringe of the Jc parte.rn and the n"
• Angular fringe width, 0 = ! = 1:: brla;ht fringe o f the J,.,J pattern are situated at
D d
D')./
@ If �, w;, are widths of two slits, JP 12 are intensities of n , -­
iigi1it oombg from two slits; a, b are the amplitudes of ' d
light from these slits, lhen [
As this coincide =
; J\ Yr/
W1 1, a' nDf� n 1DA:
=
YV2 I1 "' 'j; d d
�:m.. (a .+ b)2 Jc' 900 6
= =:;;.
n' 1c 750 5
Im:. (a - b)'
hence the first position where overlapping occur is
Fringe visibility, V = 1max -JwJn 6(2m)(750 x io-9 m )
lmax + lrrnn = 4.5 :U-llil.
(2 X 1 0 -3 m)
� When entire apparatus of Young's double slit experiment
is immersed in a medium of refractive in.dcA µ, the.n frin2:e
width becomes The intensity of the light coming from one of the slits ir:
'-'D l,D jl a YDSE is double the intensity from the other slit Find
�' = = = the ratio o f maxit:1� intensity to minimum intensity in
d µd µ
®
the interference fringe pattern observed.
\\''ben a thin transparent plate of thickness t and refractive
index µ is placed in the path of @e of the i nterfering
waves, fringe width remains unaffected but tbe entire 1.,.,
Soll.:
pattern shifts by IT.ltll
D
LIX (µ -1) I = (µ - 1) I jl
d . "A
This shifting is towards the side in which transpa:rer.t 34.
plate is introduced,
Coherent sources DIFFIIACTION OF LIGHT
s, It is the phenomenon of bending of light around corners
• The sources of light, which emit e-ontinuous light waves
of an obstacle or aperture in the path of light. On account
of the same wavelength, same frequency and in same
phase or having a constant phase difference are known of this bending, light penetrates into the geometri;;.';al
as coherent sources. shadow of foe obstacle. The deviation is more effective
® Two independent sources of light cannot be coherent when the dimensions of the obstacle or aperture are
226
comparable to the wavelength of light. This is, therefore, The positive and negative signs correspond to the
the essential condition for diffraction of light. first dark fringes on either side of the central bright
• Diffraction of light is of two types : fringe. Hence, the width of the central bright fringe is
Fresnel diffraction given by 2 [y1 J = 7.6 x 10-3 m = 7.6 mm.
Fraunhofer diffraction Note that this value is much greater than the width of
• Fresnel diffraction : In this case, the source or the screen the slit (0.3 mm)
or both are at finite distances from the aperture or IIJustration , 20
obstacle causing diffraction. In a single slit diffraction experiment, first minimum for
• Fraunhofer diffraction : In this case, the source and the. red light (660 nm) coincides with the first maximum of
screen on which the pattern is observed are at infinite another wavelength - A'. Then find the value of A'.
distances from the aperture or the obstacle causing Solo.: For minima, d sin e = n'A
diffraction.
Diffraction due to a Single Slit Here n = 1 , d · ( �) = 1 · (6600 A)
• The diffraction pattern produced by a single slit of width
D
a consists of a central maximum bright band with = ·(6600A)
d
y1
alternating bright and dark bands of decreasing intensity
Now, first maximum is approximately between the first
on both sides of the central maximum.
minima and second minima.
• Condition for nth secondary maximum is

Path difference = a sine. = (2n + 1) � Yi = ( Y1 :Y2 ) = (1�2} D:'

where n = 1 , 2, 3, ...... .
• Condition for nth secondary minimum is As y1 = y1 => � (6600A) = (%) � 1.. 1
Path difference = asin8" = nA
2 x 6600 A
where n = 1 , 2, 3, ...... . ;..' = ---- = 4400 A
3
• Width of secondary maxima or minima
Fresnel distance
').D 'J..f
where P = - = - • It is the minimum distance a beam of light bas to travel
before its deviation from straight line path becomes
a a
a = width of slit
significant.
D = distance of screen from the slit 2
f = focal length of lens for diffracted light Fresnel distance, ZF = a
. 2').D 2/').
A

W.dth
1 of central maXlIIlum
. = --= -- Resolving power
a a
• It is the ability of an optical instrument to produce
• Angular fringe width of central maximum = 2)...
a distinctly separate images of two close objects i.e. it is
the ability of the instrument to resolve or to see as
• Angular fringe width ofsecondary maxima or minima = !:a separate, the images of two close objects .

Illustration 19 Limit of resolution

• The minimum distance between two objects which can
Light of wavelength 580 run is incident on a ·slit of width just be seen as separated by the optical instrument is
0.30 mm. The observing screen is placed 2.0 m from the known as the limit ofresolution ofthe instrument. Smaller
slit. Find the positions of the first dark fringes and the the limit of resolution of the optical instrument, greater
width of the central bright fringe. is its resolving power and vice-versa.
Soln.: For first dark fringe, Rayleigh's criterion of limiting resolution
A 5.8 x l 0-7 m • According to Rayleigh, two nearby images are said to
Sin 0 = ± - = ± ---- ± 1. 9 X 1 0-3
a 0.3 x 10-3 m = be resolved if the position of the central maximum of one
The positions of the first minima, measured from the coincides with the first secondary minimum of the other
central axis are and vice versa.
y 1 = ± D tan 8 "" ± D sin 8 Resolving power of a microscope
As 0 is small, tan 8 = sin 8 • It is defined as the reciprocal of the minimum distance d
between two point objects, which can just be seen
=} y
1 = ±D (;) = ± 2 (1.9 x 10-3 m) = ± 3.8 x 10-3 m through the microscope as separate.
Optics 227
i o A plane which is perpendicular to the plane of vibration.
Resolving power d1 is known as plane of polarization.
where µ is refractive_ index of tbe medium between ob.]ect Angle of Polarization
and objective 0 is half the angle of cone of light from ! ®
ille angle of incidence for which an ordinary light is
the point object, d represents limit of resolution of
completely polarized in the plane of incidence when it
microscope and µsine is kno\,n as the numerical aperture.
gets reflected from a transparent medium.
Resolving power of a leiescope
L-s of Malus
It is defined as reciprocal of the smallest angular
® According to law of Malus, when a beam of completely
s eparation (d6) between nvo distant objects, whose
@

plane polarized light is incident on an analyser. the

image-s are just seen in t.1.e telescope as separate.
resultant intensity of light {J) transmitted from the
,
Resolvmg power
I D analyser varies directly as the square of the cosine of
= de := 1 22 A the angle (0) between plane of transmission of analyser
where D is diameter or aperture of the objective lens of and polafuer
the telescope, d0 represents limit of resolution of i.e, I= cos::e
telescope.
Brewster's law
l'OLARIZATION OF LIGHT e According to Brewster's law� when unpolarized light is
w T'ne phenomenon of restricting the vibrations of i'lcident at polaf,zing angle (iP) on an interface separating
(electric vecror) in a particular direction, perpendicular a rarer medium from a denser medilli-n of refractive index
to direction of wave motion is known as polarization of µ, such that
Ught. p, = tan iP
w The plane in which vibrations of poiarized light are then light is reflected in the rarer medium is completely
confined is known as plane of vibration. polarized. The reflected and refracted rays are
perpendicular to each other.
 CONCEPT MAP

� . Ray (gpfics

Cdtical Angle: The

Refracfton fLlght : u ·18
Total Internal Reflection:
Reflection ofLight :Itisth Ray Optics : It is the branch It is the phenomenon o critical angle for a pair of
. . . t h e p h enomen o n o
°
phenomenon of change m . of physics which deals with c1 nge_ . path f 1.ight' re fl ection
· of 1·1gbt mto
· media· rn
· contact 1s
· defimed
the path oflight without any� the study of light and the ; t / denser medium from the as the angle ofincidence in
changei n medium. w e? 1 goes om one
phenomenaassociatedwithit. medrnm toanotl1er. boundary ofdenser medium the d e n s e r m e d i u m
· h rarermed"nan.
W1t correspond"mg to wuc 1· h
aspersion of L1g t: It 1s ------------,---------, angle of refraction in the
t h e p h e n o m e n o n of rarer medium is 90°. It is
t-------,
splitting ofwlute light into .___ represented byC.
its constituent colours on ______ _ _ � ,..----��-----
I,
,aws ofRetlection: LawsofRefraction . . 1
The incident ray, the pas�-ingthrougha prism. • The incid ent ray t e , h Refnt�tlonThrough a Prism: µ=
B C • S - µ
( - ) l A sinC
reflected ray and the it =A+ - + - nomml and the refracted
normal to the surface, 2
')._ "),.4 ray a11 hem
. . tI1e same pIane. A + om
all lie i nthe same plane. '-----.-------' • The ratio of tbe sine of •
i= - - 2-
The angle of incident i
is equal to the angle of Angulm· Dispel'sion:
angle of incidence to the
sine of angle of refraction
1 µ2 _ sini
reflectionr. for any two media is Snell's Law: µ:;- - sinr
• 1· = 2
S
• 8v - R (µv -· µR)A constant for a light of sm
S sini 2
. [(A + 8m)]
• 8 = 8v + R
=

definite colour. • µ= =
2 sinr . (A)
(Sv -8R)
sm
,I, 2
Spherical Mi rors:r

• Concave mirror
• C.O=--�
8
• Convex mirror • µ = µv + µR Symbols Used:
2 i = angle ofincidence
Lenses:
• Concave lens
where S is mean deviation • Convex lens µ refractive index
k--
and µ is mean refractive 11 =objectdistance
=

index. f = focal length

,J,,
Mi1Tor Fol'mula:
-+- =­
1 1 1
v II I
Lens Make1-s Foimula:
r 1
Thln Lens Formula:
R = radius ofcurvature
S =angle ofdeviation
A =angle ofprism
I 1 1 ] I 1 I f3 =angle subtended by image atthe eye
(µ ( v II
R
- - - :-::::: -
7 -l) i - Rz ) a = angle subtended by object at the eye
=
I
r = angle ofreflection/refraction
' 111 = magnification
v = image distance
I, ,&"
1
c = critical angle
Linear Magnification: Linear Magnification: Combination o f Thin
f - v = --
m=-- m = hz = � P= power oflens
Lenses in Contact: !Power ofLens: P = 7"
/� II • I I l 1
f
S,,, = angle ofminimum deviation
f - 11
F .ft fz fn
f
- = -+-+ .... + -

• P = R. + P2 + ... +Pn
 Wave Optics : Wuw optics is based on wavethemy foterfot'1:'nce of Light : It Intensity Distribution :
Wave Frnnt : It is the locus of of Jigbt put forward by Huygen and modified later .
is the phenomenon of 2 + b2 + i1bcosq,
3lJ particles of a me,dium,1... by .Fresnel.According to wave theory, lighti;; u fonn t{ = Ja
{-.;,distribution of energy on
vhich are vibrating in tbe1 ·
samephas0
of energy which travels tluough a medium in the r-i account o f super r: r 1 + 12 +2..Jij; cos$
ftmn of ttausverse waves.
I
imposition oflightwave. --
I
J, J, J,
Huygens Pfincip!e : According Ymmg's Double Slit Eipei'iment;
It iH the phen:�;��on of be11dfr1g of to Huygens principle,
light around t.A>rners of ru1 obstuole * Every point on given • For constructive iuterference,
orapertnre in the path oflight. wavefront acts as a fix:.ti h }IT'
D
source of n�w disturbam:e, Re.soh'lll� Powro· ; • '
n/1.·i
for d;;.structive intc.rforencc
=

�-�.- ' !-- ' 1111,

culled st'-'C011tlacy wavelets. It is the ability of
• The seconJ.ary wavelets optical in�ttumcnt to X " (211 - J/l_)_
• }condary maximu travel i n all Lhc direclions produ,:;e separnte
· 11
2d
with the speed ortight in the )D
medium.
images of two close • Fringe width,
d
objects.
• A surface touching i:hose
secondary wav�lets Fringe isihility, F J,m•� - Imi11
• eoonda,y mininrn., tangentially in I.he fonVard
e
l,naY. + lmln
\ direction at any inst.ant
• :zimuorminima gives the new (:-,econdary)
wavefront a.t that mstru1t
'---------
��
a a '
Wjdthofccntral maximum
Z-/JJ 2f),
� .. - :::: --- ·-
2µsi11B l
*
a a
Angular fringe width ofcentral nwximum �--x
2/c
=: -- -
a
e Angular fringe width of secondary Polmization oO .ight:
maxima or minima The phcuome11on of_restricl.ing the vibral.ions of
,_ light in a particular direction perpendicular l.o the
a Ji.reel ion of\\'fl ve motion.
Symboh Used:
J ""'intensityordistribuliou e""' lmtrtbcunglt; ofcone ofliglll Bi>cwst-et•'s Lnw: 1')!-l,ll'o.ids;
D '-- distance ofslits from the screen from the point object. �t ""' tan if' Material which
a "'width of single siit d=<listum::e betwi.."Cn two slits
<i0 = limit ofresolutio11 oftdescop..,; /� = wavelength ol'light
Xn 'C/C, di�i-tmce ofnth bright(dark)fr:inge from thecculn: ip =pularizingangk LawofJ\1.atus: e, In thrcc<limensionat motion pi;,.:tures
UseB:
DA '""' diameter or aperture ofobjective, lens, µ-=- refractive indi;x:. e To improve colour cont1nst i n old oi
l= cos�OP
'
/= focal length oflcns fordiffrncted light 0P ·=ru11:,�e between plnneof
consh:mt phase difICrem:.e. tt-rm:.mission ofamdy5t,rand poluriz,�r. • analysi:.., etu.
230

CONCEPT MAP

(!)ptical lnstrumen�s

--------------, Optical Instruments

Accommodation : It
is the adjusting power
Buman Eye: It is the ofhuman eye so that it
-
finest photographic 1-- - can observe distinctly Microscope
camera. the objects situated at
widely di fferent
distances.
Defects ofVision L--�=;:---_______,

Simple Microscope: It is Compound Microscope: The

u s e d for o b s erving _images are highly magnified.
Myopia : Eye can see object magnified images o f tiny
lying near, but can't see far The objective lens forms a real,
objects. It consists of a inverted and magnified image
off obj ects. It can b e w=---1 converging lens of small
corrected by using concave of the object. This acts as an
focal length. Object is held object for eye lens, which forms
lens. between principle focus and a virtual, erect and magnified
optical centre ofthe lens. The image seen by the eye held
Hypermetropia : Eye can image formed is virtual,
see far off objects clearly but close to the eye lens.
erect and magnified.
can't see nearby objects. It �---'
can be corrected by convex
lens.

Magnifying Power:
tanj3 13
M = -- = ­
tana a

Image at Far Point: Image at Near Point: Image at Near Point: Image at Infinity:
D
M=-
D
M = l+- M=
v
..Jl (- l+-
D) M
Vo (. D)
J f uo fe = 110 _ le

Astronomical Telescope 1--------'

Symbols Used
a = angle subtended by image at the eye.
j3 = angle subtended by the object at the eye.
D = least distance of distinct vision.
u0 = distance of object from obJec�ve lens. Magnifying power Magnifying Power
v0 = distance of image from obJect1ve lens. when image is at when image is at near
fo = focal length of objective lens. infinity. point.
f (-1 + _
lvf = _Q_ f_
e -)
fe = focal length of eye Jens. M = fo fe , D
fe