The Australian Journal of The Montessori method, Aboriginal students

Indigenous Education
and Linnaean zoology taxonomy teaching:
cambridge.org/jie three-staged lesson
Joël Rioux1, Bronwyn Ewing2 and Tom J. Cooper2
Research Article 1
Batchelor Institute of Indigenous Tertiary Education, Casuarina Campus, Batchelor, Darwin, Northern Territory
0845, Australia and 2School of Teacher Education and Leadership, Queensland University of Technology, Victoria
Cite this article: Rioux J, Ewing B, Cooper TJ Park Rd, Kelvin Grove, Queensland 4059, Australia
(2021). The Montessori method, Aboriginal
students and Linnaean zoology taxonomy
teaching: three-staged lesson. The Australian Abstract
Journal of Indigenous Education 50, 116–126.
This research article addresses an important issue related to how teachers can support
https://doi.org/10.1017/jie.2019.10
Aboriginal secondary school students’ learning of science. Drawn from a larger project that
Received: 17 June 2018 investigated the study of vertebrates using Queensland Indigenous knowledges and
Revised: 11 December 2018 Montessori Linnaean materials to engage Indigenous secondary school students, this article
Accepted: 24 February 2019 focuses on the three-staged lessons from that study. Using an Action Research approach
First published online: 28 June 2019
and working with participants from one secondary high school in regional Queensland
Key words: with a high Indigenous population, there were several important findings. First, the materials
Adolescent Aboriginal learners; Linnaean and the three-staged lessons generated interest in learning Eurocentric science knowledge.
classificatory system; Montessori method; Second, repetition, freedom and unhurried inclusion of foreign science knowledges strength-
Science teaching and learning; Taxonomy
ened students’ Aboriginal personal identity as well as identities as science learners. Third,
Author for correspondence: privileging of local Aboriginal knowledge and animal language gave rise to meaningful and
Joël Rioux, contextualised Linnaean lessons and culturally responsive practices.
E-mail: [email protected]

Introduction
We have been grappling with the following question for two decades, in Aboriginal
cross-cultural science education: How can teachers help Aboriginal secondary school students
cross-cultural borders between local Aboriginal and Eurocentric knowledge traditions? The
predominant and customary Western zoology lexicon and curriculum is also called
Euro-American or Eurocentric Knowledge. In this paper, we will use the latter term. The over-
lay ‘Montessori teacher’ was also attached to this essential question that was taken up by this
Montessori study’s Action Research (AR). Firstly, the zoology intervention included an
initial Short-beaked echidna study [Tachyglossus aculeatus aculeatus, Shaw, 1792, order
Monotremata, monotreme (Echidna, n.d.)] which is a local icon known in Koora (pseudo-
nym) as The little Porky, Bolinga or Budburra (Rioux et al., 2017). The articulation of the
Porky’s skeleton uncovered the concept Vertebrata, for the adolescent student participants.
Then a collection of Koora animal stories gathered by the students aimed at studying the
local animal classification. The Elder participants were well-known storytellers and were quer-
ied for actual local animal stories. The aim of this work was to convert the data animal stories
into appropriate materials such as vertebrate photo cards to be used by students to perform
vertebrate classificatory tasks. These authentically known vertebrate photo cards, extracted
from local animal stories, were closer to the reality and experiences of the students.
Figure 1 presents an overall view of the Linnaean classificatory system used in Koora with
the adolescent student participants.

Literature review
Indigenous people worldwide are educationally disadvantaged (Beresford et al., 2012). Krause
et al. (2006) state that Indigenous people:

Experience poorer educational outcomes than their non-Indigenous counterparts in terms of achievement,
participation, attendance and experience of school. This is true of Native Americans, the Inuit in Canada,
Maori in New Zealand, and Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders in Australia. (p. 341)

Hyde et al. (2010) claim that in Australia, there are considerable differences between
© The Author(s) 2019
Indigenous and non-Indigenous youths when it comes to educational opportunities and
outcomes:

The overwhelming majority of Indigenous students attend school until Year 9 but the number drops off sig-
nificantly in senior secondary. Only 33% go on to complete Year 10. This is a major concern in terms of
The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 117

Fig. 1. Modified Montessori materials: Koora style First Classification of Animal Kingdom Chart (only pictures of the vertebrates).

literacy, numeracy and school attendance for governments and educa- not have equal outcomes in terms of achievement and participa-
tional institutions across the country. (p. 339) tion in education, which suggests that opportunities are not
equally available to all’ (Krause et al., 2006, p. 313).
Those living in remote communities across Australia have living
standards as deprived as those of some of the most disadvantaged
people in Third World countries (Novak, 2006; Beresford et al.,
Curriculum
2012). The term Fourth World is used to describe the world of
Indigenous people living in a First World country. A study con- Perso (2012) defines curriculum as a ‘broad concept that includes
ducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and knowledge and content, delivery and teaching, assessment and
Development (OECD) has demonstrated that Australia is falling even reporting to parents… It is the intended and planned learn-
behind other industrialised countries in closing the ever- ing proposed by the system, school and classroom teacher’ (p. 31).
increasing gap in academic attainments of its best and poorest stu- Many avenues do exist to aid the classroom curriculum situation
dents, the latter of whom are primarily Indigenous Australians in order to engage Indigenous students. The curriculum has to be
(Artelt et al., 2003). National reports have acknowledged repeat- supported by parents and carers of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
edly that Indigenous Australians are educationally disadvantaged Islander students who want to see: teachers who are culturally
and participate less in education compared to the rest of the sensitive and aware, Indigenous staff who connect and relate to
population (Commonwealth of Australia, 1994, 1995, 2002; the entire community, and a curriculum that contains the local
Hughes, 1998; Beresford et al., 2012; Perso, 2012). cultural history and heritage (ACER, 2014a). Michie et al.
In terms of achievement gap, school attendance and comple- (1998) suggest that: ‘there have been many attempts to engage stu-
tion rates for Indigenous Australians increased between 2006 dents in an Indigenous perspective of science, although not always
and 2011; however, results from the 2012 Programme for celebrating the role of Indigenous peoples’ (p. 7).
International Student Assessment (PISA) reveal that Australia’s A culturally responsive curriculum also supports a developing
Indigenous 15-year-olds remain around two-and-a-half years sense of identity. Inclusion of Indigenous perspectives in the cur-
behind their non-Indigenous peers (ACER, 2013; ACER, riculum, closer to the experiences of the students, is a positive
2014b). Many Indigenous students come to school with layers strategy listed by Groome and Hamilton (1995) to support
of disadvantage such as lack of access to educational resources, Indigenous students. They discovered that ‘providing a curric-
quiet spaces to work, books, school bags, adequate food and ulum and resource which supports and encourages the developing
sleep. They are more likely to attend schools in which there are sense of identity and establishing Aboriginal Studies as a major
many other low socioeconomic students, and the effects of attend- curriculum area within the school would support the needs of
ing such schools have been shown to have a huge impact on stu- adolescents’ (p. ix). Therefore, a local Indigenous curriculum,
dent achievement (ACER, 2013). In a supposedly egalitarian voiced by the local people, more in tune with the Koora region
society like Australia, it is expected that all students have the and with local identity and sense of belonging to the
same opportunities. Yet, ‘Indigenous peoples of Australia do Indigenous family should engage students authentically.
118 Joël Rioux et al.

Culturally responsive teaching On the topic of constructivism and Montessori, Rinke et al.
(2013) state that ‘recent decades of educational research have
Culturally responsive teaching is defined as improving Aboriginal
pointed sciences education toward constructivist and social con-
students’ learning through more appropriate teaching approaches
structivist approaches to teaching and learning’ (p. 1517). In an
(McKinley, 2005) to make them feel comfortable and safe so they
Australian Aboriginal perspective, the personal and social-cultural
come to know their own identity (Ledoux, 2006). Some say that it
learning theory assumes that learning is a complex process involv-
cannot be approached as a recipe or series of steps that someone
ing the individual and social cultural tools and communities of
can follow to be an astute pedagogue (Ledoux, 2006). Montessori
learners (King, 2012). Cultural self-identity to learning is directly
researchers in Aboriginal Australia have been interested in the
related to (integrated with) the constructivism of learning. Self-
Montessori Method being administered in culturally responsive
identity can be understood from many points of view. The idea
ways for many decades (Brown, 2016; Holmes, 2016). Teachers’
of a complex domain defined in a practical way is followed as
desire is to cater to the aspirations of their students in ways that
who we are, where we have been, where we are going and who
maximise their learning (Perso, 2012). The conflation of various
we want to become (G. Aikenhead, personal communication,
worldviews in the Montessori classroom and how its customary
June 2015). This research, initially with the little Porky (T. aculea-
Eurocentric zoology knowledge co-exists with Aboriginal cultures
tus), and the collection of local Aboriginal Koora stories, was con-
worldwide is described below. Montessori in cultural contexts uti-
ducted within the domain of culture (Rioux et al., 2017). The
lises a simple formula and a form of co-existence model explained
work with the Koora knowledge traditions and Elders preceded
by Miller (personal communication):
the delivery of the Eurocentric Linnaean knowledge tradition
and exemplified a social-cultural learning theory. This paradigm
The non-Aboriginal teacher uses the Montessori principles to present
materials and new information while being guided by local Aboriginal cul-
informs the reader that this AR has a broad scheme in science
ture as to what and how to present to help students acquire the knowledge, education research. The little Porky (T. aculeatus) articulation
skills and understanding that will help them become successful members of its skeleton and collection of animal stories (Rioux et al.,
of their culture and community. Montessori-based teaching and learning 2017) exemplify a social-cultural theory in action and combines
approach gives Aboriginal students the opportunity to begin with what is Aboriginal applications of the ideas and non-Aboriginal ideas
familiar or what is part of a Queensland Aboriginal community-based stu- on classificatory systems.
dents’ culture and relates the introduced non-Aboriginal information to
that culture. (Dr Jean Miller, personal communication, 2010)
The Montessori technique of the lesson: three-staged lesson
Usually in schools, Eurocentric science does not allow for a range In the Montessori science classroom, the technique of the lesson
of differing views and cultural aspects to be expressed and valued. (three-staged lesson or three-period lesson) is always used for
If education is not culturally responsive, it becomes irrelevant helping the child learn scientific vocabulary and for the teaching
(Brayboy and Castagno, 2008). A science curriculum profusely of the zoology Linnaean pyramidal arrangement. The term period
based on Western culture may negatively impact on students’ here is understood as a stage or sequence, and is neither time nor
Aboriginal cultural beliefs and consequently affect levels of educa- schedule related. The teacher presents information first and the
tional achievement. Perso (2012) claims that ‘it is clear that when students do the questioning via the Montessori technique. It exists
students can make connections to the curriculum through what to assist students to learn the technical terminology of a particular
they know, their culture and their experiences, they are more topic of study such as zoology.
engaged and learn better’ (p. 42). The technical Linnaean nomen- Montessori (1967) clarifies the ‘technique of the lesson’: (a)
clature in zoology and the specialised phrases used in schools may First-staged-lesson: The association of the sense perceptions with
hamper Aboriginal engagement and participation and, because of names, (b) Second-staged lesson: The recognition of the object
this, the students display limited interest or participation beyond corresponding to the name, and (c) Third-staged lesson:
secondary school (Milroy, 2013). Linkson (1999) declares that the Remembrance of the name corresponding to the object
dilemma for science educators is that ‘teaching science to (pp. 156–158). De Los Santos (1989) synthesises the three stages
Indigenous students can diminish or even demolish the faith in this fashion: (a) ‘This is…’—the teacher introduces a concept,
they have in their Indigenous cultural beliefs’ (p. 41). an object or a card by giving the child the exact terminology; (b)
Culturally responsive teaching means that Aboriginal culture, ‘Find or point to…’—when the child has successfully accom-
materials and values of the students need to be sufficiently rein- plished this task, the teacher enters the third stage; and (c)
forced by the non-Aboriginal teachers during the science lessons. ‘What is this?’—the third stage is used only when the teacher
Schott (2005) discusses her pedagogy and her experiences in thinks the student can answer successfully. Miller (2006) notes
Koora and reflect on the students’ local reality: ‘experiences should that, during the second stage of the lesson, if the child is not suc-
reflect real-life situations to enable the students to see relevance in cessful in pointing to the named object, the teacher realises that
what they are learning’ (p. 50). The process of crossing cultural he/she has not spent enough time on the first stage of the lesson.
borders for student participants (or border crossing) at the inter- Similarly, during the third stage of the lesson, if the child cannot
face between two knowledge production systems requires integra- give the name of the object, the teacher realises that he/she has
tion of the students’ background knowledge from culture, from the not spent enough time on the second stage of the lesson
environment and from peer group interaction into school science. (J. Miller, personal communication, June 2006). For example,
the teacher would present around three to five picture labels,
depending on the age of the students or their ability and also
Theoretical frameworks
depending on the complexity of the concept introduced. The
Constructivist theory of teaching and learning in Koora three stages may be accomplished in one sitting or over the course
Contemporary science education theory suggests that students of several sittings. Table 1 presents an explanation of the tech-
construct their own understandings of scientific phenomena. nique of the lesson according to Maria Montessori.
The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 119

Table 1. Presentation of didactic materials: three-staged lessons (Montessori, 1967)

Three-stage lessons The words spoken

First stage: ‘This is…’

The association of the sense perceptions The teacher ‘should first pronounce the words very distinctly and in a loud voice so that the various sounds
with names that make up a word may be clearly and distinctly heard by the child… The lesson in terminology should
consist in establishing an association between a name and its object or with the abstract concept of the name
itself, both object and name should strike the child’s understanding at the same time but only the name itself,
and not some other word, should be pronounced’. (p. 156)
Second stage: ‘Find…’ or ‘Point to…’
The recognition of the object A teacher should ‘always test to see if her lesson has attained its end. The first test consists in finding out if the
corresponding to the name name has remained associated with the object in the child’s memory… The child will point with his finger at
the object and the teacher will know if the association has been established. The second period is the most
important of all and comprises the real lesson, the real assistance to the memory and the power of
association’. (p. 156–157)
Third stage: ‘What is…’
Remembrance of the name corresponding The third stage is a rapid verification of the first lesson. Since a child is often uncertain of the pronunciation of
to the object these words, which are often new to him, the teacher can insist that they be repeated once or twice,
encouraging the child to pronounce them more clearly, saying: What is it?’ (p. 157–158)

Indigenist Research Framework changes based on their findings’ (Creswell, 2015, p. 579).
Kemmis and McTaggart (2000) contend that AR best happens
In this study, the Indigenist Research Framework (IRF) allows for
by spiralling through a four-step cycle of planning, acting, observ-
the production of collaboration and genuine partnerships between
ing/collecting and reflecting/reviewing (and then revising the plan
Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people, i.e. adolescent students
for another cycle). This four-step format was used to evaluate the
and the first author (Rioux). There are three key principles
75 Aboriginal and Western zoology lessons contained in the
informing this framework, but for the purpose of this paper, we
Montessori Contextualised Zoology (MCZ) Program. For each
focus on only two, leaving out political integrity: (a) resistance
zoology lesson was designed by planning what was to be achieved,
as the emancipatory imperative and (b) privileging Aboriginal
followed by a list of actions to be undertaken. This was followed
voice. According to Rigney (1999, p. 116), ‘Indigenist research
by a larger section of observations which examined the events
is research undertaken as part of the struggle of Aboriginal
that occurred when each action was undertaken, and finally, the
Australians for recognition for self-determination’; this frame-
reflections evaluated the outcomes of the observations and pre-
work emerged from ‘the long history of oppression of
pared for the next cycle of lessons.
Aboriginal Australians which began after the invasion of
Australia in 1788’. In terms of Koora, the research site, an IRF
represents a struggle for self-determination that draws on the Research context: BHS and community
past subjugation of the local Koora people since early settlement.
It seeks to address concretely how local Aboriginal Knowledge The research site was an independent Aboriginal high school in a
can be partnered with the Western Linnaean zoology curriculum remote Queensland community of approximately 1000 inhabi-
in ways that can work towards improving the educational out- tants. The student population at BHS during the research was
comes of students. Rigney (1999, p. 117) privileges the voices of composed of 100% Aboriginal enrolment led by five non-
local Aboriginal people and claims that ‘Indigenist research Aboriginal teachers (from 2004 until Rioux’s departure in
focuses on the lived, historical experiences, ideas, traditions, December 2011). BHS is unique because the high school is a
dreams, interests, aspirations and struggles of Aboriginal council run educational facility and a co-educational, non-
Australians. It is Aboriginal Australians who are the primary sub- denominational Aboriginal community school. It is an independ-
jects of Indigenist research’. In the Koora study, the discussion ent Aboriginal secondary school provided by the Bolinga
circles, Porky hunting (T. aculeatus) and the collection of local Aboriginal Corporation for Education (BACE). BHS student
animal stories (Rioux et al., 2017) are about being part of the population fluctuates from year to year and from the school enrol-
local Aboriginal family and who they belong to. In this study, ment, as of February 2007, the total BHS student population for
Elders, Bolinga High School (BHS) Aboriginal staff and student the State Government Census for non-State schools was 97. In
adolescent participants are all agents of transmission of 2009, according to the BHS records (Rioux, 2015), 67% of attend-
Aboriginal culture because their voices were privileged in the sci- ance and 91 enrolments were recorded. These were consistent
ence classroom and out bush. data compared to previous and following years spent at the
school.

Research design
Participant selection
AR was the selected methodological approach and provided the
basis for the analysis used in the study. Creswell (2015) defines The study involved Aboriginal participants all belonging to the
AR designs as systematic procedures done by teachers to gather Queensland Aboriginal family known as ‘Murris’. There were
information and ‘improve the practice of education by studying two sets of participants: (a) 12 Aboriginal students who volun-
issues or problems they face’ (p. 579). Teachers reflect on these teered to participate, all living locally in Koora and aged between
initial concerns and ‘collect and analyse data, and implement 13 and 15 years old (six males and six females), and (b) seven
120 Joël Rioux et al.

gatekeepers (or seven Aboriginal BHS staff: two School Liaison Kingdom (FCoAK) Charts originated from the local animal
Officers, two Aboriginal Education Workers or Teacher- stories.
Assistants, two Administrative Staff and one Culture Teacher). In this study, the Montessori three-staged lessons were allied to
self-identity enhancement or formation (personal and socio-
cultural constructivist theory of learning). The three-staged lesson
Data collection strategy: classroom observations
broke down the Linnaean concepts in manageable pieces. Visual
In this study, classroom observations were considered a critical animal classificatory materials were used to develop and extend
data collection method during the teaching and learning of the students’ faunal knowledge. This work in Koora defined
Linnaean structure of the zoology taxonomy and its language Montessori’s constructivist coherence via the curriculum and
complexities. Liamputtong (2013) describes observations in quali- viewed it as both bush informal (Aboriginal) and Latin naming
tative research as ‘the process of collecting data by looking rather formal (Eurocentric). Whenever it was possible, holistic views
than listening’ (p. 389) in order to gather in-depth understand- were given first (e.g. FCoAK Chart), whilst details seen in relation
ings in situ of behaviour. Observations were paramount to the to the whole (orders of the vertebrates seen in the pyramidal
AR zoology study in order for me to take time to understand Linnaean taxonomical viewpoint). The content of all areas
the zoology taught and to support student participants when began with basic information (e.g. Kingdom Animalia label)
learning the Linnaean concepts and foreign language. and scaffolding ideas ever expanding (Grazzini, 1995) such as
the orders of the vertebrates. This was the idea of a constructivist
approach in Koora. This paper argues that zoology learning in the
Thematic analysis
classroom can be significantly enhanced via the Montessori
Liamputtong (2013) describes a common type of analysis in technique of the lesson and explicit guidance in the
qualitative research called thematic analysis as ‘a method for iden- Eurocentric culture of school science. This paper focuses on the
tifying, analysing and reporting patterns (themes) within the data’ use of the Montessori technique of the lesson to interweave
(p. 249). It is perceived as a foundational method for qualitative Aboriginal knowledge with Eurocentric Linnaean constructs and
analysis. Thematic analysis in this study entailed searching data the culture of school science. This following section presents the
sets to identify the themes and patterns of meaning, as suggested three-staged lesson, which we have termed: (1) micro-sequence,
by Braun and Clarke (2006). Firstly, we (a) read through each (2) macro-sequence and (3) culturally responsive practices. The
transcript of lessons’ observations and tried to make sense of following sections are written in first person by the first author
the interview data or classroom observations, (b) examined the (Rioux).
transcripts or field notes and made sense of what was being
said by the participants as a group, and (c) searched across the
Micro-sequence: Montessori technique of the lesson
data set to find repeated patterns of meaning, as proposed by
Liamputtong (2009). The method of teaching the Linnaean zoology content consisted
Coding in qualitative data analysis was critical and we followed of the three-staged lesson or the technique of the lesson or
a five-step process for thematic analysis: (1) coding: tagging what I (Rioux) called micro-sequence. This was a ‘metronomic’
chunks of data with a label and name, (2) looking for meaning testament of regularity within the Linnaean teaching delivery in
and interesting points, (3) re-reading the data, naming codes Koora. Depending on each student, I presented between three
and making notes about themes that emerge, (4) reviewing and and five name and animal photo card labels. The micro-sequence
grouping the recurring themes and, (5) looking for tentative con- meant to me a routine presentation of one single piece of material
cepts and viewing possible linkages relating to existing literature inside one lesson (‘This is…’, ‘Point to…’ and ‘What is…’). For
and Montessori Method. instance, during the First-staged lesson of the Linnaean
section, I stated: ‘This is the name and animal photo card labels
for the class of vertebrate bird/Aves in Latin’. The Second-
Ethics
staged lesson: ‘Can you find the class of vertebrate bird/Aves? or
Ethics approval to conduct this study was granted by the can you point to the label Aves? Or which label represents the
Queensland University of Technology Human Research Ethics class bird? Or place the bird name label with the animal
Committee (0700000967). Participant consent was sought in writ- photo card [Point to…? Where is…?]’. The Third-staged
ten form using university ethics-approved participant information lesson: ‘What is the name of this class of vertebrate? Do you
and consent forms. remember what this label is? Can you tell what this picture is?’
The teacher asks: ‘What is this?’ pointing to the photo of a parrot,
for example. If the child is ready to do so, he will reply with the
Results and discussion
proper word: ‘parrot family—class of vertebrate bird-Aves in
Aboriginal cross-cultural science education research has Latin, Vertebrata’.
generally focussed on the domains of policy, curriculum, teaching The three-staged lesson allowed students to know what to
resources and teachers’ pedagogies. This work has explored far expect well in advance in terms of the lesson style of presentation.
beyond these conventional research topics by giving high priority It reassured them and offered direction because of procedural
to the educational experiences of Aboriginal students. We repetition. I always endeavoured to navigate the foreign content
viewed students’ accounts of their local experiences and it enabled of the Linnaean system with visual materials. The maxim
an understanding of how they accessed and learned to become ‘Teach by teaching, not by correcting’ alluded to the micro-
members of communities of learners (Rioux et al., 2017). The sequence as this was progressively teaching the Linnaean arrange-
method further supported a sense of belonging to the ment by building up zoology knowledge ‘constructively’ with
Queensland Aboriginal (Murri) family for student participants loose labels. I utilised a similar repetitive micro-sequence to pre-
because the vertebrates on the First Classification of Animal sent classificatory notions for all 31 animal photo cards.
The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 121

Macro-sequence: Linnaean teaching and technique of the sequences, unhurried deliveries and the local Spirit Protector (the
lesson local Creator of the landscape and waterways, also called Rainbow
Because my people were forbidden to teach their Aboriginal curriculum,
Serpent by Aboriginal People Australia-wide). In Koora, the
back then, today we speak with violence, anger and greediness. Today, Rainbow Serpent is called by the local people Moonda Gudda.
we reflect the old ways of the colonial time. Aboriginal people don’t do We could have initiated the research on day 1 introducing the
things that way. The way out of this is to teach our children about the unknown Eurocentric science classificatory exercises and pre-
land. Teach them the Aboriginal and the non-Aboriginal curriculum. sented the non-Aboriginal FCoAK Charts with the Linnaean
Teaching the land means teaching our culture. The land has eyes and way of classifying the vertebrate world. However, Aboriginal
ears. Land was there watching you when you were born, when you opened staff and I selected an unhurried extension. For instance, we delib-
your eyes for the first time and it watched you move. That’s why you erately prepared the vertebrate terrain for the Linnaean language
should treat the land with respect. The stories of the land you were and this implied a process where an informal style of lesson deliv-
born are very important because the land is your Mother!
ery first prevailed. We consciously kept all loose label lessons (fig-
Uncle Wallace, Aboriginal Elder in Koora
ures 2–6) as a conversation with the participants rather than a
question–answer routine. Lessons were more collaborative rather
In contrast, I called macro-sequence or multiple lessons that oper-
than talking at/to participants reconstructing the Linnaean
ated within the delivery of the entire study, including Aboriginal
arrangement with loose labels. This prolonged sinuous path was
and Eurocentric knowledge traditions. The First-staged lesson of
necessary in order to diffuse tension caused by the Linnaean lan-
the macro-sequence did set the scene and connected with BHS
guage complexities. On the topic of tension between student, con-
Aboriginal staff and to the aspirations of the community (Porky
tent and teacher, Miller (2007) acknowledges that careful
hunting in Rioux et al., 2017); the Second-staged lesson allowed
considerations should apply when faced with a type of contamin-
the students to experiment and perform an articulation of the
ation, she calls ‘the oppositional pattern’. She stated that it is too
Short-beaked echidna’s skeleton (T. aculeatus) and collect local
frequent in teaching, thus the reason for removing oneself from a
narratives; and the Third-staged lesson had a ‘give-back’ expect-
teaching situation. Miller alluded to the three-staged lessons when
ation. Table 2 below displays an overall macro-sequence or
introducing didactic materials. For instance the request: ‘Show
three-staged lesson for both Aboriginal (informal and unhurried
me…where the card koel is [or storm bird from the cuckoo fam-
transmission) and Linnaean sections of the MCZ Program (for-
ily]’ should be avoided and replaced with the instruction ‘Point to
mal, intellectual and remembrance training). Early on in the
or Find the koel card’ (Dr J. Miller, personal communication,
study, there was a sense of informal and unhurried transmission
June 2007).
from the Aboriginal knowledge tradition that was social, emo-
tional, intellectual and spiritual at subconscious level or subtly
(b) Culturally responsive practice: loose labels and Eurocentric
at the ‘sowing of the seeds’ level as opposed to a distinctively intel-
sequence disorder and order
lectual and Linnaean classificatory ‘remembrance training’.
The information in Table 2 below briefly deconstructs the
In regard to the reconstruction of the Linnaean taxonomical
macro-sequence in multiple three-staged lessons. The table
systems, one result revealed an interesting sequence in the non-
describes two macro-sequences with three-staged lessons each:
Aboriginal (Eurocentric) zoology teaching materials that I
(a) the informal Koora Aboriginal materials: Porky hunting (T.
developed: an unhurried sequence from ‘disorder to order’. By
aculeatus), (b) articulation or reconstruction of its skeleton, (c)
contrast, what I discovered in the collaboratively developed
Koora animal stories (see Rioux et al., 2017), and (d) the more
‘Aboriginal animal study’ teaching materials was an absence of
formal and clinical delivery style of the non-Aboriginal zoology
any structured sequence (Rioux et al., 2017), which to a
Linnaean transmission. In summary, the Aboriginal communal
non-Aboriginal (Eurocentric) mind probably looked like disorder
and social materials from the Koora Nations were related to
(chaos). Aboriginal worldviews celebrate disorder. Chaos is taught
meaning and understanding of the local identity whereas the
as an ontological fact by most Aboriginal Elders (Dr Glen
three-staged lessons of the Linnaean section and didactic zoology
Aikenhead, personal communication, 2015). This helps explain
content referred to the Linnaean identity because the technique
the challenge I faced when teaching the Linnaean Latin zoology
taught targeted zoology content (e.g. ‘This is the class of the
structure to Aboriginal students who find science’s search for
Short-beaked echidna, Porky vertebrate Mammalia, mammal
order in nature to be strangely foreign and/or irrelevant to their
label…’).
own ontological stance of celebrating the mystery within nature’s
disorder. This result reveals a significant finding of the research
Culturally responsive practices into Aboriginal students’ learning Eurocentric zoology. The pro-
(a) Culturally responsive practice: unhurried meandering ject was able to entice Aboriginal students into an engagement
sequence of the three-staged lesson with the highly ordered Linnaean classification of vertebrates. I
first metaphorically describe this process as I arranged for
The zoology lessons followed a culturally responsive and ‘unhur- Koora’s iconic Porky (T. aculeatus) to urge students to cross the
ried’ sequence during the Linnaean section. An unhurried elem- cultural bridge between ‘Aboriginal Land’: (Porky and Koora nar-
ent of the Aboriginal culture that we needed to consider was ratives) and non-Aboriginal territory: (Linnaean knowledge trad-
that displaying good manners meant to be sensitive to ‘unhurried ition). This indeed is a significant result of the research because
manners’ during an informal conversation with BHS Aboriginal this culture-based tension between chaos and order was overcome
staff, students and Elders in order to build or strengthen relation- by culturally responsive teaching materials.
ships. Learning in unhurried fashion was like traveling on a The following is an example of an unhurried culturally respon-
meandering river. We argue for the necessity of following a peda- sive lesson sequence that occurred during the Linnaean section. A
gogical sinuous path in Koora. A parallel can be drawn, as there sequence from disorder to order was weaved into our story that
exists a metaphor between unhurried manners, unhurried lesson originated from a taxonomical mayhem and loose labels to a
122 Joël Rioux et al.

Table 2. Macro-sequence: comparison of aboriginal and non-aboriginal (three-staged lesson)

Sections of the
study First-staged lesson Second-staged lesson Third-staged lesson

Aboriginal Opening: present a challenge, elicit Possible second-period follow-up work for There is the expectation of some kind of
section interest and set a task or a problem to reflection and comprehension: reading third-period ‘give-back’: discussion, report,
solve. Invite ownership. Introduce material, discussion points for small groups, work displayed on the wall, mini-lessons
concepts and provide vocabulary. lab activity, outdoor activity, short research for others, models, etc.[use vertebrate
[Porky hunting and related lessons]. ideas, short writing response. photo cards extracted from the local
[Porky articulation of its skeleton leading to stories and play classificatory card
definition of vertebrate family and Elder games].
interviews: What does the vertebrate family
mean? And followed by collecting stories
and extracting vertebrate photo cards].
Linnaean Individual work: Individual work or in pairs: Find… or Point Collective work:
section This is… to… What is the order of the vertebrate
Loose label Set the scene: Define concepts, Participants demonstrate what they learned belonging to the little Porky?
materials and propose a challenge! Taxonomical Linnaean lessons: [45 loose Give-back expectations
FCoAK Charts Introduce Latin naming. Introduce characteristics of the vertebrate labels, 31 31 orders of the vertebrate labels
loose labels of the kingdom, phyla non-Aboriginal zoology narratives, name, Use loose labels of the FCoAK Charts.
and classes of the vertebrates. definition and animal photo card labels for [Bingo Second Series chocolate fondue]
Pyramidal Linnaean system. kingdom, phyla, 5 classes of vertebrates]. (kingdom, phylum/phyla, five classes of
Reconstruction of the Linnaean pyramidal vertebrates and 31 orders of vertebrates).
arrangement with loose labels continuing
Latin naming and its purpose.
Bingo First Series practice (kingdom,
phylum/phyla and five classes of
vertebrates).

Fig. 2. Non-Aboriginal zoology narrative: Who am I game; Short-beaked echidna (T. aculeatus).

exemplary practices such as unhurried repetition, freedom and

reconstruction with loose labels. We created a new series of 31
vertebrate narrative labels (sample figure 2; Who am I? game).
Corresponding name and animal photo card labels accompanied
the 31 narrative labels. These enticing non-Aboriginal narratives
engaged the adolescent participants because the information on
Fig. 3. Sample of the characteristic of classes of vertebrate: bird Aves label. the cards contained surprising ‘unfamiliar’ facts about ‘familiar’
local species (local vertebrates extracted from the Koora animal
narratives from their Elders). Unhurried repetition of taxonomical
tidy presentation or more categorised vertebrate view and ordered lexicon was one of the key pedagogical practices selected to sup-
Latin classificatory system. This work was engineered by the tech- port adolescent participants, to engage them and avoid embar-
nique of the lesson. rassment of students not knowing the answer. These thoughtful
narratives presented a challenging number of unknown science
(c) Culturally responsive practice: repetition, loose labels and words per sentence, a sufficient number of sentences per animal
freedom story card and enough new zoology lexicon contained on each
card to challenge the adolescent students. The attracting
A culturally responsive pedagogy for Aboriginal adolescent stu- Linnaean loose label materials were always framed with a bright
dents in Koora required the provision and sustenance of red border and always deposited on a red velvet mat to first
The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 123

Fig. 4. Bingo First Series: bingo card kingdom, phyla and classes of vertebrates.

progressively scaffolded and organised new knowledge for the

participants, from disorder to order.

(d) Culturally responsive practice: Bingo First and Second Series

Bingo First Series described the Linnaean language and taxonom-

ical concepts of the FCoAK Charts. This activity was intended to
reinforce the names and concepts in Latin (and Standard
Australian English––SAE) of kingdom, phyla, five classes of ver-
tebrates, names of 31 animal photo cards and also to strengthen
some of the characteristics of the five classes of vertebrates. The
bingo was to develop a positive outlook towards learning the
Linnaean vocabulary. Sixteen vertebrate photos were printed on
each individual bingo boards (figure 4). The photo cards selected
for the making of the bingo boards were a miniature replica of the
31 photos on the FCoAK Charts. Unhurried repetition, freedom
and series of labels contained in the Bingo First Series were con-
Fig. 5. Example of three types of labels: order of the vertebrates Psittaciformes.
ducted as reinforcement of the foreign concepts. The aesthetically
pleasing to the eyes Bingo First Series (figure 4) enticed partici-
pants to further engage with the classificatory constructs. Prior
delimit an area of work for students so they stood out, and sec- repetition with loose narrative labels and pyramidal reconstruc-
ondly, the red mat represented the blood of the vertebrates. tion of taxonomical concepts with the characteristic labels rein-
The freedom was an integral part of every lesson. Students had forced the participants’ convictions about the Linnaean
the freedom to engage with the materials on the shelves of the arrangement and success rate was augmented.
classroom at any moment of the day. All participants were first The Linnaean teaching further extended from kingdom, phyla
individually exposed to the zoology Linnaean language with the and classes to the orders of the vertebrates always building up stu-
loose labels, according to their interest of the moment. The enact- dents’ knowledge. I presented five loose names, animal photo card
ment of the Montessori freedom principle and the next series of and definition of orders of the vertebrate labels at a time for a total
45 loose characteristics of vertebrate label materials were also of 31 labels (see sample in figure 5). The students slowly became
engineered for repetition, from the technique of the lesson more and more confident and familiar with all animal photo
(micro-sequence). A series of red-coloured loose labels presented cards of the orders of the vertebrates because of unhurried repe-
characteristic labels as well as 31 animal photo cards from the tition. This Linnaean pyramidal reorganising with a variety of
kingdom, phyla and five classes of vertebrate labels. The deliberate loose labels ordered the taxonomical concepts for the students
reconstruction of the pyramidal Linnaean structure was always and crystallised the Linnaean view.
first demonstrated to students with the principle in mind of Bingo Second Series chocolate fondue structured the work with
‘teach by teaching, not by correcting’. These zoology loose char- the loose labels and the same 31 orders of the vertebrates. This
acteristic labels of the five classes of vertebrates (figure 3 sample) lesson not only brought fruit, melting chocolate and Linnaean
124 Joël Rioux et al.

Fig. 6. Bingo Second Series: bingo card orders of the vertebrates.

zoology constructs but also synthesised the entire Linnaean available to the participants, as they were sitting close by for veri-
classificatory section (figure 6). Once more, as in Bingo First fication of their answers; therefore raising their independence
Series, 16 Latin words or 16 vertebrate photo cards were printed level and served the adolescents as a controlled chart throughout
per bingo board. The Latin taxonomical names and definition the Eurocentric section of the study.
labels were repetitively called out by the gatekeepers during
Bingo Second Series. Participants reluctantly pronounced the
Conclusion
orders’ names but were asking questions: ‘Is brush turkey
(Galliformes)? Is Galliformes the same as storm bird? no, storm This paper demonstrated the unique and highly significant find-
bird (Koel) is Cuculiformes’. After a few rounds of playing ings in terms of the Montessori technique (or the three-staged les-
Bingo Second Series, an attempt was finally made by student sons) and the FCoAK Chart. The materials generated interest in
Kalila (pseudonym) to read out loud one Latin taxonomic learning Eurocentric science knowledge. This article explored
name of the orders of vertebrates. The participant said: ‘This is and evaluated the Montessori method of teaching non-
Primata’? and then we added the English corresponding word Aboriginal zoology with didactic materials (FCoAK Charts)
‘Primate’. Subsequently, the same student initiated more Latin assisted by the technique of the lesson. The ‘remote’ Linnaean
trials: Columbiformes (pigeon family), Falconiformes (wedge- materials created may be summed up as materialised abstractions
tailed eagle family) and Sirenia (dugong family). because they helped students visualise the abstract pyramidal
Fortunately, the build-up lessons strengthened students’ confi- ideas of Mr Linnaeus. The Linnaean vertebrate classificatory con-
dence in the non-Aboriginal way of classifying vertebrates because structs and surrounding Latin language were preceded by the
all students proudly succeeded in naming and recognising all 31 more practical Aboriginal views and understanding of nature
orders of the vertebrates. The 12 student participants even invited (ways of living). The overall lessons delivered to the participants
students from other classrooms to display their newly acquired over the course of the programme connected theory and practice
skills. The success of the Bingo Second Series rested on the preva- because privileging of local Aboriginal knowledge and animal lan-
lent presence of seven BHS staff, as they consistently supported guage gave rise to meaningful and contextualised Linnaean les-
students with repetition of lexicon. The deliberate ordered built-in sons and culturally responsive practices. Repetition, freedom
language contained inside the materials and the repetition were and unhurried inclusion of foreign science knowledges strength-
pillars that dissipated the embarrassment factor. The social ened students’ Aboriginal personal identity as well as identities
loose labels and bingo materials offered opportunities for: (1) as science learners.
working individually, in pair and presenting collective challenges, Students can be successful if a culturally responsive pedagogy
(2) developing concentration, and (3) choosing work and having in the classroom is presented to them. In Koora, there usually
the freedom to select this work or not, and working with whom- exists a clash of different science perspectives and worldviews
ever, wherever they wished. The bingo materials were self- between Aboriginal students and their non-Aboriginal teachers.
correcting because the FCoAK Charts (figure 1) always remained There are a gap and a mismatch between the teachers’ practices
The Australian Journal of Indigenous Education 125

in classrooms and the home cultures of Aboriginal students. at http://rd.acer.edu.au/article/a-way-forward-in-improving-indigenous-

According to BHS Aboriginal staff, the teaching of the local learning.
Aboriginal curriculum has the potential to prevent this mismatch, Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER) (2014b) Indigenous
education update (no. 2)—January 2014. Indigenous Education Update 2,
as reviewed in Rioux et al. (2017). It was natural for us, the BHS
1–11. Available at http://research.acer.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=
Aboriginal staff and I, to combine the local Aboriginal context
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because it resonated strongly with us as a means to produce an Beresford Q, Partington G and Gower G (eds.) (2012) Reform and Resistance
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should be viewed as a context for bringing together both curricula Braun V and Clarke V (2006) Using thematic analysis in psychology.
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instruction for third grade African American students in urban elementary
Aboriginal students to learn, engage and participate in zoology
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lected and analysed in the MCZ Program. There was strong evi- Commonwealth of Australia (1994) National Review of Education for
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Government Publishing Service.
Commonwealth of Australia (1995) The Commonwealth Government’s
Recommendations for Aboriginal students and science Response to the National Review of Education for Aboriginal and Torres
education Strait Islander Peoples. Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service.
• Presenting the technique of the lesson inside the Linnaean sec- Commonwealth of Australia (2002) National Report to Parliament on
tion of the study enhanced the engagement and enthusiasm for Indigenous Education and Training, 2001. Canberra: Commonwealth of
students in learning the foreign-to-them zoology. Australia.
• Using an influx of flexibility and freedom was culturally respon- Creswell JW (2015) Educational Research: Planning, Conducting, and
sive. Offering students the freedom to perform an activity in Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research, 5th Edn. NSW, Frenchs
their own time until satisfied, positively influenced their engage- Forest, Sydney: Pearson Australia.
ment, participation and sustained their zoology interest for De Los Santos LA (1989) Integrating Montessori and whole language philoso-
phies: Methods of reading in English as a Second Language classrooms.
extended periods of time. Freedom and trust in the adolescent
Elementary and Early Childhood Education, pp. 1–19.
student to individually select work or work with a peer, and the Echidna (n.d.) The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,
trust that the participants will learn. Practicing and repeating an Fifth Edition copyright ©2019. Boston, Massachusetts, US: Houghton
exercise with the materials in their own time until satisfied was Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company.
well considered for mastery of concepts at their own pace. Grazzini C (1995) Montessori Elementary Course for the 6–12 Years old
• Presenting and repeating the Linnaean taxonomy with a variety [Psychology Personal Lecture Notes]. Bergamo, Italy: Centro
of loose labels and charts was powerful. Ordering and sequen- Internazionale dei Studi Montessorianni (International Centre of
cing from simple to more complex reconstruction was also Montessori Studies), 1995–1996 course.
powerful. We presented Linnaeus’ ideas from a generic view Groome H and Hamilton A (1995) Meeting the educational needs of
of the vertebrate world (kingdom, phyla, five classes), that is, Aboriginal adolescents (National Board of Employment, Education
and Training Commissioned Report No. 35). Canberra: Australian
from a disordered pile of name, definition, characteristic and
Government Publishing Service.
31 loose animal photo cards to a more ordered and specific Holmes C (2016) The introduction of Montessori teaching and learning prac-
one (adding the orders of the vertebrate labels in pyramidal tices in an early childhood classroom in a remote Indigenous school. Master
fashion). of Education (thesis). The University of Notre Dame Australia. Available at
https://researchonline.nd.edu.au/theses/136
These recommendations should be foremost in classrooms where Hughes P (1998) Aboriginal Education Policy Task Force Report. Canberra:
sustained engagement and participation in learning is the focus. Commonwealth of Australia.
Hyde M, Carpenter L and Conway R (eds.) (2010) Diversity and Inclusion in
Author ORCIDs. Joel Rioux, 0000-0002-4792-2067. Australian Schools. South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.
Kemmis S and McTaggart R (2000) Participatory action research. In
Acknowledgements. Joel Rioux wishes to acknowledge both his doctoral Denzin NK and Lincoln YS (eds), Handbook of Qualitative Research, 2nd
study supervisors for their relentless work as well as the Queensland Edn, pp. 271–330. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Aboriginal community members, Bolinga High School Aboriginal staff, and King D (2012) New perspectives on context-based chemistry education: using
especially the Aboriginal students from which this research emerged. dialectical sociocultural approach to view teaching and learning. Studies in
Science Education 48, 51–87.
Krause KD, Bocher S and Duchesne S (2006) Educational Psychology for
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