Astrophysics

MYP - Lecture Notes

Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Mashrek International School
 Astrophysics

Key Concept: System

Related Concept: Form
Global Context: Identities and relationships

Introduction

• What’s the shape of the EARTH?

• Is it flat or spherical?
• Do We have an evidence for the shape of the Earth?

The Earth is not actually a perfect sphere. As it rotates, the equator bulges
outwards slightly giving it a slightly flattered shape. This is sometimes described
as an oblate spheroid.

2|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Stellar Quantities

The solar system is comprised of the Sun, eight planets, several dwarf planets, numerous
moons, and hundreds of thousands of other materials left over from the construction of the
solar system such as asteroids and comets.

• Solar system: a collection of eight major planets (Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) bound in elliptical orbits around a star we call
the Sun.
• Pluto has been stripped of its status as a major planet and is now called a ‘dwarf
planet’.
The orbit of the Earth is almost circular; that of Mercury is the most elliptical. All
planets revolve around the Sun in the same direction. This is also true of the comets,
with a few exceptions, the most famous being Halley’s comet.
• All the planets except Mercury and Venus have moons orbiting them.

Planet Size (Diameter/km) Distance from sun

(x 108 km)

Mercury 4880 58

Venus 12104 107.5

Earth 12756 149.6

Mars 6787 228

Jupiter 142800 778

Saturn 120000 1427

Uranus 51800 2870

Neptune 40500 4497

3|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

“Note: Student should memorize the planets in order of size and distance from sun”
In order of Distance:

Mercury ➔Venus➔ Earth➔ Mars ➔Jupiter ➔Saturn ➔Uranus ➔Neptune

(Pluto is not a planet any more)
My Very Eager Mother Just Served Us Noodles

In order of size:
Mercury ➔Mars ➔ Venus ➔ Earth ➔ Neptune ➔ Uranus ➔ Saturn ➔ Jupiter

4|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 MYP - May 2016

Venus – Neptune – Jupiter

they are further from the sun/star

5|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Mercury
Time = 7.4 s, s = 100 m, u = 0
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
100 = 0 + 𝑔(7.4)2
2
100 = 27.3 × 𝑔
100
𝑔𝑀𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑦 = = 3.65 𝑚/𝑠 2
27.4
Mars
Time = 7.3 s, s = 100 m, u = 0
1
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
100 = 0 + 𝑔(7.3)2
2
100 = 26.6 × 𝑔
100
𝑔𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑠 = = 3.75 𝑚/𝑠 2
26.6

6|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Mercury Mars

a reference to the relationship between g and density or

a reference to the relationship between r and density
(So) Mars must have a much lower density

7|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Ep = mgh – correct equation selected
3600(J) / 3.6(kJ)
unit correct as J or kJ as appropriate

as g on Ganymede is smaller, GPE would be smaller

as all GPE becomes KE probe would have less KE
as all other quantities are the same, velocity must be smaller
or
as g on Ganymede is smaller, acceleration is lower
there are no other forces acting
lower acceleration leads to lower final/terminal velocit

8|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Equipment and reason, for example
• equipment: stop watch/timing device
• this equipment is needed in order to measure the time it takes for the
parachute to fall
or
• equipment: metre rule or device to measure length
• this is needed to measure the height fallen by the parachute
or
• equipment: data logger with sensor to measure velocity
• this is needed to measure the speed of the parachute
or
• equipment: metre rule or device to measure length
• this is needed to measure the area of the parachute

9|Page Dr. Belal Al Qassem

statement of prediction that links area and terminal velocity eg terminal velocity
decreases as area increases
area increases so will air resistance/drag force
(increased air resistance) increases the upward force on the parachute and
reduces the acceleration

one variable from

• mass
• weight of parachute
• shape of the parachute
one description of how variable should be controlled
• measure the mass/weight each time
• use the same mass/weight
• use the same shape for the parachute
reason correctly linked to description of how variable should be
controlled, either
• the greater the mass/weight the greater the downward force on the
parachute (this affects the terminal velocity)
or
• the shape of the parachute will affect the aerodynamics of the parachute
(this affects the terminal velocity)

10 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

at least five different values of area for the parachute
values evenly spread over a range
repetitions of each measurement

the moon orbits the Earth

or
as its position changes
(therefore) different bright sections are visible from the Earth

gravitational force/pull/attraction

11 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Star
• Are formed initially from gas and dust when gravity causes the gas in a nebulae
(which is interstellar clouds of dust, hydrogen, helium and other ionized gases) to
condense.
• Stars initially are made mainly of hydrogen gas.
• Are very hot and give off huge amounts of energy in the form of heat and light.
• Our Sun is a medium sized star

Constellations: View from one place on Earth

The constellation of Orion: a) the starts seen in the sky, b) a representation from mythology

12 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

If we look up at the night sky we see the stars – many of these ‘stars’ are, in fact, other galaxies
but they are very far away.
The stars in our own galaxy appear as a band across the sky – the Milky Way.
Patterns of stars have been identified and 88 different regions of the sky have been labelled
as the different constellations.
Stars in a constellation are not necessarily close to one another (they do not necessarily have
anything in common)
Over the period of a night, the constellations seem to rotate around one star. This apparent
rotation is a result of the rotation of the Earth about its own axis.
On top of this nightly rotation, there is a slow change in the stars and constellations that are
visible from one night to the next. This variation over the period of one year is due to the
rotation of the Earth about the Sun.
Planetary systems have been discovered around many stars

What is a Galaxy?
A galaxy is a collection of hundreds of billions of starts held together by their own gravity. Our
solar system lies in a galaxy called the Milky-Way.
It is believed that there might br hundreds of billions of galaxies in the universe.

The Universe
Stars are grouped together in stellar clusters. These can be open containing 103 stars e.g.
located in the disc of our galaxy or globular containing 105 stars. Our Sun is just one of the
billions of stars in our galaxy (the Milky Way galaxy). The galaxy rotates with a period of about
2.5 × 108 years.

13 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Beyond our galaxy, there are billions of other galaxies. Some of them are grouped together
into clusters or super clusters of galaxies, but the vast majority of space (like the gaps between
the planets or between stars) appears to be empty – essentially a vacuum.
Everything together is known as the Universe

In interstellar space, the space between stars.

At a distance of 4.2 light years (a light year is the distance travelled by light in one year) we
find Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to us after the Sun.
Many stars find themselves in stellar clusters, groupings of large numbers of stars that attract
each other gravitationally and are relatively close to one another. Stellar clusters are divided
into two groups:
globular clusters, containing large numbers of mainly old, evolved stars, and open clusters,
containing smaller numbers of young stars (some are very hot) that are further apart, Figure
below.

open clusters globular clusters

Very large numbers of stars and stellar clusters (about 200 billion of them) make up our
galaxy, the Milky Way, a huge assembly of stars that are kept together by gravity. A galaxy
with spiral arms (similar to the one in Figure D.2a), it is about 120 000 light years across; the
arm in which our solar system is located can be seen on a clear dark night as the spectacular
‘milky’ glow of millions of stars stretching in a band across the sky.
As we leave our galaxy behind and enter intergalactic space, we find that our galaxy is part
of a group of galaxies – a cluster (such as the one shown in Figure D.2b), known as the Local
Group. There are about 30 galaxies in the Local Group, the nearest being the Large Magellanic
Cloud at a distance of about 160 000 light years. In this group, we also find the Andromeda

14 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

galaxy, a spiral galaxy like our own and the largest member of the Local Group. Andromeda is
expected to collide with the Milky Way in 4 billion years or so.
As we move even further out, we encounter collections of clusters of galaxies, known as
superclusters. If we look at the universe on a really large scale, more than 108 light years, we
then see an almost uniform distribution of matter. At such enormous scales, every part of
the universe looks the same.

Comets and asteroid belt

Comets: Mixture of rock and ice “dirty snow ball”.

They have a very elliptical orbits around the sun.

Asteroid: A small rocky body that drifts around the solar system.

Asteroid belt: many asteroid between Mars and Jupiter.

Stellar Cluster and Constellation

Stellar Cluster: A number of stars that is held together in a group by gravitational attraction.
They are formed from the same gas cloud.

Constellation: group of stars that form a recognizable pattern as viewed from the earth. The
stars are not close to each other in space

There are 88 different regions in the sky have been labeled as different constellations.

Q) Distinguish between Open clusters and Globular clusters

Open clusters: consist of up to several hundred stars that are younger than 10 billion years
and may still contain some gas and dust. They are located within our galaxy , the Milky Way,
and lie within a single plane

Globular clusters: contain many more stars and are older than 11 billion years and therefore,
contain very little gas and dust.

15 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Q) Distinguish between a planet and a comet

Answer:
• a comet is a small icy body whereas a planet is mostly made of rock or gas
• a comet is often accompanied by a tail/coma whereas a planet is not
• comets (generally) have larger orbits than planets
• a planet must have cleared other objects out of the way in its orbital neighbourhood.

Distinguish between a constellation and an open cluster. [2 marks]

Answer:
• In cluster, stars are gravitationally bound OR constellation not ✔
• In cluster, stars are the same/similar age OR in constellation not ✔
• Stars in cluster are close in space/the same distance OR in constellation not ✔
• Cluster stars appear closer in night sky than constellation ✔
• Clusters originate from same gas cloud OR constellation does not ✔

Q) Distinguish between the solar system and a galaxy.

Answer:
• a galaxy is much larger in size than a solar system
• a galaxy contains more than one star system / solar system
• a galaxy is more luminous
• Any other valid statement.

Distances

Light year: It is the distance traveled by light in one year (9.5x1015 m)

The nearest star to the sun is about 4 light years away.

Our galaxy is 100,000 light years across.

Q) Outline why astrophysicists use non-SI units for the measurement of astronomical
distance.

Answer:

distances are so big/large OR to avoid using large powers of 10 OR they are based on
convenient definitions

16 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Spectral Class

• There are 7 basic spectral classes (in order of decreasing classes):

O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
• The spectra classes are divisions of temperature such that O stars are hot,
M stars are cool. For example, our Sun is a G star. Sirius, a hot blue star, is
type B.
Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kick Me

Colour and Temp. of stars

Class Surface Temp Colour

O 28000 - 50000 Blue

B 9900 – 28000 Blue - White

A 7400 – 9900 White

F 6000 – 7400 Yellow – White

G 4900 – 6000 Yellow

K 3500 – 4900 Orange

M 2000 - 3500 Orange - Red

17 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Types of stars

• Red Giant star: Large red stars and lower temperature than Sun (since
they are red). large luminosity. Main source energy is fusion of other than
Hydrogen.

• Red Supergiant: appears red in colour; has a very large luminosity;

relatively low surface temperature; very large mass; very large surface
area; larger than the giant.

• White dwarf stars: Much smaller than the sun (Earth size) and white, and
much higher surface temperature. No fusion there. Luminosity is low. It is
cooling down until it no longer emit light and hence they are called brown
dwarf. (they are O or B stars)

• Cepheid variables: Luminosity varies regularly (in several days) due to

change in the size of the star. the outer layers undergo a periodic
expansion and contraction. When it expands it becomes more luminous,
and when it contracts it becomes less luminous. (rapid brightening,
gradual dimming)

18 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 The BIG BANG Model

• Light from almost all galaxies shows red-shifts.

• Red-shift of light from galaxies indicates that the universe is expanding.

• This means that in the past all galaxies were close to each other.

(Originated from the same point)

• The point (creation of the universe) is called The BIG BANG

• Both time and space were originated with the big bang

• The universe started hot and cools down as it expands

19 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Hubble’s Law
Hubble’s law states that:
Distant galaxies move away from Earth; with a speed proportional to their
distance (from Earth);
i.e
“Recession velocity of distant galaxies is proportional to the distance away
from Earth”

𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 × 𝒅

𝒗 = 𝑯𝒐 𝒅

Where Ho is the “Hubble Constant”

The unit of Hubble constant is: s-1

20 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Expansion of universe and formation of atoms
• Universe starts hot.
• At the very high temperatures of the early universe, only elementary
(fundamental) particles could exist.
• Expansion gave rise to cooling to temperatures at which light nuclei
could be stable.

21 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 The Development of the Universe

Models of the universe:

[1] Open Universe:
• Is one that continues to expand forever but with decreasing rate.
• The density of the Universe is low
• Gravity is weak to stop the universe from expanding

[2] Closed Universe:

• gravity force is enough to stop the universe from expanding and causing
it to contract.
• density is higher than the open Universe.

[3] Flat Universe:

• Between the open and closed Universe.
• Force of gravity slowing down the expansion but takes infinity to do this
• Rate of expansion is zero (size is constant)

Critical density ( ρ0 ):
It is the density at which universe will expand forever but rate of expansion will
approach zero. It is the density of a flat Universe
Closed universe : ρ > ρ0
Open universe : ρ < ρ0
Flat universe : ρ = ρ0

22 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

 Definitions of terms

Binary star
Two stars orbiting a common centre

Black dwarf
The remnant of a white dwarf after it has cooled down. It has very low luminosity

Black hole
A singularity in space time; the end result of the evolution of a very massive star

Brown dwarf
Gas and dust that did not reach a high enough temperature to initiate fusion. These objects
continue to compact and cool down

Cepheid variable
A star of variable luminosity. The luminosity increases sharply and falls off gently with a well-
defined period. The period is related to the absolute luminosity of the star and so can be
used to estimate the distance to the star

Cluster of galaxies
Galaxies close to one another and aff ecting one another gravitationally, behaving as one
unit

Comet
A small body (mainly ice and dust) orbiting the Sun in an elliptical orbit

Constellation
A group of stars in a recognisable pattern that appear to be near each other in space

Dark matter
Generic name for matter in galaxies and clusters of galaxies that is too cold to radiate. Its
existence is inferred from techniques other than direct visual observation

Galaxy A collection of a very large number of stars mutually attracting one another through
the gravitational force and staying together. The number of stars in a galaxy varies from a
few million in dwarf galaxies to hundreds of billions in large galaxies. It is estimated that 100
billion galaxies exist in the observable universe
Interstellar medium
Gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust grains (silicates, carbon and iron) fi lling the
space between stars. The density of the interstellar medium is very low. There is about one
atom of gas for every cubic centimetre of space. The density of dust is a trillion times
smaller. The temperature of the gas is about 100 K

Main-sequence star
A normal star that is undergoing nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium. Our Sun is a typical
mainsequence star

23 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem

Nebula
Clouds of ‘dust’, i.e. compounds of carbon, oxygen, silicon and metals, as well as molecular
hydrogen, in the space in between stars

Neutron star
The end result of the explosion of a red supergiant; a very small star (a few tens of kilometres
in diameter) and very dense. This is a star consisting almost entirely of neutrons. The neutrons
form a superfluid around a core of immense pressure and density. A neutron star is an
astonishing macroscopic example of microscopic quantum physics

Planetary nebula The ejected envelope of a red giant star

Red dwarf
A very small star with low temperature, reddish in colour

Red giant
A main-sequence star evolves into a red giant – a very large, reddish star. There are nuclear
reactions involving the fusion of helium into heavier elements

Stellar cluster A group of stars that are physically near each other in space, created by the
collapse of a single gas cloud

Supernova (Type Ia)

The explosion of a white dwarf that has accreted mass from a companion star exceeding its
stability limit

Supernova (Type II)

The explosion of a red supergiant star: The amount of energy emitted in a supernova
explosion can be staggering – comparable to the total energy radiated by our Sun in its
entire lifetime!

White dwarf
The end result of the explosion of a red giant. A small, dense star (about the size of the
Earth), in which no nuclear reactions take place. It is very hot but its small size gives it a very
low luminosity

24 | P a g e Dr. Belal Al Qassem