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Chemistry Year 11 Module 1

Properties & Structure of Matter
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keep it simple science Topic Outline

What is this topic about? 1. Types Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
Separating mixtures % composition
To keep it as simple as possible, of Matter
(K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
2. Atomic Structure
1. TYPES of MATTER
Review of elements, compounds & mixtures. & the Elements
Homogeneous & heterogeneous mixtures. Basic atomic structure Atomic No. & Mass No.
Methods for separating mixtures. % composition. Relative atomic mass
Properties
Isotopes & radioactivity of radiation
2. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
Basic atomic structure. Atomic Number & Mass Properties Alpha & Beta decay

& Structure
Occurrence of radioisotopes
Number. Relative Atomic Mass (R.A.M.)
Isotopes & radioactivity. Alpha & beta decay.
Occurrence & properties of radiation.
of Matter 3. Periodicity
3. PERIODICITY Layout of Periodic Table
Structure of the Periodic Table. Electron orbits.
The Bohr model. Quantum Theory & orbitals. Electron orbits & orbitals
Periodic patterns: atomic radius, Periodic patterns in the table
electronegativity, ionisation energy, and more.

4. CHEMICAL BONDING
Formation of ions. Ionic bonding & compounds. 4. Chemical Bonding
Names, formulas & equations. Valency. 5. Bonding, Formation of ions Valency
Lewis formulas. Covalent bonds & compounds.
Electronegativity & polar bonding. Structure & Ionic bonding & compounds
Covalent bonding & compounds Lewis formulas
5. BONDING, STRUCTURE Properties Electronegativity & polar bonding
& PROPERTIES Ionic & covalent lattices,
Ionic & covalent lattices, molecules & metals. metals & molecules
How bonding & structure determine properties. Bonding & structure determines properties
Allotropes. Allotropes

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keep it simple science Firstly, an Introduction...

What is Chemistry?
Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties, and the ways that it can be changed or transformed.

To successfully study this subject it is essential that you have a clear understanding of these 3 vital concepts.

Types of Matter Atoms

You have studied All matter, whether Element, Compound or
Mixture, is made of atoms.
these things in
Structure
Mixtures previous years. -
of an
Pure Substances All substances can This is a brief ATOM
electron (-)
be classified into
just a few different reminder. Nucleus contains
types...
Revise as PROTONS (+) and
NEUTRONS (0)
Elements Compounds necessary.
It is essential for you to Although there are millions of different
understand the differences! substances, they are all composed of
relatively few types of atoms.

Physical Changes v Chemical Changes

Physical changes do NOT produce any new Chemical changes make new substances during
substances. Things may change their state chemical reactions. In a chemical reaction the
(e.g. melt) or might dissolve in a liquid, atoms do not change, but they are re-arranged in
but it’s still the same stuff. new combinations, forming new “products”,
different to the “reactants” you started with.

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1. Properties of Matter
Every substance is either an element, a compound, or a mixture.
It is essential that you understand clearly how each type of matter is different.

Elements Compounds
Pure. Pure.
Only one type of atom present. Only one type of molecule or ion-pair present.

Each element has a unique set of properties. Each compound has a unique set of properties.

Listed on the Periodic Table, with its own symbol Contains 2 or more elements, chemically bonded
and Atomic Number. together in a fixed ratio.

Cannot be separated into parts by any physical or Cannot be separated into parts by any
chemical process. physical process.
Examples of Elements Can be separated into its elements by
Oxygen, Iron, Copper, Lead, Chlorine chemical decomposition.

Model of a
molecular
compound

Examples of Compounds
Models of 2 Water, Salt, Copper sulfate, Ethanol
different
elements
Mixtures are described in the next slide...
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In this section we will concentrate on mixtures and how to separate their parts.
keep it simple science

Mixtures We are Surrounded by Mixtures

The Earth is often thought of as being made up of several
“spheres”. All are mixtures of compounds and elements.
Not pure. (Different particles within.)
Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere
Variable composition and properties. The lithosphere is the solid, rocky part of the Earth. Rocks are
mixtures of minerals which are, in turn, crystalline compounds.
Can be separated into parts by physical processes. Each type of rock is a different mixure, with different minerals, in
(filtering, distilling, etc) varying proportions.

May contain elements and/or compounds The hydrosphere is the watery part of the Earth, mainly the
within the mix. oceans, rivers and lakes. Most of it is a mixture of water with
suspended solids (e.g. dirt), dissolved compounds (especially
Examples of Mixtures salt) and dissolved elements such as oxygen and nitrogen.
Different particles
in a mixture The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, notably the elements
Air, Concrete, Sea water nitrogen & oxygen and compounds such as carbon dioxide.

Homogeneous Mixtures
are those which appear to have a uniform composition throughout, even at
microscopic scales. Homogeneous mixtures are NOT obviously composed of
different things mixed together.

Examples include sea water, clean air, or glass (even if coloured). Each appears to be
uniform in composition... the different substances within are not visible.

Heterogeneous Mixtures
are those which are obviously composed of different substances. Perhaps the classic
example is a chunk of concrete in which gravel & sand grains can be clearly seen cemented together. Muddy water can be
seen to be heterogeneous when it begins to separate and form a layer of mud within a few minutes of standing.

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Separating Mixtures
Since the different particles within a mixture are not all chemically bonded together, and since each has
different properties, they can be separated fairly easily by simple physical processes. It is important that you can identify
the “Difference in Properties” (D.I.P.) which allows each process to separate the fractions of the mixture.

Solids of Different Grain Size Solids and Liquids (when NOT a solution)
Imagine a mixture of dry sand and pebbles you have
scooped up from a beach. How could the sand be If a solid is suspended in a liquid (such as sand mixed with
separated from the pebbles? water) it will often separate by itself if allowed to stand.
When a solid settles-out of a suspension like this, it is
called sedimentation.

Suspended solids In the

caught by filter paper. laboratory or
(“Residue”) in industry,
separation
can often be
achieved
Mixture faster and
being filtered more
efficiently by
filtration.

D.I.P = grain sizes Clear Filtrate

Using a Sieve
D.I.P = particle size
Fine material (sand) falls through the mesh. A filter paper is like a “sieve” of paper fibres, with many
small holes. Water molecules can pass through the holes,
Coarser pebbles are caught. but the larger particles of the suspended solid are caught.
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Separating Mixtures cont.
Dissolved Solids in Liquids Simple
When a solid is dissolved in a liquid, such as when salt dissolves in evaporation
water, the mixture is called a “solution” and filtration will not work procedure.
to separate the parts.

Later in this course you will learn in detail what happens when This
solids dissolve. At this point just be aware that in a solution the collects the
particles of the dissolved solid (“solute”) are similar in size to the solute from
molecules of the liquid (“solvent”). If the water molecules can get
through the filter paper, the dissolved solute particles will too.
a solution.
The commonest ways to separate the parts of a solution are:
Solution Water-cooled
boiled in Condenser turns
Evaporation... to collect the solid solute, and flask vapour back to
Distillation... to collect the liquid solvent. liquid

D.I.P.= different boiling points. (b.p.)

For example, with a salt-water solution, the water boils (and vaporises) at
o o
100 C. The salt however, wouldn’t even melt until 770 C and so it stays in
the basin or flask.

As the water evaporates away the salt solution becomes more and more
concentrated, until solid salt crystals begin to separate from the remaining
solution. In a distillation, it is time to stop heating before the flask over-heats and Pure water
breaks! collects

Distillation collects the solvent from a solution.

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Separating Mixtures cont.
Separating Liquid Mixtures If the liquids are miscible, separation is more difficult.
If 2 liquids can mix together and dissolve in each other
(like alcohol in water, or oil in petrol) they are said to be If their boiling points are quite different, distillation will
“miscible”. If 2 liquids will not mix with each other (like oil work.
and water) they are “immiscible”. D.I.P.= different boiling points.

Separating immiscible liquids can be easily done with a However, if the b.p.’s are similar, it might be difficult to
separating funnel. get total separation into really pure “fractions”. For
example, when distilling alcohol-water mixtures it is
D.I.P. = immiscible & different density impossible to collect pure alcohol, and in the industrial
distillation of (say) wine to make brandy, the distillate is
about 40% alcohol, 60% water.

Separating Gas Mixtures

Separating
Funnel
For example, how could you separate air into its different
gases?
Layers of The technique used is called “Fractional Distillation”.
immiscible
liquids D.I.P.= different boiling points.

Basically, air can be turned to liquid, by cooling and

Tap allows each compressing it. Then, if allowed to gradually warm up,
liquid to be each different gas “fraction” boils off at its particular
drained off b.p., and can be collected separately... pure oxygen, pure
separately argon, etc.

Fractional Distillation is also used to separate crude oil

(petroleum) into petrol, kerosene, diesel fuel, etc.
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Practical Work: Separating a Mixture

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keep it simple science

You may have done a practical exercise in the laboratory to Mixture of

separate a simple mixture into its fractions. Sand, Salt & Water
A common task is to begin with a mixture of sand, salt and
water and collect clean, dry sand, pure solid salt and pure
water.

A flow-chart of a suitable procedure is shown. Residue FILTER Filtrate

in filter paper passes through
You need to be able to interpret, and to construct, similar Divide in 2
flow charts of procedures. DRY
Distil
Evaporate
A Point of Good Technique
It is important to add small quantities of extra, pure water to Clean,
the residue to wash all the dissolved salt through with the Dry Pure
filtrate. Sand Solid
Salt Water

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Discusssion / Activity 1
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keep it simple science

The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on.

Mixtures Student Name .................................

1. Sort these substances into 3 lists: elements, compounds and mixtures.

salt water, sodium, water, chlorine, concrete, oxygen, air, salt.

2. For each of these separation techniques, state the difference in properties which
allows the process to separate the parts of a mixture.
a) Distillation.
b) Filtration.
c) Sieving.
d) Evaporation.

3. Outline the chain of techniques you would use in the laboratory to collect:
a) a sample of pure salt from dirty sea water.

b) some pure water from a mixture of sea water and olive oil.

c) some pure copper sulfate from a dry mixture of solid copper sulfate (soluble) and
copper oxide (insoluble). The grain size of the mixture is all the same.

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Gravimetric Analysis: Percentage Composition

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keep it simple science

To separate the parts of a mixture is one thing, but very often in industry or science it is
important to measure the quantities or percentages of each fraction.

Examples of where this analysis Practical Work... Outline of Procedure

might be important: A Simple
1. Weigh a sample Example Result
Measuring the amount of a
Gravimetric Analysis of the mixture. Mass of
You may have carried out a Sample = 3.45 g
mineral within an ore deposit to
practical exercise similar to that
decide if it is economically
shown in the flow-chart.
worth mining it. 2. Add pure water & stir
well. (Salt dissolves,
If you were given a solid mixture
Measuring quantities of
of sand and salt, how could you
sand doesn’t) Now do
pollutant chemicals
determine the percentage of worksheets
in water or air.
each in the mixture? 1,2,3
3. FILTER to
To check that manufacturers’ Analysis of Results collect the sand.
claims are correct regarding the
chemical composition (e.g. fat Filtrate
% Sand = mass of sand x 100 Residue
or salt content) of food. in sample mass of sample
= (1.27 / 3.45) x 100 4. DRY the residue 5. EVAPORATE the
Gravimetric Analysis involves = 36.8% and weigh accurately. water from the
separating the parts of a mixture (Subtract the mass of filtrate until
and accurately measuring the the filter paper) completely dry.
% Salt = mass of salt x 100
masses along the way, so that in sample mass of sample
you can calculate the = (2.08 / 3.45) x 100 Example
composition of the mixture. Result
= 60.3% Mass of 6. Weigh the dried salt
Sand = 1.27 g (subtract mass of basin)
Notes:
1. The calculated percentages add to only 97.1%, so there must have been some other substance(s) present, OR this
represents the experimental error. (Possibly there was moisture in the mixture which doesn’t get accounted for. Example Result
Perhaps you need to dry the mixture sample thoroughly, before starting.) Mass of
Salt = 2.08 g
2. It is appropriate to round-off the final answers to 3 significant figures as shown, since that matches the precision of
the experimental measurements.

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keep it simple science 2. Atomic Structure & the Elements

Elements in Nature?
In the billions of years since the Earth formed, most atoms on Earth have chemically reacted with each other to form
compounds. That’s why most of the Earth is a mixture of compounds, and with few uncombined elements. However,
there are a few notable exceptions. Some elements have such low chemical reactivity
(i.e. they tend not to react with other atoms) that they are found uncombined.

Examples Nitrogen (N2 )

Gold Nitrogen gas is an element which makes up about
78% of air. Nitrogen atoms are highly reactive, but
Gold is a very low activity metal,
when 2 of them join to form diatomic (2-atom)
found in very small amounts in the
molecules of N2, the molecules are very
Lithosphere.
unreactive.

The “Inert Gases” Oxygen (O2 )

These are a group of elements which
Oxygen gas makes up about 21% of the air. O2 is
do not chemically react at all. They
chemically active, and should all be combined
do not form compounds and are
into compounds. So why isn’t it?
always found as single atoms. Being
gases, they are mainly in the
Simple... plants constantly produce oxygen during
atmosphere. The most common is Argon which makes up
photosynthesis. If there was no life on Earth, there would
about 0.9% of the air.
not be any elemental oxygen... it would all be combined
into compounds.
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Every Element has its Own Atoms
You should already be aware that everything is made of tiny “lumps” of matter called “atoms”. Each atom sometimes acts
as if it was a solid ball, but we know that each one is actually made up of even smaller particles.

Protons, Electrons & Neutrons

The electrons are whizzing around the central nucleus, like So, the orbit of an electron is the “balance”
miniature planets around the Sun. between its fast movement and the electrical
attraction pulling it towards the nucleus.
Each electron, and each proton in the nucleus, carries an
electrical charge. Protons in the nucleus repel each other
Electrons carry negative charge. electrically, so why doesn’t the nucleus fly
Neutrons have NO charge. apart?
Protons carry positive charge.
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus are
The electrons have a lot of energy and move rapidly. They held together by an even more powerful force
would instantly fly off in all directions except for their called simply the “strong nuclear force”. This
electrical attraction to the protons in the nucleus. force easily overpowers electrical repulsion.

One Type of Atom = A Chemical Element

The atoms of each element are all basically the same as each other, but different to the atoms of another element.

How are the atoms of different elements different?

The atoms of each element have a certain number of protons, electrons and neutrons.

For example, the atoms of Atoms of copper

aluminium all have: all have:

13 protons 29 protons
13 electrons 29 electrons
14 neutrons 34 neutrons
(not all shown here)
Every atom of copper is
Every atom of the same.
aluminium is the same.
Notice that in each case
Most of this material should be Number of protons = Number of electrons.
revision of known facts. This is true for every element, and defines that element.
Skip it if already understood! Protons = Electrons = “Atomic Number”
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The Mass of Atoms
Obviously a single atom has an extremely small mass if you measure it in grams.
Instead of using tiny fractions of a gram, we usually consider the relative mass of different atoms.
To find relative mass, we simply compare how many particles each atom has within its structure.
Mass of Protons, Neutrons & Electrons
It turns out that protons and neutrons have almost the same mass, so we use Particle Elect. Charge Relative Mass
this to simply compare the relative mass of atoms. There are no units of
measurement involved at this stage. Proton +1 1
Electrons are so small (1/ compared to a proton) that, for all practical Electron -1 1
/1,800
1,800
purposes, they can be ignored when working with atomic mass. The relative
mass of an atom can be found by adding together the number of protons and Neutron 0 1
neutrons in the nucleus.

Simplicity Warning!
Be aware that the information above is approximate only. Protons & neutrons are NOT precisely the same mass.
We are applying the KISS Principle, but you may be required to learn further details.

Atomic Mass Number Describing an Atom

Now that you know about the “Atomic Number” and
Atomic Mass = No. of + No. of the “Atomic Mass Number”, here is a shorthand way
Number Protons Neutrons to describe any atom, explained by example.
Note:
Mass No. above the Mass Number & Atomic
This must be a whole number for any atom. 40
(You can’t have half a proton!)
18
Ar Chemical symbol
number are written in front of
the chemical symbol to avoid
confusion with numbers in a
Atomic No. below chemical formula.
The “Mass Number” for each atom is also
known as the “Nucleon Number”. From this, you can work out that each Argon atom
(“Nucleon” refers to any particle in the nucleus... proton or neutron) contains 18 electrons, 18 protons and 22 neutrons.

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Reading the Periodic Table
How to Read the Information for Each Element
“Atomic Number” ( = protons = electrons)

13
The elements are numbered, in order, across and then down the table. This
puts the elements in a numerical order, but it also tells you how many
electrons & protons in each atom.
Aluminium Name of the Element
Al Chemical Symbol
Each element has a short-hand symbol. It is always one capital letter,
26.98 OR if 2 letters, always a capital followed by a lower case letter.
(There may be some exceptions to this in the case of newly discovered elements which have not yet been allocated a
final, official name. The recent trend with naming is to honour great scientists, or places where discoveries were made.)

“Relative Atomic Mass” (RAM) (Sometimes loosely called the “Atomic Weight”)
This gives the relative mass of an “average” atom of the element.

Whoa! Wait a minute! That cannot be correct!

The Atomic Mass Number (Nucleon Number) must be a whole number. What’s going on?

The explanation lies in a knowledge of ISOTOPES...

next slide...
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Isotopes Most elements exist in nature as a mixture of 2 or more
isotopes. The “Relative Atomic Mass” shown on the Periodic
Table is the average of the mixture of isotopes that occurs on
You know that the atoms of an element are all the same as each other. Earth.
Actually, that’s not quite true! Example: Chlorine has 2 main isotopes
All the atoms of an element have exactly the same 35 37
• number of protons and Cl Cl
• number of electrons }
= “Atomic Number” 17 17

It is the number of electrons which gives each atom its chemical properties,
17 protons 17 protons
and defines it as a particular element. However, the number of neutrons can 17 electrons 17 electrons
vary. For example, hydrogen has the smallest, simplest atoms of all, but there 18 neutrons 20 neutrons
are 3 variations, or “isotopes”.
On Earth, there is a mixture of these 2 isotopes in such a
proportion so that the “average” atomic mass is 35.45. This is
Example: Isotopes of Hydrogen the value of R.A.M. shown in the Periodic Table.

Isotopes are commonly described by their individual mass

1 2 3 numbers. The isotopes above are called “Chlorine-35” and
H H H
1 1 1 “Chlorine-37”, or simply Cl-35 and Cl-37.

n n n The isotopes of Hydrogen (at left) are Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2

and Hydrogen-3.

Calculating R.A.M. from Isotope Data

0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons If you know the proportions of each isotope in a sample of
an element, you can easily calculate the R.A.M.
These atoms have the same chemistry, because the
electrons are the same ; they are all Hydrogen. Example: A sample of chlorine is found to contain
77% Cl-35 and 23% Cl-37.
However, their Mass Numbers are different.
R.A.M. = (nucleon no. x %) + (nucleon no. x %) +... for each
isotope
ISOTOPES are atoms of the same element = 35 x 77 + 37 x 23 = 35.46
(same Atomic Number) but with different 100 100
numbers of neutrons and different ATOMIC The slight variation between this calculated value & the RAM shown in a
MASS NUMBERS. Their chemistry is the same. Periodic Table is due to slight differences in the mix of isotopes in
different samples of the element. The official RAM in the Periodic Table is
the average of many, many measurements.

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® Chemistry is mostly about chemical reactions, and these are controlled by the electrons in atoms.
keep it simple science However, since the story of isotopes has arisen, it is appropriate (and a syllabus requirement) to deal
with some reactions & transformations which occur in the nucleus of an atom.

Nuclear Reactions
The nucleus of every atom is held together by the “strong nuclear force”. This force is the strongest known.
It is far stronger than electrical or magnetic forces, and billions of times stronger than gravity.
Certain kinds of changes in the nucleus can release some of this Nuclear Energy.

Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission

is when 2 small atomic nuclei are slammed together so hard that they Under certain conditions, a very large
join and become one. They join to form a larger nucleus and in the atomic nucleus (e.g. uranium or
process some nuclear energy may be released. plutonium) can break apart into smaller
fragments.
p Fusion
Helium A nucleus which splits may release nuclear
p nucleus energy. It also can set off other nuclei, so
p the result is a “fission chain reaction”.
p n p n
This is the process in a nuclear reactor used to generate electricity in
p many countries. It is also the energy source in an “atomic bomb”.
Hydrogen nuclei.
(protons) Energy In a nuclear power station the
released Photo of an atom bomb test. chain reaction is controlled.
The energy is used to make
This type of reaction is called “Nuclear Fusion”. It is the process steam to drive an electrical
which powers the stars. In a star, hydrogen is fused into helium. generator.
Helium can later be fused to form carbon atoms and so on.
In a bomb, the chain reaction
runs out of control and releases
In fact, we believe that the Universe was originally made entirely of the energy instantly...
very small atoms. All the larger atoms have been made by fusion in a nuclear explosion.
the stars.
At this stage, the syllabus
On Earth, the fusion process only occurs in a “Thermonuclear does NOT require a
(Hydrogen) Bomb”. We would like to be able to use nuclear fusion for knowledge of fusion or
peaceful energy production, but so far we have not figured out how to fission. It is shown here for
control the process safely.
background information.
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® This bit IS required by the syllabus! (Although the history is just for interest)

Radioactivity
keep it simple science

In 1896, the French scientist Henri Becquerel accidentally discovered that certain minerals containing uranium were emitting a mysterious,
invisible radiation. This was later called “radioactivity”, meaning that the substance was actively emitting radiation.
After Becquerel’s discovery, scientists soon Quite early on it was discovered that there were, in fact,
discovered that these radiations were coming from 3 different radiations. They were quickly labelled alpha (αα),
inside the atoms of uranium. β) and gamma (γγ) rays. We now know they come from the
beta (β
nucleus of atoms.
Marie & Pierre Curie were the leaders in this
research & after Pierre’s tragic death, Marie
continued the work until her death in 1934 from a
Alpha Radiation is a stream of particles. + n
An alpha particle is a “chunk” of nucleus, made up of
blood disorder probably caused by her exposure to
2 protons and 2 neutrons.
n+
radiation.

By the 1930’s the

research of the Curies, Henri Beta Radiation is also a stream of particles:
and others, had this time it is high-speed electrons ejected from an
established:
Becquerel e-
atomic nucleus.

• the nature of radioactivity.

• that the radiation was coming from the Gamma Radiation is very high frequency
nucleus of atoms.
electromagnetic waves, similar to
• the occurrence of different isotopes of
X-rays, but carrying even more energy.
each element.
Marie • that some isotopes are “stable” (do NOT
emit radiation), but others are “unstable” Gamma radiation is often associated with the emission of alpha
Curie and beta particles.
which causes them to be “radioisotopes”.
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keep it simple science Alpha ( α ) Decay

Every atomic nucleus is held together by the “strong nuclear force”. While this is very powerful, it is also
very short-ranged and depends on a certain “balance” of protons & neutrons. If this balance is wrong, or
the nucleus is very large, it can be unstable. It may undergo a nuclear reaction to change into a more stable
form. The process can involve the emission of particles and radiation... radioactivity.

Alpha decay occurs in atoms which have a very large nucleus and are unstable. To achieve greater
stability, the nucleus “spits-out” an alpha particle to get rid of excess mass and energy. As it does this, the
nucleus turns into a different element. This decay may occur over and over, until the large, unstable atom
“decays” into a smaller, stable atom such as lead.

Example
Uranium is well known as a radioactive substance, and “nuclear fuel” for nuclear reactors and bombs.
Its most common isotope is U-238, meaning it has a mass number of 238. It decays as follows:
238 234 4
U Th + 2
He + n The α-particle consists of 2 protons &
92 90
n+ 2 neutrons. It is the nucleus of a Helium
Uranium-238 Thorium-234 Alpha atom, so it is usually written as 4
particle He
2
Note that the Mass No. decreases by 4,
and the Atomic No. decreases by 2.

Example 2 226 222 4

Radium-226 undergoes alpha decay: Ra Rn + He
88 86 2

Radium-226 Radon-222 Alpha

particle
Hints: Use the Periodic Table to find Atomic Numbers and identify names and symbols.
Note that the mass numbers AND the atomic numbers ALWAYS BALANCE
(add up) on each side of a “decay equation”.
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Beta ( β ) Decay
Some atomic nuclei, of any size, have an unstable Examples of β-Decay
mix of protons and neutrons. If there is an excess Carbon-14 is a well-known radioactive isotope
of neutrons, a “nuclear reaction” occurs which which undergoes beta decay:
converts a neutron into a proton, plus an electron. 14 14 0 -
C N + e
Neutron Proton + 6 7 -1
Electron
Carbon-14 Nitrogen-14 β-particle

How can this happen? It seems like magic, but it In some cases of beta-decay there may be a
shows what a strange place the nucleus is. You gamma ray emitted as well, but you cannot predict
may study more detail later; for now you must which ones do, or do not emit gamma rays.
accept that it actually happens.
Iodine-131 is a radioactive beta-decayer which
To understand a “decay equation” for β-decay, you also emits a gamma ray:

+ γ
need to know that electrons can be described by 131 131 0 -
I Xe + e
the following shorthand. 53 54 -1
β-particle Gamma
0 - Iodine-131 Xenon-131 ray
Electrons have such little mass -1
e
that it counts as zero. Note that once again the Mass Numbers and
Atomic Numbers ALWAYS BALANCE
To make everything “balance” in a decay equation, across the equation.
the Atomic Number is taken to be -1. (Gamma emission does not affect the numbers)

Results of Beta-Decay Note:

Number of neutrons decreases by 1 and protons increase by 1. There are other decay mechanisms
(So Atomic Number goes up 1 but Mass Number does not change) which will not be covered here.
An electron is created in the nucleus, then ejected at high speed. If interested, research “positrons” &
“electron-capture” to learn more.
This is the Beta particle... a high speed electron.
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Stable & Unstable Isotopes on the Periodic Table
The syllabus requires that you examine the position of stable & unstable isotopes in the Periodic Table.
In one sense, this is a trivial task. Some elements have a dozen or more isotopes, but every isotope of any given element
has the same Atomic Number, symbol & element name. Therefore, they all occupy THE SAME position in the table.

However, there are certain patterns. There are very few stable isotopes of really large atoms. Any isotope with atomic
number more than about 80 is quite likely to be radioactive, very likely by alpha-decay.
Among smaller atoms, alpha-decay is very unlikely. However, an atom can’t exist with just any combination of protons &
neutrons in its nucleus. The nucleus can only be stable if the neutron/proton ratio is within certain, very narrow limits.
This is best seen if all the known isotopes of all the elements are plotted on a graph, as follows:

Graph of Neutron/Proton Ratio As an example, consider the isotopes of carbon:

for all known isotopes (approximate) 12 Carbon-12, if plotted on
Within the dotted line In this zone, 6 C the graph (left), lies exactly
zone, but above LoS, nuclei are too big to be on the “Line of Stability”.
the isotopes have too stable, and are radioactive, 6p+0
100 120 140

many neutrons mostly by alpha-decay. 6n

compared to protons. 14
They are unstable &
radioactive.
(Some beta-decay)
6 C
“Line of Stability”
Number of Neutrons

Most undergo 6p+0

beta-decay. (LoS) 8n
These atoms are Carbon-14 lies just above the
stable “Line of Stability”, inside the
80

“dotted-line zone”.
Within the dotted line zone, but below
60

LoS, the isotopes have too few neutrons

compared to protons. They are unstable &
The nucleus is unstable because it has too many
radioactive. They may undergo a variety neutrons, (or not enough protons) in its neutron/proton
ratio. To achieve stability, it undergoes a Radioactive
40

of decay mechanisms not covered here.

Decay to get rid of some electric charge and some
energy.
20

Beyond the dotted line zone, no

atomic nucleus can even exist.
It emits a beta particle and transmutes into a stable
20 40 60 80 100 nitrogen atom. The decay equation appears in the
Number of Protons previous slide.
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Properties of Alpha, Beta & Gamma Rays
keep it simple science
Electron knocked This is why radiation is dangerous to living

n
Radiation Causes Ionisation

io
out of orbit things. Ionisation of atoms in a living cell can

at
disrupt membranes, cause genetic

i
ad
All 3 radioactive radiations mutations or alter the cell’s DNA so that it

R
can cause ionisation... they Alpha, Beta or
Gamma becomes cancerous.
can cause electrons to be
knocked out of their orbit radiation
The massive ALPHA particle has the highest
around an atom, turning the ionisation ability, BETA is much less ionising
atom into an ion. and GAMMA less again.
Atom becomes ionised

Penetrating Ability
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation are quite different in their abilty to penetrate through different substances. You may do Practical Work on this.

Typical Practical Activity Data sent to electronic

Firstly, set the Geiger Tube at a fixed distance (say 2cm) from a source of radiation. counting device to
Observe all safety directions! measure the radiation
Geiger Tube.
Measure & record the radiation received in a measured time of (say) 30sec. levels
Detects
Now place a “shield material” (eg paper, aluminium, lead, etc.) between the radiation
radiation by
source & the detector tube and measure radiation received in the same time period.
the ionisation Different
it causes. materials placed
Repeat for various “shields”. Then repeat for different types of radiation.
here (e.g. paper,
Typical Findings lead, aluminium)
ALPHA particles have low penetrating ability. to see what can
They are so likely to collide and interact with atoms in their path, that they usually do not Alpha, Beta or Gamma source. block the
penetrate far. A few centimetres in air is as far as they’ll get, and a piece of paper will stop Each tested separately. radiation.
99% of them.
BETA particles penetrate further than alpha.
They are less likely to interact, and so penetrate further, but rarely go more than 10-20cm in air and most can be stopped by thin metal sheets such
as aluminium foil.
Alpha GAMMA rays are highly penetrating.
Beta They are like X-rays, only more so. Gamma can travel many metres
Gamma
through air and other substances. To absorb gamma rays, several Now do
centimetres of lead or a metre of concrete is just a good start.
worksheets
Paper Aluminium Lead 4,5,6
foil
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Occurrence of Radioisotopes
How common are they? Where are they?
Radio-Isotopes in Nature Artificial Radio-Isotopes
Small amounts of radioisotopes occur in rocks & soil, in Some radioisotopes are extremely useful for scientific
the air and water and in your food. There is constantly a research, medicine and various industries. Some of the
low-level of “background radiation” around us. most useful do not occur naturally.

Most of it comes from the remnants and decay products of To meet these needs, useful isotopes can be made inside a
radioactive atoms which were present when the Earth nuclear (fission) reactor. Generally, this is achieved by
formed nearly 5 billion years ago. Over the ages, these placing the appropriate “target” atoms inside a nuclear
isotopes decay into stable atoms, so there is less and less reactor and allowing neutrons to bombard them.
of them over time.
In a nuclear reactor there is
A few are constantly produced by natural processes. For a constant “flux” of neutrons.
example, the well-known radioisotope Carbon-14 is When one collides with the
constantly produced by nuclear reactions in the upper nucleus it may “stick” and create a
atmosphere, caused by “cosmic rays” from outer space. new isotope of that element.
The production of C-14 balances its decay rate , so its
levels remain fairly constant over time. One of the most important and
commonly used radioisotopes
For the last 60-70 years the levels of some radioisotopes in produced is Cobalt-60. It is produced when “ordinary”,
the environment have increased due to human activities. stable Cobalt-59 absorbs a neutron:
Until banned by treaty, many countries carried out atomic
59 1 60
bomb tests. There have also been accidental releases from Co + 0 n Co
disasters such as the 2011 explosion at the Fukushima 27 27
Nuclear Power Station (Japan) following severe damage Most of the world’s supply is made in Canada.
caused by an earthquake and tsunami.
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Discusssion / Activity 2
®

keep it simple science

The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Atomic Structure, Isotopes & Radioactivity Student Name ..........................

1. A certain ficticious element (symbol “Jm”) has atoms with 64 protons, 64 electrons &
97 neutrons. What is its
a) Atomic number? b) Nucleon number?
c) Write a shorthand notation for this atom using only its symbol & these 2 numbers.

2. What are isotopes?

3. Explain briefly why the “relative atomic mass” for an element is rarely a whole number,
whereas the mass number for any atom always is.

4. a) Write a balanced equation for the alpha decay of Am-241. (Periodic Table needed)
(Gamma radiation is also emitted)

b) Write a balanced equation for the beta decay of Thallium-204. (beta only)

c) Write a balanced equation for the beta decay of Cs-137. (Beta + gamma)

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3. Periodicity
“Periodicity” is a noun which refers to anything which repeats itself or shows recurring patterns. The adjective is “periodic”.

Why is the Periodic Table such a weird shape?

Why not put the elements into a simple rectangular box table?
The Periodic Table has its odd shape so that elements that are similar to each other are under each other,
or in “groups” and “blocks’. It is called “periodic” because it has patterns that re-occur in a regular pattern.
In this section you will learn some of these patterns.

Naming the Rows, Columns & “Blocks”

1. The horizontal rows are called “periods” and are simply numbered as shown in Green.
2. The vertical columns are called “groups”. There are a variety of ways to number these. The simplest method is shown in Blue.
As well as numbering systems, many of the vertical groups have a common name. Some of the best known are shown in Magenta.
3. The main “blocks” of elements (detached from each other in this diagram) are known by the naming system shown in Red.
These block names are connected to electron orbit details and will be explained soon.

1
18
Period 1 H This element,
2 13 14 15 16 17 Helium, really
Simplest Group belongs to
Period 2 the “s-block”,
Numbering System but is also
s-block p-block definitely an
Period 3

Inert Gases
3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 “inert gas”.

Halogens
8 9
(NOT including Hydrogen)

Period 4 Sometimes
shown
Period 5 d-block detached.
Alkali Metals

Period 6 La

Period 7 Ac Later versions of the table have added elements as far as 118

f-block Part of
These elements actually belong
in the table where arrowed, but are These elements are sometimes called “Lanthanoids” & Period 6
usually detached so the table fits “Actinoids” after the elements just before them.
more conveniently on a page or chart. Period 7

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Classifying the Elements
Each element has its own Atomic Number, and its own
unique set of properties. However, most elements fall into
The Semi-Metals (“Metalloids”)
There is also a small group of elements which have
just 2 general categories...
properties that are “in-between” and do not fit clearly into
METALS NON-METALS the metal or non-metal classification. This group includes
Shiny <appearance> Dull (most) Silicon and Germanium which have properties as follows:
Most hard <state at 25oC> Some solids, many
solids gases Shiny appearance, but glass-like rather than metallic.
High <conductivity> Low (except carbon) Hard solids at 25oC (i.e. high melting point).
(of electricity) Semi-conductors of electricity (in-between).
Malleable <can be rolled into sheets> Brittle... shatter Brittle (non-malleable, non-ductile).
Ductile <can be pulled into wires> Brittle... snap
Because their properties are a
Hydrogen. mixture of those of the metals
H See note
Position of
Metals, Non-Metals & Semi-Metals No and non-metals (or in-
below
on the n-M between), the “Semi-Metals”
Periodic Table B
eta are usually considered as a

Me Si ls small, separate group.

There is some debate over exactly
which elements should be

ta
Ge As considered as “metalloids”.

ls Sb Te

Po At
There are over 100 different
elements, but only about 90
occur naturally. Many are
quite rare. Over 99% of the
Earth is made up of only
Hydrogen does not easily fit this The “Lanthanoids” & Actinoids” have been about 20 of the most common
scheme. Physically, it has properties like omitted for simplicity. elements.
a non-metal, but chemically it often acts Their properties are metallic.
like a metal. It is usually shown detached
from the table.

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The States of the Elements

®

keep it simple science

You need to understand that whether a substance is solid,

liquid or gas is determined by its melting point (m.p.) and Changing the pressure changes the mp. and b.p., so that’s
boiling point (b.p.). why we specify a pressure as well as a temperature when
describing what state a substance is. In fact, 25oC and a
For example, consider these: nominated pressure close to the average atmospheric
pressure is known as “Standard Conditions” and is the set
Element m.p.(oC) b.p.(oC) State at 25oC of conditions under which chemical measurements are
Iron (Fe) 1535 3000 solid usually made and properties described.
Mercury (Hg) -39 357 liquid
Oxygen (O ) -219 -183 gas
2

“INERT GASES”
H
States of the Elements
Weirdo! at Standard Conditions
As well as differences
Solid
This in physical properties
Liquid
“block” of (mp, bp, density, etc.)
metals are Gas
all soft,
there are also major
with low This “block” of metals includes most of
differences between
Br
melting the familiar, typical metals such as metals & non-metals in
points, copper, nickel, iron, gold and silver. their chemical
and are
highly
properties.
chemically
Hg
reactive
Mercury (metal) and Bromine (non-metal)
These will be covered
the only elements which are liquids at later in this topic.
“Standard Conditions”.

These metals are very rare, and some exist only Now do worksheet 7
when made artificially by nuclear reactions.

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Discusssion / Activity 3
®

keep it simple science

The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on.

Basics of the Elements Student Name .................................

1.
a) Explain why gold is found as an uncombined element in nature.

b) Why then, is reactive oxygen also found as an uncombined element in air?

2. What is meant by “malleable” and “ductile”?

3. List the general properties of metals. Write a comparison list for non-metals.

4.
o
a) Name the only 2 elements which are liquid at 25 C and standard pressure.

b) List 5 elements which are gases, apart from the inert gases.

c) Explain why these elements in (b) have a symbol (e.g. “H”), but also can be described
by a formula such as “H2”. What’s the difference?

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Electron Orbits
It is the electrons in an atom which control its chemistry. How an element reacts to form compounds and undergoes
chemical reactions all depends on the number of electrons and how they are arranged.
The Periodic Table has a lot to tell you about electron arrangements... this is vital stuff!
The following 3 slides cover ideas you may have studied previously. Use this as revision and be sure to understand it.

The Concept of Orbits Orbital Layers

When the structure of atoms was first The original idea was soon modified to include the
becoming understood, (in the early 20th idea that the electrons were arranged in different
century) it was firstly imagined that the “levels” or “shells” at different distances from the
electrons whizzed around the nucleus nucleus.
like a swarm of demented bees. There
was no organisation or pattern to their Each orbit can only hold a certain maximum
orbital paths. number of electrons. Chemistry is really all about
the exact arrangement of electrons in their orbits,
This idea didn’t last very long, for in particular the outer-most orbit of that atom.
reasons which will be covered a little
later.

Filling the Orbits

As you go across each row of the Periodic Table, each element has one more proton and (of course) one more electron than the previous.
The lowest electron orbits are always filled first.

1st Orbit can hold only 2 electrons 1st Orbit

H 2nd Orbit
He 3rd Orbit
Once an orbit is full,
electrons begin filling
1+ 2+ the next higher orbit.

Hydrogen Helium Name

1 2 Atomic Number Continued
1 2 next slide
Electron Arrangement in orbits
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Filling the Orbits

®

keep it simple science

cont.

2nd Orbit can hold 8 electrons

3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8+ 9+ 10+

Li Be B C N O F Ne

Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8

3rd Orbit can hold 8 electrons (This is not quite true, but for simplicity, you should accept it for now)

Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8

Electronic Configurations for each element

Beyond the 3rd orbit things become more complicated. More details are coming soon!
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Electrons in the Outer Orbit
keep it simple science
For the elements in the far right column (Inert Gases) you should note
If you consider just the number of electrons in the outer orbit of each that their outer orbit is full.
element, another pattern appears on the Periodic Table.
Here are the data for the first 18 elements; Full Orbit
1 1st Orbit
No. of Electrons in Outer Orbit 2 2nd Orbit
2
3 4 5 6 7 8
3rd Orbit
1 1st Orbit
2 Ign
1 2 2nd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8 o
1 2 3rd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8
...mre thes
ore e f
info or n
soo ow,
n.

Each row of the Periodic Table lists elements

which are filling the same orbit.
See the pattern? Each column lists elements which have the same
Each period corresponds to one orbit of electrons AND elements in the number of electrons in their outer orbit.
same column have the same number of electrons in their outer orbit.

The Importance of a Full Outer Orbit

Energy Levels How Atoms Get a Full Outer Orbit
The orbits of the electrons around the nucleus are not just places for All the other elements do NOT have a full outer orbit. To achieve the
electrons to hang out, they are “Quantum Energy Levels” “perfect” stable energy state atoms can either:
within the atom.
• GAIN ELECTRONS to fill up their outer orbit.
In the strange world of quantum energy,
an atom achieves great energy stability if its Ne 10+
OR Now do worksheet 8
outer orbit is full.
An Inert • LOSE ELECTRONS and completely shed their outer orbit.
All the Inert Gas elements already have a Their “new outer orbit” becomes the one underneath, which is full
full outer orbit. They are very stable and Gas Neon and “perfect”.
have no need to do anything to become 10
“perfect”. 2.8 As you will see, to gain or lose electrons, atoms must interact with each
other.

The result is Chemistry!

That is why they do not react with anything and do not form
compounds.

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The Bohr Model of the Atom
keep it simple science
The model of the atom used in the previous slides is known as the “Bohr model” because it was proposed
by the Danish scientist Niels Bohr in 1913. His model was eagerly accepted at the time because it
overcame a theoretical problem with the previous idea of atomic structure AND it explained something
that Science had been grappling with for decades prior...

Element Element Element If a discharge tube is

filled with a pure
A B C
element (gas), the
...Emission Spectra spectrum shows very
narrow bright lines on
Niels Bohr
1885-1962
You should be familiar with the idea of a “spectrum” of light. a dark background.
For example, if “white” light is passed through a prism, the
different wavelengths are separated, and the familiar rainbow This is because only certain wavelengths
colours appear. different wavelengths spread are given out. The pattern of lines is
out to form a spectrum characteristic for each element & can
white light actually be used to identify elements.
(That’s how we know what the stars are made from.)
is a mixture of Red
wavelengths & Each line is light of one exact
frequencies Orange wavelength. Light is only emitted
Yellow at certain precise wavelengths
Green
The lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen had been discovered
Blue
some 30 years before Bohr’s theory. Each line was given a name
Violet α, β, χ and δ) & the precise wavelength of each had been measured.
(α

No-one could explain them, but mathematicians had worked out that the
exact wavelengths of the hydrogen spectrum lines could be calculated
In the 19th century, it was discovered from a made-up equation (called the “Rhydberg Equation”) which
that a tube of any gas would glow contained a series of consecutive whole numbers.
when high-voltage electricity was
applied. The fact that the equation worked perfectly was strong evidence that there
was an underlying “law” controlling the spectral lines. The fact that a
Such tubes are called “discharge series of integer numbers were involved was a clue that connected the
tubes”. whole thing to Plank’s recently invented Quantum Theory.

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The Bohr Model of the Atom (cont.)

Quantum Theory Bohr’s Suggestions

Electrons Revolve Only in Certain “Allowed” Orbits
In 1900, Max Plank had proposed the Quantum Theory to explain the
The previous atomic model had imagined that the electron orbits
details of “Black-Body Radiation Curves”. To explain things, he
were more or less random. Bohr theorised that there are a series of
proposed that energy, such as light, came in whole-number multiples of
orbits, at fixed distances from the nucleus and each orbit can hold
fixed “units” called quanta. (singular = “quantum”)
certain maximum number of electrons.
An analogy is to think about our cash money. The smallest possible
amount of cash you can have is a 5c coin. This is the “quantum of “Allowed” orbit positions.
cash”. No matter how much cash you have, it must be a multiple of the Electrons cannot orbit anywhere else.
quantum amount. You can’t have 37c in cash!
Electrons can “jump” from one orbit to
Plank was saying that light cannot have just any quantity of energy another, but must absorb energy to
(like 37c); it must be a multiple of the basic quantum. jump higher, or emit energy
to drop lower.
1
Plank used this idea purely as a clever “mathematical trick” to help
explain something that could not be explained any other way, but other 2
scientists found this idea useful to solve other difficult problems. 3 Quantum numbers of the orbits.

In 1905, Einstein explained the strange phenomenon of the Photoelectric

Effect by using Plank’s quantum idea. To do this, he proposed that light
is not just a wave, nor a stream of particles, but made up of “wave
packets” which have BOTH wave characteristics AND particle-like Electrons Gain or Lose Energy
properties. to “Jump” Between Orbits.
To jump up to a higher orbit, an electron must gain a certain quantity
of energy. If it drops back to a lower orbit, it must emit that exact
Light is a stream of “wave packets”... “PHOTONS”. same amount of energy. These quantities of energy are “quantised”,
They have wave properties... refraction, interference, etc. so each orbit is really a “quantum energy level” within the atom.
They can also behave like a particle sometimes.
Each photon carries an amount of energy which is an exact
multiple of Plank’s basic quantum of energy. The amount of energy absorbed or emitted during a “jump” is
defined by Plank’s Quantum Equation, and the corresponding
Each photon is both a particle AND a wave!
wavelengths of light are defined by the Rhydberg Equation. The
integer numbers in the equation turn out to be the “quantum
Einstein also proposed his “Theory of Relativity” in 1905. Science was being numbers” of the orbits, counting outwards from the nucleus.
turned upside-down by this sequence of new, fundamental discoveries.

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Bohr’s Theory & the Hydrogen Emission Lines
keep it simple science
Bohr’s atomic model explained the mystery of the spectral lines, not just in general terms, but in
precise mathematical detail. That’s why the model was accepted and is still the model used in schools today.

6 light photon emitted

δ line light photon Bohr showed that the Hydrogen α emission line was due to an electron dropping from
the 3rd orbit down to the 2nd orbit. It must lose a precise amount of energy, so it emits a
5
χ line photon photon of light at an exact wavelength which can be calculated. This calculated
4 wavelength agreed perfectly with the observed spectral line. Plank’s Quantum Equation
β line photon
3 can calculate the energy of that photon of light. Bohr argued that this amount of energy
2 α line photon must represent the difference in energy from orbit 2 to orbit 3.
1 Quantum energy levels The other hydrogen spectral lines must be due to electrons dropping from higher orbits
or “allowed orbits” into the 2nd orbit and all the calculations work out perfectly!
+ around the
It all worked! Bohr’s idea gave a theoretical explanation for the Rhydberg
hydrogen atom
Nucleus Equation, which had been empirically derived to describe the spectral lines.

Investigating the Evidence: possible prac.work

Flame Tests Emission Spectrum of Hydrogen
You may carry out some
prac. work to investigate
spectral lines. You may have observed the emission spectrum for hydrogen by using a
spectroscope to view the light from a discharge tube filled with low-pressure
The simplest experiments hydrogen gas.
A sample involve “Flame Tests” in
containing which samples containing High Voltage from induction coil
Ca2+ 2+
Ba ions certain metals “flare” with

Tube filled with Hydrogen gas

You will have seen that
flame flares characteristic colours when Spectroscope
energised in a bunsen Slit & lens the light from a
test. lime-
flame. Prism Optical hydrogen discharge
green. viewing system tube is composed of 4
The colours are due to visible bright lines
precise wavelengths of of light.
light emitted by energised
electrons as they drop back “Telescope” can be Each line is one single
to lower energy levels rotated to view the wavelength of light.
Tube glows different “lines” of
within the atoms.
with the emission
Colours can be used to emitted spectrum.
identify some metals. light
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Schrodinger & Orbital Theory
Quantum Mechanics Atomic Theory with Quantum Mechanics
Bohr’s model came out in 1913. Then, because of WW1, there The Bohr model has not been totally replaced by developments in Quantum
was a pause in scientific development. However, from the Mechanics, but has certainly been modified & added to. The full story of the
mid-1920’s the “Quantum Theory” was fleshed-out to form electron orbits can now be summarised as follows:
“Quantum Mechanics”, a comprehensive Science to fully
explain what is happening at the atomic level. • Electrons in atoms are not particle-like. They act as wave-packets (similar to
Einstein’s idea about photons of light in 1905). Electrons have a wavelength
There were many great scientists involved. If interested, you like a wave & must be thought of as “particle-waves”.
should research the names DeBroglie, Pauli & Heisenberg
(and these may lead you to many more). • Each of Bohr’s orbits really contains a number of sub-orbits or “orbitals”.
Each orbital can contain a maximum of 2 electrons. The orbitals exist because
However, the scientist who became the energy of an electron is quantised in at least 4 different ways. This results
known as the “father of Quantum in 4 different types of orbitals called s, p, d & f. (Familiar?)
Mechanics” was the Austrian, Erwin
Schrodinger. The relationship between the orbital patterns & the Periodic Table is:

Schrodinger’s mathematical “wave 1s

function” equation became the basis 1s
for understanding many aspects of the 2s three x 2p orbitals
sub-atomic world. The Science of
“Quantum Mechanics” now under-pins 3s 3p
much of modern Physics & Chemistry.
4s five x 3d orbitals 4p
Erwin Schrodinger In the brief summary of ideas which 5s 4d 5p
in 1933 follows, you should bear in mind a
statement attributed to another great 6s 5d 6p
scientist, Richard Feynman, who said: 7s 6d 7p
“If you think you understand Quantum Mechanics,
then you don’t understand Quantum Mechanics!” seven x 4f orbitals
(In fact, it may be an urban myth that he ever said this...
but, if not, he should have!) 5f
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More About the Orbitals
keep it simple science 1s

s, p, d & f-blocks were named earlier. Order of Filling the Orbitals 2s 2p

Now you can understand the size of each block. Because some orbitals in adjacent main
orbits “overlap” in energy terms, the order 3s 3p 3d
There is only one “s-type” orbital in each main orbit. of filling-up is not as you might expect.
It holds just 2 electrons, so the “s-block” is 2 columns wide. 4s 4p 4d 4f
The diagram shows the order in which
orbitals are filled as you move through the
There are three “p-type” orbitals (2 electrons each) so the “p-block” is Periodic Table. 5s 5p 5d 5f
6 columns wide.
Note that the modern table of 118 elements 6s 6p 6d 6f
Five d-orbitals = 10 wide. fills as far as the 7p orbital only. (If element
119 is ever discovered, its outer electron will be 7s 7p 7d 7f
Seven f-orbitals = 14 wide. in the 8s orbital)
Now do worksheet 9
Orbital Notation of an Element
Here, by example, you can learn how each element can be described in “Orbital Notation”. Study each example to get the idea.
Study in order of increasing Atomic Number. (start with aluminium)
Key electrons in
Copper 29 electrons Aluminium 13 electrons
5 this orbital
3p 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d9, 4s2
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s , 3p1
2 2 6 2

orbital type
main orbit Xenon 54 electrons
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2,
2 2 6
13
3p5 means “5 electrons Al 6 10 2 6
in the 3p orbital. 4p , 4d , 5s , 5p
29
Cu
Barium 56 electrons 54
Xe Lead 82 electrons
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 56
Ba
82
1s , 2s , 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 3d10,4s2, 4p6,
2 2
Pb
2 6 10 2 6 2 10 14 2 6 10 2 2
4s , 4p , 4d , 5s , 5p , 6s 4d , 4f , 5s , 5p , 5d , 6s , 6p

Notes: Uranium 92 electrons

1. Orbitals are listed in order of main orbits, not
1s , 2s , 2p , 3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p6, 4d10,
2 2 6
necessarily in the order the orbitals fill up. 92
2. Electrons in the outer-most main orbit are 14 2 6 10 3 2 6 1 2
U 4f , 5s , 5p , 5d , 5f , 6s , 6p , 6d , 7s
shown in blue. These are the “valence electrons”.

And now, guess what? To understand most of HSC Chemistry, you don’t need to know about this!
From here on the Bohr model is enough to know about. Except for a few “tricky bits” involving elements in the d-block,
we might rarely mention orbitals again. BUT, it’s in the syllabus, so you need to be aware of it.
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Discusssion / Activity 4
®

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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Orbits & Orbitals Student Name .................................

1. Complete the following table. Refer to the Periodic Table. (example done for you)

Atomic No. Name Symbol Block Electron Orbital

Configuration Notation
2 2 6
10 Neon Ne p 2.8 1s , 2s , 2p

20

30

40

50

60

2. a) Which column above relates to the “Bohr model”? Outline Bohr’s 1913 proposal.

b) What scientific mystery did he explain by his idea of the atom?

c) Name the scientist, and the branch of Science, most associated with the right-hand
column above.
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® Now we get back to Patterns in the Periodic Table

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Electrons in the Outer Orbit Full Orbit

You may already be aware, from previous studies, of the importance of the number of
electrons in an atom’s outer main orbit. Outer orbit electrons pretty much control chemical 1 1st Orbit
2
behaviour. Back on slide 31, you saw this diagram showing a pattern of the Periodic Table. 2 2nd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8
3rd Orbit
Now that you know a little about orbitals, you will see that the outer-most orbitals are ALWAYS
either s-type or p-type orbitals. Elements in the d-block & f-block are always filling orbitals in a Th
main orbit below the outer-most. Their outermost electrons are in the s-type orbital at the belo ese a
w th re fil
beginning of that period. eir li
mai ng orb
no
Generally, you may assume that all d-block & f-block elements have 2 electrons in their outer orbit. ute itals
r or
However, some of the orbitals are so close to each other (in quantum energy terms) that these atoms bit
shuffle electrons between orbitals and become rather unpredictable.
More about that later. For now, learn the pattern above. Important!

Atomic Radius H The numbers given are the atomic radii in picometres.
He
The size of an atom is the distance 37 50
across its outer electron shell. You 1 picometre = 1x10-12 metre
might think that the atoms along each

Radius increasing down a group

period would be the same size, Li Be B C N O F Ne
because it’s the same electron orbit 152 112 88 77 70 66 68 70
being added to. However, the
increasing amount of positive charge
in the nucleus pulls that orbit inwards
closer and closer
to the centre. Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
186 160 143 118 110 102 99 94
The
diagrams
are to
scale and
show the Radius decreasing across a period
relative
K Ca
231 197
sizes of
the first Down each group the radius increases.
20 This is because, as you go down a group, you have added an
elements entire electron shell to the outside of the previous layer.

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More Patterns in the Periodic Table
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Electronegativity Electronegativity Values

of selected elements Highest Value
Inert Gases
is a value assigned to each element to describe the power of an atom to not included
is Fluorine
attract electrons to itself. Electronegativity will become very important later

values decrease down

when you study chemical bonding.
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3 3.5 4.0
Atoms with a tendency to gain electrons and form negative ions have high 0.9 values decrease to left 3.0
values. Atoms with a tendency to lose electrons easily and form (+ve) ions
0.8 2.8
have very low values.
(If you haven’t yet learnt about ions, skip this & come back later.) 0.8 2.5
0.7 2.2
Once again, there is a pattern in these values in the Periodic Table.
0.7

Ionisation Energy
The Ionisation Energy of an element is the energy required to Every element has its own characteristic value, even
remove an electron from an atom. those elements which would not normally lose electrons,
For technical reasons, the measurement of this energy is carried out for atoms in the gas such as non-metals like chlorine.
state.
A(g) A+(g) + e- Cl(g) Cl+(g) + e-
where “A” stands for any atom Normally a chlorine atom forms a negative ion by gaining
in the gas state an electron. Technically though, it is possible for it to
lose an electron if enough energy is added.
2+
We know that zinc atoms normally lose 2 electrons to form the Zn ion. However, This energy is the “1st Ionisation Energy”.
the formal definition for this process involves just the loss of 1 electron.
1st Ionisation Highest
+ - value
Zn(g) Zn +e Energy trends

decreasing
(g)
The energy required for this to happen is the
“1st Ionisation Energy”.

Explanations Lowest
increasing
1st I.E. increases to the right because each atom across a period has more and more
(+ve) nuclear charge attracting and holding electrons in the orbit concerned. Therefore, it requires more energy to remove an electron.

1st I.E. decreases down each group because, at each step down, an extra whole layer of electrons has been added to the outside of the atom. The outer
shell is further away from the nucleus, and is partially “shielded” from nuclear attraction by the layers of electrons underneath it. Therefore, it becomes
easier and easier to remove an electron.
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One Last Pattern... Chemical Reactivity
keep it simple scienceWhat is meant by “reactivity” is difficult to define. It could be defined by the “ease” of starting a reaction (linked to a
measurement called “activation energy”) or by the rate at which the reaction proceeds, or by the violence & energy release. Futhermore, reactivity
very much depends on which other substance is involved. Here we will summarise some general patterns covering many of these factors.

Group 16: Oxygen’s Group Halogens (Group 17)

Oxygen is highly reactive. It will react with nearly every other These elements are the most reactive of the non-metals.
element except the inert gases. Oxygen is involved in any They have high values of electronegativity, which means they
reaction involving “burning” and in the corrosion of metals. Its readily “steal” an electron from other chemicals to fill their
importance to the chemistry of living things is well known. almost-full outer orbit. They react rapidly with metals & with
An entire category of chemical reactions is called “oxidation” biological chemicals. This makes them useful as bleaches &
because of oxygen’s wide-ranging chemical activity. disinfectants. It also makes them very dangerous!
Reactivity decreases down this group. Reactivity decreases down the group.

Hydrogen
As always, Hydrogen is in a
category all alone. It can react
explosively with oxygen, but
the reaction is not easy to start.
s-block Metals

Inert Gases
Halogens
Group 16
It can form compounds with a
variety of metals & non-metals,
but is notable for its myriad of d-block & f-block Inert Gases
compounds with carbon.
Metals All have full outer
These include all the electron orbits, so they
“typical” metals like iron, DO NOT react chemically.
copper, zinc & gold. Reactivity = zero.
Some, like gold, are
almost inert. Most are
s-block Metals
Groups 1 & 2
reactive, but at a
relatively low level
Now do worksheet 10
These are the most reactive of the
metals. They will react readily
(sometimes violently) with oxygen , General Pattern in the Metals General Pattern
water or acids. They will react with Chemical activity: in the Non-Metals
dissolved compounds of other metals Chemical activity:
in order to “displace” the other metal
from the compound. Reactivity • decreases to the right.
increases down the group &
• decreases down each group.
decreases to the right. • increases down each group.
(but exceptions occur in the d-block) • decreases to the left.

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Discusssion / Activity 5
®

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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Periodicity Student Name .................................

1. What is the trend in atomic radius:
a) across a period to the right? Explain this trend.

b) down a group? Explain this trend.

2. a) What is meant by “electronegativity”?

b) On the Periodic Table diagram, mark (X) the element

with the highest value for electronegativity.
c) What is the trend in values:
i) to the left? ii) down a group?

3. In general terms, where are the most chemically-active metals and most chemically-
active non-metals found in the table? (Use group numbers to identify.)

4. a) Write a balanced equation for the 1st ionisation of an atom of potassium.

b) Would you expect the energy value to be relatively high or low?

c) Add labelled arrows to the table diag. to show the trends:

i) to the right ii) down a group

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3. Chemical Bonding
Chemical reactions occur because every atom achieves its best possible energy state
(from Quantum Mechanics) if it has a full outer orbit of electrons. In effect, this means 8 electrons (2 in s-type & 6 in p-type
orbitals) in the outer-most orbit (2 for elements of the 1st Period). The only elements which already have this “magic
number” are the Inert Gases of Group 18. All other elements can achieve “perfection” by exchanging or sharing electrons.
This occurs during a chemical reaction and creates a chemical bond. This is how elements combine into compounds.

Formation of Ions
Most atoms do not have the correct number of electrons to fill Example 2: Formation of a Sodium Ion
their outer “shell” or orbit. However, many atoms will readily
lose or gain electrons in order to achieve this. An atom which
has gained or lost electron(s) is called an ION. 1
An atom of Sodium has
8 11 protons (+)
Example 1: Formation of a Fluoride Ion
2
11 electrons (-)
7 An atom of Fluorine has Electron Configuration = 2.8.1
9 protons (+)
2 9 electrons (-) symbol
(we’re not counting neutrons) Na
Electron Configuration = 2.7 Loses outer electron,
symbol & loses whole shell.
F
Gains 1 extra
electron If this atom loses an electron it becomes a
If this atom gains an electron
Sodium Ion (Na+ ). (note NO change in name)
it becomes a Fluoride Ion (F- ). 2 8
(note change in name)
Electron Configuration = 2.8
symbol
Electron Configuration = 2.8 2 8 It still has 11 protons (+ ve charge), but now has only Na+
It still has 9 protons (+ ve charge) symbol 10 electrons (- ve). Overall, it now has a positive charge.
but now has 10 electrons (- ve). F- OUTER SHELL IS FULL = BEST ENERGY STATE
Overall, it now has a negative charge.

(It has lost the 3rd shell entirely, so the full 2nd shell is now its outermost orbit)
OUTER SHELL IS FULL = BEST ENERGY STATE

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Formation of Ionic Bonds & Compounds
If a sodium atom came near to a fluorine atom, it should Ionic Lattices
be obvious from the previous slide what will happen... In fact, of course, you don’t just get 1 sodium atom reacting
with 1 fluorine atom. In real situations there are billions of
atoms. After all the ions have formed, each positive sodium
1 Electron transferred ion is attracted to every nearby fluoride ion, and vice versa.
8 7 The result is that you don’t just get pairs of opposite ions,
2 but huge, 3-dimensional lattices of +ve and -ve ions.
2

Sodium atom Fluorine atom

Na F F- Na+ F- Na+ F-

These lines represent

“ionic bonds”
Na+ F- Na+ F- Na+

2 8 2 8 F- Na+ F- Na+ F-

Sodium Ion Attraction Fluoride Ion Each bond is really the attraction
- between opposite electric charges.
Na+ F
The chemical formula for any ionic compound is an
Both atoms become ions... “empirical formula”... it shows only the ratio between the
Opposite electrical charges attract, so these ions ions, not the actual numbers that are present. In ionic
must now stick together... compounds there are no discrete molecules. In the solid
state an ionic compound forms a crystal, which is a huge
this is the COMPOUND Sodium Fluoride (NaF) array of billions of ions in a lattice.

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Formation of Ionic Compounds

®

keep it simple science cont.

Another example...
What if it was magnesium atoms that reacted with fluorine? Ionic Compounds
form when atoms gain, or lose, electrons
Magnesium atoms have 12 2 creating ions.
electrons, so they are
arranged 2.8.2 8
2
To achieve a full
NON-METALS
outer shell the atom must METALS always gain electrons
lose 2 electrons always
Magnesium atom forming NEGATIVE
lose electrons ions.
7 Mg
forming
2 Fluorine POSITIVE ions. The name of the atom
2 7
atoms. changes to end -IDE,
2 Each one for the ion.
symbol accepts an
F electron from
symbol the magnesium
F atom.
Positive & Negative Ions
The magnesium loses 2 electrons, so it will now have 2 more are attracted electrically, forming
(+) protons than electrons. The magnesium ion has a double ionic crystal lattices.
+ve charge... Mg2+

Two fluoride ions are formed, each one with an extra electron...
F- The chemical formula shows the ratio between
ions, not the actual numbers involved.
The formula for magnesium fluoride is MgF2 because It is an Empirical Formula.
the ratio between the ions is 1: 2
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Discusssion / Activity 6
®

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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Atoms & Ions Student Name .................................

Here are the Periodic Table entries for 3 different 13 15 56

elements. Use this information to answer the
questions.

1. For each element, state how many electrons,

Al
Aluminium
P
Phosphorus
Ba
Barium
protons and (probable) neutrons are in one atom. 26.98 30.97 137.3

2. State the electron configurations of aluminium and phosphorus.

3. What might each of these atoms do to form an ion?

What electric charge will each ion have?

4. Barium has electron configuration 2.8.18.18.8.2

a) What might a barium atom do to form an ion?

b) What charge will the ion have?

c) Is barium likely to be a metal or a non-metal? Why?

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Ions and the Periodic Table

®

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group
Non-Metals
gain electrons to fill the outer shell
1 to 8 electrons. Ions are negative. group
18
1+ group group grp grp grp grp
2 13 14 15 16 17 0
4-
1+ 2+ d-block & f-block Metals ions
rare
3- 2- 1- 0
These atoms are filling an
1+ 2+ incomplete inner orbital 3+ 3- 2- 1- 0

1+ 2+ It is not easy to predict the charge on ions of these 3+ 2- 1- 0

metals. You should memorise the common ones. Sn
1+ 2+ Many of these can “shuffle” electrons from 3+ 4+ 1- 0
one orbital to another, and can have
more than one possible ion. Pb
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 0

1+ 2+
Group 13 Metals Group 18
all have 3 electrons in outer
shell, and lose them. Semi-Metals all have FULL outer shell.
Do NOT form ions.
do not normally Do NOT react chemically.
Group 2 Metals form ions INERT GASES
all have 2 electrons in outer
shell, and lose them.
Chemistry contains many details to learn,
Group 1 Metals but there are nearly always patterns involved.
all have 1 electron in outer Learn the few, simple patterns,
shell, and lose it rather than memorising masses of detail.

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Valency
®

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The “valency” of a chemical species refers to its “combining ratio” with other species.
For the simple ions, the charge on the ion (including sign) is the same as valency.
If you know (or can figure out by the patterns) the valency of species, you can predict the chemical formula of the compound.
Study these examples:

Potassium ion You must have same amount

(group 1 metal) + Formula for
Valency = +1 K of (+) and ( - ) electric charge,
Compound
Combined with K 2S in every case.
Sulfur ion
(group 6 Potassium sulfide
non- metal)
S2- Aluminium ion
(group 3 metal)
Valency = -2
Valency = +3 Al3+ Formula for
Compound
Combined with AlCl3
Model of an Ionic ion
Chlorine
Crystal Lattice. (group 7 Aluminium
non- metal)
Cl- Chloride
An ionic formula is Valency = -1
“Empirical” and describes
the ratio of ions.

Should You Write “+2” or “2+”?

It has become normal usage to write the charge on an ion as “2+”, meaning there are two positive charges.

An element’s valency is written “+2” to mean that this element tends to form positive ions involving two electrons.
(Never think that the “+” sign means to ADD electrons. “+” is a reference to electric charge type, NOT addition.)
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More Than Just Simple Ions
As much as we want to keep it simple, there are a few complications you must know about.

Multi-Valency Metals Iron ion

Valency = +3 Fe3+ Formula for
Many of the metals belonging to the d-block & f-block of the Compound
Periodic Table can form ions in more than one way. Combined with FeCl3
Chlorine ion
For example, atoms of Iron (Fe) most commonly have 3 Valency = -1 Iron (III)
electrons in the outermost electron shell. To form ions, the Cl- Chloride
atoms lose these 3 electrons and thereby form Fe3+ ions.
2 different versions of Iron Chloride
However, sometimes the iron atom can “shuffle” its
electrons between its outer shell and the incomplete 3d
orbital in such a way that it has only 2 electrons in the outer Iron ion
shell. Valency = +2 Fe2+ Formula for
Compound
In this situation the atoms will lose only 2 electrons to form Combined with FeCl2
an ion... Fe2+ ions form. ion
Chlorine
Valency = -1 Iron (II)
Note the use of Roman numerals in the name (but NOT in formula) Cl- Chloride

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More Than Just Simple Ions cont.

Polyatomic Ions Most of the common polyatomic ions have ( -ve) charge
and valency. Only one common example has a (+ve)
As well as the simple ions which form when individual atoms
gain or lose electrons, there are a number of more valency like a metal.
complicated ionic species you must know about because they This is the ammonium ion NH4+. H
+
are very common, and cannot be avoided.
This group consists of a nitrogen atom N
H H
These are the “polyatomic” ions (poly = many) which are and 4 hydrogens. Compared to the total
composed of a group of atoms which have an ionic charge on protons, this group has one less
electron so it acts as an ion with a H
the whole group, due to the gain or loss of electron(s). The
entire group acts chemically just like a single, simple ion, and valency of +1.
can join with other ions forming compounds and ionic crystal
lattices.
2- Formulas with Polyatomic Ions
One common example is the O Working out a chemical formula is done exactly as before,
“sulfate” ion, SO4
2- except names do NOT change and brackets are needed
O S O when 2 or more polyatomic groups are involved.
Somewhere within this group of 5
atoms there are 2 extra electrons, in Example Note the use of
O the brackets
excess of the total protons these atoms
contain. The ion has a valency of -2. Iron ion
Valency = +3 Fe3+ Formula for
Other common examples are: Compound
• Nitrate (NO3- ) ion (valency -1) Combined with Fe(NO3)3
- ion
• Hydroxide (OH ) ion (valency -1) Nitrate ion
Iron (III)
Valency = -1 NO3-
• Carbonate (CO32- ) ion (valency -2) Nitrate

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A Summary:
Formulas & Names for Ionic Compounds
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Formulas Naming Compounds

1. Determine the (+ve) and (-ve) ion involved. a) Simple Ions
1. Name the (+ve) ion (metal) first.
2. Work out the minimum number of each ion Its name is always the same as element name.
which gives equal amounts of (+ve) & (-ve)
charge. 2. Add the name of the (-ve) ion (non-metal),
Example: you need 3x(1-) to match (3+) but altered to end in -IDE.
e.g. oxygen becomes “oxide”
phosphorus becomes “phosphide”
3. Write symbol for the (+ve) ion first.

4. Use sub-scripts to show ratio of ions. b) Metals with Multiple Valencies

Number “1” is not written. e.g. FeBr As above, but (in brackets) write the Roman numeral corresponding to
2
the valency number of the metal ion.
2+
5. If a polyatomic ion is involved; e.g. FeBr2 is “iron(II) bromide” (Fe ion) [say “iron-2-bromide”]
• brackets MUST be used if more than one
FeBr is “iron(III) bromide” (Fe3+ ion) [say “iron-3-bromide”]
polyatomic ion. e.g. Mg(NO3)2 3
- bracket must NOT be used if only one c) Compounds With Polyatomic Ions
polyatomic ion. e.g. NaNO3 1. Name the (+ve) ion first.

Note: The symbols for an ion must contain 2. Add the name of the (-ve) ion.
electric charge, written as a super-script. The name of a polyatomic ion does NOT change.
e.g. Fe3+
Examples Fe(NO3)2 is “iron(II) nitrate” Now do
The formula for a compound must NOT worksheet
( NH ) SO is “ammonium sulfate” 11
42 4
contain electric charges.

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Discusssion / Activity 7
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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Ionic Compounds Student Name .................................

1. Explain why the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, but sodium sulfide is Na2S.

2. The positions of 4 elements Q,R,X,Z (not their correct

symbols) in the Periodic Table are shown. X Q
a) State the likely charge on the ion (if any) of each element. R Z

b) What would be the formula for a compound of:

i) Q & R? ii) X & Q?

3. There are 2 different forms of the compound copper chloride with formulas
CuCl and CuCl .
2
a) Explain how this is possible.

b) Give the fully correct names for CuCl and CuCl .

2

4.
a) What is meant by a “polyatomic ion”?

b) Explain what the formula Ca(NO3)2 really means, and name the compound.

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Lewis Formulas... “Electron-Dot Diagrams”
Before going any further you need to learn another way to represent atoms, ions and molecules and
their electrons.
A “Lewis Formula” for a chemical species uses dots to Examples Lewis Formulas
represent the outer shell electrons of each atom. The
Nitrogen
rest of the atom is represented by the chemical symbol atom, N
for that element. 5 N
2
Examples Lewis Formulas After 4 electrons,
Lithium begin making pairs.
Only the (electrons do “pair up”
atom, Li
1 outer Oxygen in their orbitals)
2 Li shell atom, O
electron 6
shown 2 O
Beryllium
atom, Be
2 Fluorine
Be atom, F
2 7
Add extra electrons in
a “box pattern” 2 F
around the atom
Boron
atom, B
Neon
3 B atom, Ne
2 8
2 Ne
Carbon
atom, C
4 Neon’s outer shell is complete with 8 electrons in
2 C 4 pairs. The next element (sodium) would have a
Lewis Formula similar to lithium’s.

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Lewis Formulas for Ions

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When a non-metal gains 1 or more electrons to form a negative A Lewis Formula is not very useful for showing
ion, the extras are shown in a different style, for example: simple positive ions, but for the record...

Fluorine
Lewis Formulas Lewis Formulas
atom, F Sodium atom 1
7 F Na
2 8
Na
Extra electron Charge 2
gained shown
Fluoride
-
ion, F Only outer electron
8 shown
2 F
extra electron
shown in different style
Charge
Sodium ion shown
An oxygen atom gains 2 electrons Na+
to form an oxide ion: 8
Oxide 2- oxide ion
ion, O
2 Na +
8
2
2
O
Outer orbit lost in ion
formation
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Equations for Ion Formation
As well as representing atoms and ions by various diagrams and formulas,
you must learn that any change that occurs can be represented by an equation.
Formation of a Fluoride Ion (from an atom) Formation of Magnesium Fluoride
F + e- F- from its Elements

Fluorine + extra electron Fluoride ion The last 2 equations can be simply added together to describe the
atom formation of the ionic compound magnesium fluoride (formula
MgF2) from its elements.
In fact, Fluorine exists in nature as F2 molecules, not single atoms.
If a molecule of F2 formed ions, the equation is:
- - F2 + 2e- 2 F-
F2 + 2e 2F
add these together
Fluorine + 2 extra 2 Fluoride ions Mg Mg2+ + 2e-
molecule electrons
Mg + F2 + 2e- Mg2+ + 2e- + 2F-
Formation of a Magnesium Ion
notice how 2 electrons occur on both sides,
2+ - so they cancel out.
Mg Mg + 2e
Magnesium Magnesium + 2 electrons Mg + F2 MgF2
atom ion
These equations show how for each magnesium
(Since Mg atoms have 2 electrons in their outer shell, ion there needs to be 2 fluoride ions, so that
they must lose them to form the normal ion everything “balances”.
with (2+) charge)

Note that in EVERY equation, the total amount of electric charge on each side of the equation is equal.
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Equations for Ion Formation cont.

Here is another example, but more complicated. However, in a real situation where lithium is reacting with
oxygen, each O2 molecule needs 4 electrons. Therefore, it will
It demonstrates the importance of balancing chemical take 4 lithium atoms to supply them...
equations:
Formation of an Oxide Ion (from an atom) Previous Equation Multiplied by 4
O + 2 e- O2-
Oxygen + 2 extra electrons Oxide ion 4 Li 4 Li+ + 4 e-
4 Lithium 4 Lithium ions + 4 electrons
atom atoms

However, just like fluorine, oxygen always exists in nature as O

2 Now add the equations together:
molecules, so the reaction would be:
Formation of Oxide Ions (from an O2 molecule)
O2 + 4 e- 2 O2- O2 + 4e- 4 O2-
Oxygen + 4 extra 2 Oxide ions add these together +
molecule electrons 4Li 4Li + 4e-
Where might the extra electrons have come from? In a
chemical reaction, they would normally come from a metal
4Li + O2 + 4e- 4Li+ +4e- + 2O2-
atom which needs to lose electron(s) to achieve its best energy There are 4 electrons on both sides, so they cancel out.
state. The correct formula for lithium oxide is Li O,
2
so this combination of ions is enough
Let’s assume the metal is Lithium: to make “2 lots” of ions.
Formation of a Lithium Ion 4 Li + O2 2 Li2O
+ -
Li Li + e This equation is “balanced”... it shows
Lithium atom Lithium ion + electron the same number of each atom
(Since Li atoms have 1 electron in their outer shell, on both sides of the equation.
they must lose it to form the ion with (+1) charge)

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Covalent Bonding
The gaining and losing of electrons to form ions is not the only way for atoms to achieve a full outer shell, and the best
possible energy state that goes with that. If atoms have 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer orbit, they can also achieve a
full outer shell by sharing electrons. This is called “covalent bonding”.

Not only do many compounds form this way, Each atom can count the A covalent bond
but many elements exist as 2 or more atoms shared electron pair as is always the sharing of a
covalently bonded together. part of its outer shell, pair of electrons
making a total of 8.
Example: the element Fluorine, F2

7 7
2 2 6 2 2 2 6

One molecule of fluorine, F2

Two atoms of fluorine will always bond
together by sharing a pair of electrons These atoms must remain tightly attached to each
other in order to share the electrons... they are bonded
together very strongly, forming a molecule of F .
Atoms of all the non-metals and the semi-metals, (except Group 8 the 2
“Inert Gases”) bond together covalently when in the pure elemental state:
The shape of the
Elements Molecules A Covalent Lattice Element; Silicon lattice is not square
as in this 2-
dimentional
Group 7 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 Each diagram.
chemical In 3-dimensions, the
Nitrogen, Oxygen N2 O2 bond is atoms surround
formed by each other in a
Sulfur S8 atoms pyramid pattern,
called a
sharing 2 “tetrahedron”. Pure
Phosphorus P4 electrons silicon forms hard
with each crystals made of
Carbon, Silicon covalent lattices neighbour billions of atoms
and others atom. covalently bonded
in a lattice.

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More About Covalent Bonding
Hydrogen... the Weirdo A Note About “Molecules”
You need to be aware of the precise definition of the
Hydrogen is the smallest atom of all, with only 1 electron.
word “molecule”.
Sometimes hydrogen loses this Definition
+
electron, forming a hydrogen ion H+. A molecule is the smallest particle of a substance that can
1p
When this happens it is behaving have a separate existence, and can move around
chemically like a metal in Group 1. independently of other particles.
Examples
However, hydrogen atoms can also share electrons
covalently. Elemental hydrogen is always H molecules:
2

Don’t forget that the 1st orbit

holds a maximum of 2
1p+ 1p+ electrons, so both atoms
achieve a full outer shell by
sharing. Inert gases have
“molecules” Hydrogen has “diatomic”
of just one atom. molecules (di = 2)
Hydrogen, and all the non-metals and semi-metals
not only bond with atoms of the same type in the the
element state, but will share electrons with different Lattice structures (ionic or
covalent) are not molecules.
atoms to form covalent compounds.

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Lewis Formulas with Covalent Bonding
You were introduced to the Lewis Formula (“electron-dot” diagram) previously.
Lewis Formulas are actually more useful for covalent situations than they are for ions.
A covalent bond is always a pair of electrons being shared The F2 Fluorine molecule could also be represented by
between 2 atoms. In a Lewis Formula the shared pair are a simple structural formula, showing that it contains 2
usually emphasized by drawing a little oval around them. atoms of fluorine which are connected by a single
covalent bond.
Example
Molecular Lewis Structural
Fluorine molecule Formula Formula Formula
F
2 F2 F F F F
6 2 2 2 6 This represents a single covalent bond
(Remember this involves sharing 2 electrons)

Model of the molecule

Lewis Formula F F You need to be able to interpret, and construct, all of

these different ways to represent atoms and molecules.
Shared pair of electrons
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Covalent Compounds
Many common and important substances are formed by covalent bonding between atoms
of 2 or more different elements.

Understanding Covalent Compounds It’s also possible to have a triple covalent bond; 3

with Lewis Formulas

pairs = 6 electrons being shared between 2 atoms.
This occurs in the nitrogen (N2) molecule
Everyone knows that water is H2O. You need to understand exactly
how this compound forms. N N as well as other compounds.

1 Oxygen
1 molecule Predicting Formulas
of H O
2 Hydrogen
atoms atom 2 for Covalent Compounds
The formulas of the examples at left are quite
H H O H O predictable if you know how many electrons are in
Lewis each atom’s outer shell, and understand how
Formula H sharing electrons can achieve a full outer shell.
Look carefully at the Lewis formula to see how all the However, not all covalent compounds are so
atoms involved have achieved full outer shells of predictable, because the “rule” about achieving a
electrons by sharing electrons in covalent bonds.
Model full shell of 8 electrons is not always followed with
Another well known covalent molecular compound is carbon dioxide CO covalent bonding.
2 (It is always followed with ionic bonding.)
Carbon 2 Oxygen CO2
atom atoms molecule For example, if oxygen & sulfur Model
combine covalently, the compound
C O O C O formed is sulfur dioxide (SO2).
O
Study this Lewis Formula O S
The CO2 molecule contains double covalent bonds. Model and you’ll see that the “rule of 8
These involve atoms sharing 2 pairs of electrons. electrons” has NOT been followed for the
The structural formula for this would be: O
sulfur atom!
O=C=O
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Naming Covalent Compounds

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The first problem you face here is that (for historical More Than One Compound
reasons) many covalent compounds have “common names” The second problem is that, quite often, there is more
that follow no rule or system, and must be memorised. than one possible compound formed from the same
Common Names elements in a covalent compound.
To keep this as simple as possible (K.I.S.S. Principle!) start Some examples
with just these three common, important compounds: Elements Different Compounds Possible
Water H 2O H O Sulfur & oxygen SO2 and SO3
Sulfur dioxide Sulfur trioxide
H
Carbon & oxygen CO and CO2
Ammonia NH3 H N H Carbon monoxide Carbon dioxide

H To cope with this, a naming system has developed

(Not to be confused which uses prefixes to state how many atoms of each
with the ammonium polyatomic ion (NH +) element are in one molecule.
4

Methane CH4 H
The Prefixes
H C H 1 = mono 2 = di 3 = tri
(This is the simplest of a huge
range of covalent compounds of 4 = tetra 5 = penta 6 = hexa
H
carbon... more in later topics)
How to Name a Simple Covalent Compound From a Molecular Formula
• Name the elements in the order as in the formula. • Alter the name of the 2nd element to end -IDE.
• Attach a prefix to the front of both names, indicating how many atoms are present in each molecule.
(Important exception: If there is only one atom of the first-named element, do not attach a prefix to it.)

Examples: P2O5 = diphosphorus pentoxide SO = sulfur trioxide

3
N S = dinitrogen trisulfide
2 3

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Discusssion / Activity 8
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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Chemical Bonding Student Name .................................

1.
a) Outline the basic difference between ionic and covalent bonding.

b) Chlorine bonds in a 1:2 ratio with magnesium to form ionic MgCl2.

Can you have a “molecule” of MgCl2? Explain.

c) Chlorine can also combine 1:2 with sulfur to form molecules of SCl .
2
i) Sketch a Lewis Formula for this molecule.

ii) How many electrons are involved in bonding in this molecule? Explain.

2. Suggest a name for these covalent compounds. Draw Lewis Formulas for the first 2.
a) CF4
b) PCl3

c) N2O4
Worksheets 12-15 are
d) SiS2 also appropriate at
this point

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Ionic v. Covalent and Some Bonds In-Between
Up to this point, you have seen ionic & covalent bonding as quite Polar Covalent Bonds
different things. Now you must realise that they are just different
degrees of the same thing. A “Pure” Covalent Bond occurs
when electrons are shared evenly.
An analogy might help... Imagine 2 people sharing some lollies. If both
people are very fair about it, and neither dominates or intimidates the In a “Polar Covalent Bond” This is a
the sharing is not even. “dipole”
other, the sharing will be equal:
The electrons are attracted δ− δ+ It has 2
My Share Your Share more to one atom than the opposite
This is like a “pure other. poles
covalent bond” where
This causes the bond (and the entire molecule) to become
electrons are
electrically “polarised”. The electric charge is not evenly
shared equally distributed. One end has a greater concentration of electrons and
has a slight negative charge (δδ−), while the other end becomes
An ionic bond can be thought of as the lolly-sharing between a hungry slightly positive (δδ+).
bully and a wimp who hates lollies:
The Greek letter delta (δδ) is used to denote a “small amount” of
Bully’s Share Wimp’s Share
something, in this case electric charge. The molecule is called a
“Gimme everything” “I didn’t want them “dipole”, meaning it has 2 poles.
anyway”
When electrons are shared so Electronegativity Difference
unequally, the result is You were introduced to the concept of electronegativity earlier in
(+ve) and (-ve) ions this topic... revise if necessary.
being formed.
The higher the value of electronegativity for any element, the
Now you must learn that there is also a situation (or a whole heap of more it attracts electrons to its atomic nucleus. The highest value
situations) in between these extremes, where the lollies will be shared, elements are fluorine, oxygen, nitrogen & chlorine, clustered in
but perhaps not evenly. the top right corner of the Periodic Table. (But Inert Gases don’t
count)
Sharing,
but not The lowest values are among the metals of groups 1 & 2,
especially lower down the table.
equally
When any 2 atoms react & form a chemical bond, it is the
In chemical bonding, this kind of sharing is called a “Polar Covalent
difference in electronegativity which determines the nature of
Bond” and occurs when electrons are shared between 2 atoms with
the bond. More next slide...
quite different values for Electronegativity.

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Electronegativity & Bond Type (cont.)
If the difference in electronegativity is small (less than about 0.5 units) the bond is considered If the difference in
purely covalent. electronegativity is more than
0.5, but less than 1.4 units, the
Examples: bond is likely to be polar
If 2 identical atoms bond together (eg F2, O2, H2, Cl2, etc.) there is NO difference in electronegativity... covalent. The compound will
pure covalent. probably form discrete
molecules, but they may exhibit
When hydrogen bonds to carbon (thousands of examples) the difference is only 0.4 units... “polarity” because parts of the
pure covalent. methane CH4 molecule will have slight
electrical imbalance.
If the the difference is more than about 1.4 units, the electrons are attracted to one atom so much more than
(It also depends on the exact shape
the other that the bond is considered ionic. It is as if the electrons have been totally transferred from one to of the molecule. Perfectly
the other.
+ - + - + symmetrical molecules can have
polar bonds within, but the
Examples: symmetry might cancel out any
Almost any metal combining with chlorine, oxygen or other non-metals will - + - + - uneven electrical charges.)
result in a typical ionic compound. In the solid state these form a “crystal lattice”
of ions. The consequences of polarity
- + - + + are explained below:

Polar Bonds Create Inter-Molecular Forces

The charges on each end of a molecular dipole are only a fraction of the size of the charges
on an ion, but they do cause electrical forces to occur between nearby molecules.
It is these forces which are the “inter-molecular forces” that make the molecules cling δ− δ− δ+
together in the solid state. These are the forces which must be overcome with heat energy to
melt the solid. These are the forces which determine the m.p. and b.p. of a molecular
substance. These forces
δ+ are called
The strength of the dipole-dipole force varies according to the degree of polarity of the Dipole-Dipole
covalent bond (how evenly or unevenly the electrons are being shared) and also varies Forces. δ+
according to the shape of the molecule. In some substances the forces are quite weak, in
others quite strong.
δ+
δ−
The strongest dipole-dipole forces are about 1/3 as strong as a full-scale ionic bond. These
occur whenever hydrogen atoms are bonded to oxygen, nitrogen or fluorine, and are called... δ−
Hydrogen Bonds next slide...
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Hydrogen Bonding O, N or F atom δ+
keep it simple science H atom

Oxygen, Nitrogen and Fluorine are all small, strongly electronegative atoms. Hydrogen is even δ− δ−
δ+
smaller, and once the electrons are “sucked away” from it in the polar bond, the hydrogen atom is
really a “naked” proton.

The result is an especially strong set of partial charges, a powerful dipole, and strong inter-molecular
Polar Covalent Hydrogen Bond
force, which attracts nearby molecules to each other. These especially strong dipole-dipole attractions Bond
are called “Hydrogen Bonds”.

Hydrogen Bonding in Water In the water molecule the covalent bonds are very polar, so the atoms develop
especially large partial charges. Each molecule is a dipole, and strong inter-
δ+ molecular “Hydrogen Bonds” attracts each molecule to its neighbours.
δ+
It is this network of hydrogen bonds that holds the molecules in a rigid lattice
δ− in the solid state. (ice)

δ+ δ− The Hydrogen Bonding is the reason that ice has such a high melting point,
δ+ compared to other molecules of similar size. (Ammonia also has relatively high
m.p. & b.p... same reason!)
δ− Inter-molecular
Once melted to a liquid, the molecules can move around, but “cling” to each
Hydrogen Bonds other because of the hydrogen bonds. The molecules even “wriggle” closer to
between molecules each other and the density increases.
Intra-molecular
Covalent Bonds To boil water to a gas, the molecules must be able to totally break free from the
within molecules hydrogen bonds. This requires considerable energy, so water has an unusually
δ+ δ+ high boiling point, compared to other silimar molecules.

It is the HYDROGEN BONDING between water molecules which explains all of water’s weird and unusual properties:
• Water has much higher mp & bp than other similar sized molecules.
• Water is one of very few substances in which the liquid is more dense than the solid. (that’s why ice floats in water.)
• Water has very high viscosity for such a small molecule. (Viscosity is a measure of how “sticky” water is.)
• Water has an unusually strong “surface tension”. (A network of forces at the surface which can support things which should sink.)

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5. Bonding, Structures & Properties

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Physical and Chemical Properties

How do you recognise things and tell them apart?
How, for example, do you tell an orange from a banana? You Properties of Elements,
look at its colour and shape and (if blind-folded) you’ll go by
smell and taste. You are using the properties of different things Compounds & Mixtures
to identify them.
Elements and Compounds are all pure substances. Each element,
In Chemistry it’s exactly the same... we identify and each compound has its own unique properties which are
substances, and classify different chemicals according to characteristic and do NOT vary.
their properties.
What are the properties we use? For example, pure water has a fixed melting point, boiling point,
density, acidity, conductivity, etc. It is these unique, fixed properties
Physical Properties which allow us to recognise and identify water, and every other pure
substance.
Melting & Boiling Points (these determine the state)
Electrical Conductivity Mixtures are not pure. The properties of mixtures are usually a
“Hardness” and Flexibility (e.g. malleability and ductility) “blend” of the properties of its parts, and vary according to its exact
composition. For example, salt water has properties of both water and
There are many other properties, such as density and colour, but the salt, and its density, boiling point, conductivity (and taste) vary
three above are by far the most useful when surveying and according to the proportions of the mixture.
classifying matter in a general way (and using the K.I.S.S Principle!).

Chemical Properties including: Elements & Compounds are Pure Substances

• how reactive the substance is. with Unique, Fixed Properties.
• whether it is acidic, basic or neutral. Mixtures are Impure
• which types of reactions it will undergo.
and have “blended”, Variable Properties
(e.g. whether it will burn or corrode)

Chemical properties are not so important when surveying and

classifying matter in a general way, but will become important in Despite mentioning “taste” several times in this slide, tasting is NOT
later topics. safe or appropriate in the laboratory. Don’t taste the chemicals!!

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Properties of a Compound Compared to Its Elements
keep it simple science You may have done practical work to investigate whether or not the properties of a compound are
related to the properties of the elements it contains.
A simple example is to examine a piece of magnesium Magnesium: metallic solid... shiny, flexible, conductor.
(element) and note some basic physical properties. Then Oxygen: colourless, odourless, non-conducting gas.
consider the observable properties of the element oxygen,
in the air around us. Magnesium oxide: brittle, powdery, white,
non-conducting solid.
Then burn the magnesium in air. The product of the reaction
is the compound magnesium oxide, which can be collected Consider the compound sucrose (table sugar) and
and its properties noted. the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen it is
made from.

Carbon: black, brittle solid.

Hydrogen: colourless, explosive gas.
Oxygen - Oxygen: colourless, odourless gas
colourless gas
Sucrose: clear, crystalline solid, with a sweet taste.

You may have examined and considered many other

Magnesium
examples. The general conclusion is:
Oxide -
white powder
Magnesium -
shiny metal Generally, the properties of a Compound
are totally different to
the properties of its Elements

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keep it simple science Bonding Within Substances

To survey and understand the general categories of matter, it is important to know the different forces
that operate to hold substances together. It is this “bonding” within substances that often determines the general physical
properties by which we classify matter into types.

Ionic Compounds Covalent Lattice Substances

are a lattice of (+ve) and (-ve) ions. Some elements (e.g. Carbon and Silicon) and some covalent
compounds (e.g. silicon dioxide, SiO2) form a lattice of atoms
The “Ionic Bonds” covalently bonded, in a 3-dimensional crystal structure.
are actually electrical
attractions between Silicon dioxide forms the mineral “silica”, the most common on
opposite charges, Earth. A grain of sand is a crystal of silica.
and are very strong.
The “Covalent Bonds” are formed when a pair of electrons is being
shared, and are very strong.
Since these bonds are strong, it
requires a lot of energy to break
Since these bonds are strong, it requires a lot of
them so that the particles can begin
energy to break them so that the particles can
moving around.
begin moving around.
Therefore, the melting and boiling point
Therefore, the melting and boiling
is usually very high.
point is usually quite high.
More, next slide...
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Covalent Molecular Substances
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Some elements (e.g. oxygen, chlorine) and many compounds The Covalent Bonds
(e.g. water, carbon dioxide) are composed of covalent inside the molecules are very
molecules. “intra” = inside strong and require a lot of
energy to break.
“inter” = between
To understand these substances you must know about
“intra-molecular” and “inter-molecular” forces. It may take a lot of energy to
decompose the compound.
The forces between the molecules are due to polar covalent
bonds creating “dipoles”. Nearby molecules are attracted to each The bonds between molecules
other by the opposite electrical charges. are weaker, so mp’s & bp’s
They hold the molecules in place in the solid state, but are easily are low compared to ionic or
broken by heat energy. This means that the solid melts easily. covalent lattices.

Since the “inter-molecular” forces are relatively weak, covalent molecular substances generally have relatively low
melting and boiling points, and many are liquids or gases at standard temperature and pressure.

Bonding Within Metals

Why are most metals hard, with quite high melting points? There must be some strong bond holding the atoms together,
yet allowing them to change shape (malleable & ductile) when hammered or stretched.
Metal atoms do not hold onto This bond can be very strong in some metals, so the
their outer (valence) electrons. metal is strong, with a high melting point. In other
+ + e- + e- + +
Each atom is actually a (+ve) metals the bond is weaker, so some metals are softer
e - -
+ - + e - e-
ion. Loose electrons wander e e and melt at lower temperatures. (e.g. lead)
+ +
between the ions, in a shifting e -
+ e- + e-
+ e +
-
“sea of electrons”. e- + e- + e- However, while the metallic bond can be very strong,
- e -
+ it is not rigid. The sea of electrons shifts and flows, so
e
+ e- + e -
+
The “Metallic Bond” is the e- + the ions can be pushed or pulled to different places
+
+ e +
-
-
e e-
electrical attraction between the e- + without breaking the substance. This is why metals
e- e- + are malleable and ductile, unlike the hard,
(+ve) ions and the surrounding
+ e -+ + e- +
“sea” of negative charges. but brittle ionic or covalent lattices.

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Comparing the Properties of Different Substances
You may have done practical work to study the properties of a variety of substances.

The properties studied were probably: Conductivity

testing
• mp & bp (from Chemical Data book or table)

• electrical conductivity, in solid & liquid states, and in solution

(if soluble) by experiment.

• hardness and flexibility of the solid, by experiment.

Typical General Results

Category Melting
o
Boiling Electrical Conductivity Hardness/Flexibility
Pt ( C) Pt (oC) Solid Liquid Solution of solid
Metals
(e.g. Iron, Lead) Medium High Good Good N/A Most hard, malleable &
to High ductile
Ionic Compounds
(e.g. Salt NaCl Medium High Poor Good Good Hard & brittle
Sodium hydroxide) to High

Covalent Lattices
(e.g. Silicon dioxide Very High Very High Poor* Poor N/A Hard* & brittle
diamond (carbon) (Si, Ge are semi-conductors)

Covalent Molecules
(e.g. water, Low Low Poor Poor Poor Solids often soft & waxy
carbon dioxide) to medium If hard, then brittle.
(e.g. water ice)

Exceptions & Anomalies:

* Carbon, in the form of graphite, is a good conductor, and is soft and slippery.

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A Note About the Inert Gases

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How do the elements of Group 18, the “Inert Gases”, fit into this scheme?

These elements have full outer shells of electrons, so they do not normally form
ions, nor share electrons covalently. Therefore, they always exist as single-atom
molecules. (Remember the exact definition of a “molecule”)

Technically, therefore, they are molecular substances. When we write “He” for helium
this is both the atomic symbol and the molecular formula.

In this case there are no covalent bonds within molecules. There are, however, some extremely weak inter-molecular
forces which can hold the atoms in a solid lattice at extremely low temperatures. Even very tiny amounts of heat can
o
overpower these forces, so helium melts and boils to a gas at a temperature around -270 C.

The forces get stronger as the atoms get bigger, but even so, all the elements of Group 8 are gases at room temperature
because of very low m.p.’s and b.p.’s.

Molecular and Empirical Formulas

When we say that the formula for water is H2O, we mean that each molecule of water contains 2 atoms of hydrogen and
1 atom of oxygen. “H2O” is a molecular formula which describes the molecules.

Salt is an ionic compound. Each crystal contains billions of sodium and chloride ions, but they are in the ratio of 1:1.
The formula is NaCl, which is an empirical formula. It does not describe molecules (there aren’t any!) but gives the
simplest ratio of the elements present.

Similarly, silicon dioxide has the formula SiO2, but there are no molecules. This compound is a covalent lattice of
billions of atoms bonded together. The atoms are in the ratio of 1 silicon atom
to every 2 oxygen atoms. SiO2 is an empirical formula.

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Explaining Electrical Conductivity
Any substance will conduct electricity if it Ionic Compounds are the trickiest to understand!
contains electrically charged particles which In the solid state the ions are fixed in the lattice and cannot
can move independently of each other. move freely. + - + - +
Metals Solid ionic lattices
will NOT conduct
contain metal ions and a mobile “sea” of free
because ions cannot
- + - + -
electrons. When a voltage is applied, electrical current
move freely.
is carried readily by the electrons flowing among the + - + - +
metal ions.
However, if an ionic compound is melted, the (+ve) and (-ve)
Metals are good conductors in both solid and liquid ions can move freely and independently. If a voltage is
states. applied, a current will be carried by the ions migrating in
opposite directions.
Covalent Lattices
& Covalent Molecules Many ionic compounds are soluble in water. When they
do NOT contain any charged particles that can separate dissolve, the lattice disintegrates and the ions can move
from each other and move independently.. freely. (This will be explained fully in a later topic)

These substances are generally poor conductors whether + + -

solid, liquid or in water solution.
- - +
Ionic compounds become good
conductors in the liquid state,
(Exceptions: Graphite is a good conductor. + - + - and in solution.
+
The “semi-metal” elements (notably Si & Ge)
are semi-conductors) + - + -
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Discusssion / Activity 9
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The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on

Bonding & Properties Student Name .................................

1. Explain why ionic compounds:
a) are usually hard, crystalline solids with high melting points.

b) are poor electrical conductors as solids, but conduct well when melted.

2. Explain why covalent molecular substances are generally low-melting point

non-conductors.

3. Explain why metals:

a) are good electrical conductors.

b) are mostly hard, high-melting point solids.

c) are hard, but are malleable and ductile.

4. Explain why covalent lattice substances are hard, crystalline, high-melting point non-
conductors.

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One Last Thing... Allotropes
keep it simple science
You learnt earlier about “isotopes” of the elements. Well, just to confuse you, the syllabus wants you to know about
“allotropes” as well. Allotropes are different forms of the same element with different physical properties due to having different molecular or
lattice structures. Allotropes are composed of the same atoms, but arranged differently.
This gives them different densities, mp & bp, colour & appearance, conductivity, etc.
Since they have the same atoms, allotropes form exactly the same compounds with other elements. Because of this, they are often said to have the
same chemistry. However, their chemical reactivity (the “ease” with which they react) is often quite different because of the
different lattice structures (or molecules) within.
Perhaps the best known allotropes are those of the element carbon. Excellent for a case study:

Allotropes of Carbon
Graphite Diamond “Bucky-Balls”
In Graphite, the carbon atoms are arranged is also a covalent Discovered much more recently is a variety of
in hexagonal rings which connect to form flat lattice of carbon allotropes of carbon... the Buckminster-
sheets. atoms, but the atoms Fullerenes. Named after the architect who
are arranged in a invented the “geodesic dome” structure,
The atoms within each sheet are strongly tetrahedral pattern, Bucky-Balls and Bucky-Tubes come in a
bonded, (m.p. & b.p. are high) but the bonds forming a huge 3-D variety of shapes and sizes.
between the sheets are very weak. They can crystal lattice.
easily slide past each other, so graphite is The best known has C60
“slippery”. Because of its “slipperiness”, Diamond has the formula C60, in
graphite is an excellent lubricant, used for extremely high m.p. & b.p., and is the hardest which the carbon
example, in door locks. Its most familiar use natural substance known. atoms are arranged to
is the “lead” in a pencil. form a sphere
The beauty of its sparkling crystals has made resembling a soccer
Unusually for a diamond treasured (literally) for jewellery ball.
non-metal and throughout history.
covalent The Bucky Balls have not yet found a practical
lattice, In modern times, its extreme hardness has use, but they have potential for use as high
graphite is a resulted in the widespread use of “industrial temperature lubricants, for making super-
good diamonds” for drill bits (e.g. for oil-drilling conducting polymers or even as specialised
conductor of equipment to bore through solid rock) and high- “capsules” for administering medicines.
electricity. speed saw blades.
Now do
ALLOTROPES = Same element, same atoms. worksheets
Different atomic arrangements, different physical properties. 16,17
Some other elements which have allotropes include sulfur, phosphorus, oxygen and tin.

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