Department of Physics

Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Bhopal

Physics Laboratory Manual

PHY-307
Physics Laboratory I
 Content

1. Abbe Refractometer

2. Electro-Optic Effect/Pockel Effect

3. Fabry-Perot Interferometer

4. Fiber-Optics Experiments

5. Fluorescence Spectrometer/ Optical Absorption

Spectrometer

6. Michelson Interferometer

7. Rotational Spectra of Iodine Vapor

8. Ultrasonic Interferometer
 INSTRUCTION
MANUAL

MITTAL ENTERPRISES
2151/T-7C, New Patel Nagar, New Delhi-110008
INDIA Ph. :+91 11 25702784 (Off.) TeleFax : +91 11
25120261
Mobile: +91 9810681132
E-mail :
[email protected]
Web: www.mittalenterprises.com
SALIENT FEATURES:-

• Determination can be performed properly and efficiently in the bright

field of view under the stable light from the built in illuminator.

• Dual graduations of Refractive index and Brix percentage are provided on

the internal transparent scale.

• The scale is graduated on the upper side for the refractive index and the
lower side is graduated to read directly the percentage of sugar in solution.

• The main prism is always horizontal so that the liquid sample can be placed
on the prism and measured conveniently.

• The Glass transparent scale is clearly graduated on the glass plate so that
readings can be obtained easily without fatigue.

• The interior optical system is protected from moisture in addition to protect

the interior optical system by the sealed construction of the interior portion
of the instrument, maintains a dry condition by the moisture absorbent.

• Viscous substances, like syrups, can also be easily measured.

• A mechanism is provided to open the sub-prism so that is can be opened

easily without undue force, especially when viscous samples are handled.

SPECIFICATIONS:-

Range of measuring scale:-

a) refraction index from 1.300 to 1.700
b) contents of sugar in water solution from 0 to 95%
Accuracy:
For Refractive Index 0.001 by direct reading on scale & ± 0.0001 by
estimation. For sugar solutions 0.05% direct reading on scale & + by 0.1% by
estimations.
Overall dimensions of the refractometer : 115x222x263 mm
Weight of the refractometer : Approximately 4 kg.
Dimensions of case : 160x240x325 mm
Abbe-Refractometer is supplied with a small glass test-piece indicating the
refractive index of the instrument, and instruction manual, dust cover and wooden
cabinet
STEP-BY-STEP OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS

1. Using the key open the wooden cabinet, take out the instrument and
remove packing carefully.

2. Insert the plug of the illumination assembly box to 220v A.C., 50 Hz. and
attach the illumination tubes to the inlet provided on the left side of the
instrument and to the adjustable clamp beneath the prism box using the
small pin.

3. Turn “on” the illumination, using the switch provided on the

illumination assembly box.

4. To check liquid samples, simply open the prism box. Now place few drops of
the sample on the lower prism and gently close the Prism box so that a thin
layer of sample is squeezed between the prisms.

5. Now looking in the eyepiece, focus accordingly simply by rotating the

eyepiece in either direction. (See Fig. below for the field view of the
refractometer eyepiece).
6. After the sample is placed in the Prism box the refraction creates a shade in the
cross-wire box. The shade is to be brought in the center of the cross-wire
(where they intersect), using the scale knob located on the left side of the
instrument.

7. Rotating the dispersion scale located on the right side in either direction,
eliminate the color bands visible on the edge of the shade to attain sharp
borderline. (At this point the shade must be intersecting with the cross-
wire as shown in Fig. on next page).

Field view of the Abbe Refractometer eyepiece

8. By looking in the eyepiece, simply read the refractive index or the sugar
contents percentage of the sample on the scale.

9. After testing sample, apply a small amount of spirit to a cotton swab and
gently clean the prisms. Now using dry cotton wipe the prisms. Make sure
not to scratch the prisms.
10. For examining plastic bodies such as resin, detach the lower prism and
soften the material by heat and smear a little on the exposed surface of the upper
prism. To examine crystals or glasses a specimen must be prepared similar to the
standard test piece.

PRECAUTIONS/TROUBLESHOOTING

1. To check calibration, open the prism box. Apply smallest quantity of

provided Bromonapthalene (contact liquid) to the side of the test piece that is
plain and gently place the test piece on the lower polished prism. Do not
close the prism box. (Follow No. 5 -9 above in step by step instructions)

2. In case the reading is off by few divisions, when checking calibration using
standard test-piece. Using the Scale Knob coincide the reading on the test-
piece to the delimitation line on the scale. Notice a small cap next to the
nameplate. Remove the cap by rotating with bare hands and insert the
calibration key in the pin inside the cover. Now rotating the calibration key,
interest the shade calibration key and clean prisms.

3. The scale is divided to the third decimal place, the fourth being easily obtained
by estimation. (As shown in Fig. Below, the fourth place 1.399 5 is obtained
by estimation.

4. The prism box is designed for circulation of water at constant temperature

REFRACTOMETER ABBE TYPE
1. Prism Box 9. Milled Drum II
2. Lever 10. Left Eye Piece
3. Lower Prism 11. Refractive Index Glass Scale
4. Upper Prism 12. Hinge Lever
5. Telescope 13. White Dot
6. Eye Piece 14. Inlet and Outlet Tubes
7. Bottom Reflecting Mirror 15. Thermometer attachment
8. Milled Drum I 16. Tangent Screw
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POCKEL EFFECT
Model No: HO-ED-P05

AIM: -

To plot the graph and study the birefringence with respect to

applied voltage in an electro optic crystal (Lithium niobite (LiNo3 ) )

Components and Equipments: -

He-Ne laser with mount

Polarizer and analyzer
Electro optic crystal (Lithium niobite (LiNo3 )) with mount
Detector with mount
Output measurement unit
2KV DC power supply

Theory: -

As all of us know, many crystals exhibit birefringence naturally. There are certain crystals
which are not birefringent naturally but become birefringent by application of an electric field.
The phenomenon generally is called electro optic effect.

Transmission of the laser light through the crystal exhibiting birefringence is given by

2
T = T0 Sin (П DnL / λ) ......................................... 1

Where T is the transmission, T0 is the intrinsic transmission of the assembly taking into account
all the losses; Dn is the birefringence (ie the difference in the refractive index of two
polarizations), L = length of crystal, λ = wave length of the laser.

The birefringence is increasing function of the applied voltage, so that the transmission will be
an oscillatory function of the applied voltage.

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The max. transmission occurs when;

Dn = ½ λ /2 ........................................................ 2

This occurs at voltage called half voltage denoted as V ½

3
V½ = λ d / 2r22 n0 l ............................................ 3

where l is gap between two electrodes, r22 is the electro optic coefficient, n0 is the ordinary
refractive index and λ is the wavelength of light.

Half wave voltage depends upon the nature of the material and increases with wavelength.

Pockel’s Cell

Laser Detector

Polarizer HV Polarizer
#1 #2

Procedure :-

1. Arrange the electro optic set up shown in the figure.

2. Carefully align the crystal along with so that light beam passes accurately along the axis of
the crystal.

3. Rotate and position the first polarizer so that light beam passes through it with maximum
intensity. This is to make sure that the light entering the crystal is polarized.

4. Rotate and position the second polarizer (analyzer) so that the light transmitted through it is
minimum.

5. Connect the high voltage DC supply to the electrodes kept closely on both sides of the
crystal parallel to the light beam.

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6. Turn on the supply and gradually increase applied voltage from 0V to 2000V in steps of
100V, measuring the light reaching the detector at every 100V interval.

7. Record the voltage and output current reading at each 100V interval. The output current
increases up to a point of input voltage and after that the output current decreases with the
increase in voltage.

8. Plot the meter reading as a function of applied voltage.

9. Determine the value of V ½. Determine the extinction ratio, which is the ratio of the meter
reading at V ½ to meter reading at V= 0.

10. Use the following equations for further calculation.

2
P (V½) = P (V) Sin (П DnL / λ)
-1
Dn = λ / П L sin √ P (V) / P (V½)

Were P (V) is the meter reading at voltage V

P (V ½ ) is the half wave voltage
L = length of the crystal (2.5mm)
λ = wave length (632nm)

Solve the equation for several values of V and plot it as a function of voltage.

Calculations
Half wave voltage from the graph =
Extinction ratio = detector out put at half wave voltage / detector output at zero voltage.

Result:-
1. The intensity variation is plotted as a function of applied voltage.
2. Half wave voltage =
Extinction ratio =
3. Birefringence Vs applied voltage graph is plotted.

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FABRY-PEROT
INTERFEROMETER
Model No: HO-ED-INT-10
AIM: -

1. Determination of wavelength of laser beam.

2. To find the spacing of the Etalon.
3. To find the Finesse and Free Spectral Range of the Etalon.

Components and Equipments: -

Bread board / Optical Rail

Diode Laser with power supply
Laser mount
Divergence Lens with mount
Fabry-Perot Etalon
Translucent screen with scale & needle, etc.

TO OBSERVE THE FRINGE

SCATTERING PLATE
Etalon

LASER LENSE
d
D

Theory: -

Fabry-Perot design contains plane surfaces that are all partially reflecting so that multiple rays
of light responsible for creation of the observed interference patterns. For high resolution
spectroscopy where a resolution of MHz to GHz is required, a Fabry-Perot interferometer (FP)
is used. The FP consists of two plane mirrors mounted accurately parallel to one another, with
an optical spacing d between them.

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Calibrating the micrometer

For even more accurate measurements of the mirror movement, you can use a laser to
calibrate the micrometer. To do this, set up the interferometer. Turn the micrometer knob as
you count off at least 20 fringes. Carefully note the change in the micrometer reading and
record this value as d’. The actual mirror movement d = N λ /2 , where λ is the known wave
length of the laser and N is the number of fringes that were counted. Δ = d/d’ is the calibration
constant for the micrometer.

Procedure
VERNIER DRIVE

TILTING KNOBS

TO OBSERVE THE FRINGE

SCATTERING PLATE
LASER
LENSE

MICROMETER DRIVE FOR

LASER POWER SUPPLY SPACE ADJUSTING

METALLIC COATED GLASS PLATES

WITH REFLECTIVITY 50

First we place the laser, etalon and the screen in a single line. Then align the laser beam so that
it passes through the etalon and get the clear spot on the screen. Then adjust the etalon to get
a single spot on the screen. After these settings we insert the beam expander in between the
laser and etalon. Then we get a clear interference pattern on the screen.

Wave Length of Laser Beam

The wavelength of laser is calculated by:

λ = (2d / N) Δ,

Where d is the change in position that occurs ‘N’ fringes to pass and
Δ is the calibration constant of the micrometer.

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To find the spacing of the Etalon

Center of fringe bands

Line drawing of Fabrey Perot fringe pattern

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To find the Free Spectral Range of the

Etalon and Finesse

The Free Spectral Range of the Etalon is given by ,

FSR = c/2d, where,
c = speed of light in air
d = spacing of the Etalon

Finesse: -

The finesse is a measure of the interferometer's ability to resolve closely spaced spectral lines.
The finesse F is defined by the following equation.

π √R
F= 1-R

Where, R = the reflectivity of the surfaces.

In fact, the resolving power RP is given by the equation:

RP = NF,

Where, N = the order of the interference,

F = the finesse.

Result:-
Wave length of light used λ = …………………………..
Spacing of the Etalon d = …………………………..
Finesse F = …………………………..
Free Spectral Range of the Etalon FSR = …………………………..

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DETERMINATION OF
BENDING LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER
Model No: HO-ED-F-01

AIM: -

To determine the bending losses that occur in a multimode fiber when it is bend along
various radii.

Components and Equipments: -

Diode Laser with power supply

Bread board / Graduated optical Rail
Bending loss apparatus
Laser fiber coupler
Fiber chuck holder
Detector output measurement unit -
with translation stage
Fiber samples, etc.

Theory: -
The bend of a fiber causes losses in emittance and increase in attenuation, because the angle
of incidence decreases at the points with a too small curveted radius and the condition of total
internal reflection is not fulfilled.

Here an apparatus of different radii is supplied. When fiber is bended at a specified number of
turns on various diameters, loss occurs in accordance with the diameter and it can be seen
that, the loss will increase with respect to the decrease in diameter.

Procedure: -

Power Loss

Macrobending Attenuation

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Mount diode laser to the laser mount.

Mount fiber on the Laser-fiber coupler.
Collimate the laser beam to the fiber.
Fine adjustments can be done by the tilting the fiber positioned.
Fix the output end of fiber to the fiber chuck holder.
Place pin-hole detector nearer to the tip of fiber out put.
Find out the maximum intensity region and kept it unaltered.
Place bending loss apparatus in between laser fiber coupler and fiber chuck holder.
Place fiber on various diameters and take necessary measurements

Observations : -

Sl No: Diameter No. of turns Intensity

Result:-
Observed the bending losses in multimode fiber when it is bent along
various radii and found out that loss increase with decrease in diameter of bend.

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DETERMINATION OF ATTENUATION
BY FIBER CUT-BACK METHOD
Model No: HO-ED-F-01

AIM: -

To find the attenuation caused in fiber by cut-back method.

Components and Equipments: -

Diode Laser with power supply

Bread board / Graduated optical Rail
Laser fiber coupler
Fiber chuck holder
Detector output measurement unit -
with translation stage
Fiber spool, etc.

Theory: -
The maximum output intensity is compared when laser light travels through a fiber of 5meter
and 50cm (This is achieved by cutting the fiber).

If P1 and P2 represent the input and out put powers,

then,
Loss of power in dB = 10 log10 ( P1 / P2 )

Procedure: -

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Mount diode laser to the laser mount.

Mount fiber on the Laser-fiber coupler.
Collimate the laser beam to the fiber.
Fine adjustments can be done by tilting the fiber positioner.
Fix the output end of fiber to the fiber chuck holder.
Place pin-hole detector nearer to the tip of fiber output.
Note the maximum intensity of the fiber output.
Cut the fiber near to the laser fiber coupler and note the change in outputs.

Result:-

Determined the attenuation on the given optical fiber by cut-back method.

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MEASURMENT OF
NUMERICAL APERTURE
Model No: HO-ED-F-01

AIM: -

To determine the numerical aperture of a given optical fiber from the measurement
on far field of fiber and acceptance angle.

Components and Equipments: -

Diode Laser with power supply

Bread board / Graduated optical Rail
Detector output measurement unit -
with translation stage
Laser fiber coupler
Fiber chuck holder
Fiber samples, etc.

Theory: -
-1
Acceptance angle, θa = tan (D/Z) ,

where, D is the diameter of far field intensity at 5% intensity level of the

maximum intensity and Z is the distance between the detector and the fiber output end.

The Numerical Aperture is given by,

NA = Sin θa

Procedure: -

D
θa

Fiber I (θ)

5% Level

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Mount diode laser to the laser mount.

Mount fiber on the Laser-fiber coupler.
Collimate the laser beam to the fiber.
Fine adjustments can be done by tilting the fiber positioner.
Fix the output end of fiber to the fiber chuck holder.
Place pin-hole detector nearer to the tip of fiber output.
Take the necessary measurements.
The experiment can be repeated for various values of ‘D’ by changing the distance ‘Z’.

Observations: -

Sl -1
D Z θa = tan (D/Z) NA = Sin θa
No:

Result:-

The Numerical Aperture of the given optical fiber, NA = ………………

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 Fluorescence Spectrometer User Guide
Objective: Find out fluorescence properties of given material

Solution (Liquid Sample) Used: Rhoda mine B in Ethanol (0.2 µmolar)

How to Make Solution:

1. Take 1Mg Rhoda mine Powder+20ml Ethanol and then take 0.2ml of this solution.

2. After then add 10ml Ethanol in 0.2ml solution.

3. Finally take 0.2ml of solution for experiment.

Procedure:

1. Put Sample in the Cuvette and close the cover of instrument.

2. Switch ON the Instrument.
3. After 5 Min Open Software (Software FL Winlab).
4. Go to Application Window and click on Status.
5. Click on Source Diagram and switch ON lamp by clicking on [1/0] button.
6. Set the Luminescence mode in Flour mode and Ex. Corr. should be ON mode.
7. Click on Ex. mono diagram and set the Excitation wavelength at 558nm and
Emission wavelength at 573nm.Put the excitation slit width and emission slit width
at 10nm. Check the Emission filter to be at 1%T attenuator.
8. Click on Em. Mono diagram and set the parameter as the above set wavelength in
ex. mono
9. Click on the Detector diagram and set the photomultiplier type at R928,
Photomultiplier Voltage at Auto Mode and Em. Corr. should be OFF.
10. Go to Application in file menu and click Scan.

For Emission:

1. Click on Setup Parameter and Emission.

2. Set the range of wavelength for Emission from 300nm to 900nm and Excitation
wavelength at 558nm.
3. Set Ex. Slit width and Em. Slit width at 10nm and 10nm respectively and scan
at 100nm/min.
4. Give the filename with <extension>.sp and uncheck the Auto Increment File.
5. Click on Start and Stop button to collect data.
6. Click on Graph Range as described above.
 7. Click on Vertical Cursor to see the emission peak in the spectra (Abscissa will give
you the peak wavelength).
For Excitation:

1. Again Click on Setup Parameter and Excitation.

2. Set the range of wavelength for Excitation from 400nm to 600nm and Emission
wavelength at 573nm.
3. Set the Ex. Slit width and Em. Slit width at 10nm and 10nm respectively and
Scan Speed at 100nm/Min.
4. Give the filename with <extension>.sp and uncheck the Auto Increment
Filename.
5. Click on Start and Stop button to collect data.
6. Click on Graph Range as described above.
7. Click on Vertical Cursor to see the Excitation Peak in the Spectra (Absicca will give
you the peak wavelength).

For Closing the Instrument:

1. Go to Application and Status then click on Source.

2. Click on [1] button (Instrument will be OFF)

Precautions:

1. Do not keep the Lamp ON unnecessary keep it OFF while not in use.
2. Clean the cuvette properly and finally clean by ethanol and wait to dry then fill the
solution.
3. This is a very sophisticated Instrument hence handle it with care and read the
instructions manual of Perkin Elmer before operating the Instrument. Do not keep
the lamp on unnecessarily and make it off immediately while not in use. Handle the
Glass Cuvette with care and do not break them.
 Optical Absorption Spectrometer
Objective: Finding the band gap of given Liquid Solution using Optical Absorption
Spectrometer.

Solution Used: Liquid Solution of KMnO4

Preparation of Solution:

1. Take 1Mg of KMnO4 Powder + 10ml Distilled Water.

2. Then take 100μl (measure from the pipette, Approx. 5 drops) of this solution and mix
it with 10ml Distilled Water.
3. This is the final KMnO4 solution for the Experiment.

Procedure:
We are using here 2 Cuvettes, one for Reference Solution and another one for KMnO4
Sample Solution.

Cuvette-1(Reference)

Chamber

Cuvette-2 (Sample)

Step-1
1. Fill Distilled Water in both of the Cuvette and place these Cuvette in the sample
holders provided in the chamber such that light passes through the transparent
surface.
2. Now close the cover of the chamber and Switch ON the Instrument from the back
power panel.
3. After sometime (Approx 5 Minutes) Open the Software (Software UV Express)
from the Computer System.
4. Selection Mode On-Line appears here then press OK.
5. Initialization started: System Self Test (it will take some time about 3-4 minutes)
6. Press OK after System Self Test is finished.
7. Give the desired title to the file: -------
Comment: it should be blank
Experiment Type: Scan Type
Then press OK
8. Select Method: Click on method and choose below parameters:
X Start : 1100
 X End : 200
Y Unit : Absorbance
SBW : 1
Spectra No. : 1
Data Interval : 1
Scan Rate : 600
Then click on Apply
9. Now Click on Lamp
Beam Type : Double Normal
Lamp : UV+VIS
Light Change Wavelength: 400
Then click on Apply
10. Accessory: Single Cell then Apply
Click OK
11. Now we will do Baseline Correction
12. Click on Baseline then press OK
13. Wait for completion of the Baseline Correction when it will be finished, yellow
highlighted dialogue will appear in the bottom.
Step-2
1. Now open the Chamber and take out the Sample Cuvette.
2. Fill this Cuvette with the given KMnO4 slution and keep it in sample chamber and close
it.
3. Click on Sample (Yellow button)
4. Now wail till run is finish.
5. Save the measurement in ASCII Format.
6. Copy this data and paste it on origin.
7. Calculate the Band gap by formula hc/λ.
Precautions:
1. Solution should not contaminate.
2. Clean the Cuvette properly and finally clean by ethanol and wait to dry then fill the
solution.
3. Do Baseline Correction with the solvent.
4. This is a very sophisticated Instrument hence handle it with care and read the
instructions manual of Perkin Elmer before operating the Instrument. Do not keep
the lamp on unnecessarily and make it off immediately while not in use. Handle the
Glass Cuvette with care and do not break them.

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 Instruction Manual

Michelson Interferometer with

He-Ne Laser Source
 Table of Contents
Introduction
Equipment and Technical Specifications
Theory of Operation
Set-up and Operation
Experiment
Tips for Accurate Fringe Counting
Source of Error
Troubleshooting
Suggestion for Additional experiments
Maintenance
Teacher's Guide

Introduction

Interferometers are basic optical tools used to precisely measure

wavelength, distance, index of refraction, and temporal coherence of
optical beams. The most important of the amplitude splitting
interferometers is the one devised by Albert Michelson, the first American
physicist to receive the Nobel Prize (1907 for work in optics). It is this
interferometer which Michelson and Morley used in their celebrated series
of experiments designed to demonstrate the existence of the ether. The
Michelson interferometer is still an important instrument in today's
laboratories and has become widely used instrument for measuring the
wavelength of light, for using the wavelength of a known light source to
measure extremely small distance and for investigating optical media.
The Michelson interferometer uses light interference to measure
distances in units of the wavelength of light from a particular source. It
was developed by Albert Michelson and used, in 1893, to measure the standard
meter in units of the wavelength of the red line in the cadmium spectrum.
Contemporary uses include precision mechanical measurements and Fourier
transforms spectroscopy. There are, in general, a number of types of
optical instruments that produce optical interference. These instruments
are grouped under the generic name of interferometers.
The INDOSAW- SK025 Michelson interferometer causes interference by
splitting a beam of light into two parts. Each part is made to travel a
different path and brought back together where they interfere according to
their path length difference and measure wavelength of monochromatic light
source precisely.
Equipment and Technical Specifications

Apparatus: SK025
Key Features:
!Precise measurement, mirror control is extremely fine and the micrometer
with least count of 0.0001 mm.
!Heavy base for high stability and vibration free experiment.
!The mirrors and beam splitter are extremely flat to l/10 and with
high quality silver polish for sharp and better interference.
!Smooth mirror movement with lever system. There is no friction and
virtually no backlash.
Cat.No. Item Name Qty
SW933 Michelson Interferometer 1
R3891 He -Ne Laser, 2mW (Built in power supply) 1
SB139 Microscope Objective 1
SL226 Object Screen 1
SW655 Lab Jack 1
C4356 Holder for Microscope objective 1
SG101 Stand Base 'A' Shaped 1
SW092 Boss-head Square (Bilateral) 1
SG666 Mild Steel Rod, 500 mm 1
SW933-Michelson Interferometer:
Consisting of heavy base with mirror M1 and M2, beam splitter, compensating
plate. It can be used with sodium light source or He-Ne laser.
Base dimension 290x212x168 mm
Distance of mirror M2 from beam splitter 100mm
Dimensions of beam splitter 50 x 38 x7 mm
Dimensions of compensating plate 50 x 38 x 7 mm
Dimensions of mirrors M1 and M2 30mm dia, Thickness10mm
Reflectivity: Transmitivity 50: 50
Flatness of beam splitter l /10
Least count (coarse adjustment knob) 0.01 mm
Least count (fine adjustment knob) 0.0001 mm
Weight 6.7 kg approx

He-Ne LASER:
It is a He-Ne laser with in built power supply. It can be mounted on rod or
can be placed on a lab jack (SW655).
Laser tube
Wavelength 632.8 nm
Working current 4mA ~ 6mA
Output power > 2mW
Contour dimension (Outer diameter x length) 40 mm x 250 mm
Continuous working time > 8 hrs.
Working Power
Voltage Rating AC 220 V ± 22 V
Frequency Rating 50 Hz
Input Power Rating <2 W
Ground connection Not Required
Contour Dimension (l x b x h) 300x62x82 mm
Weight 1.5 kg (approx.)
Theory of Operation

The Michelson interferometer is a device that produces interference

between two beams of light. A diagram of the apparatus is shown in Figure 1.
M ir r o r A d ju s t m e n t S c r e w s

A d ju s t a b le M ir r o r M 2

C o m p e n s a t in g P la te
B e a m - S p litt e r

H e -N e L a s e r

M ic r o s c o p ic o b je c tiv e
F ix e d M ir r o e M 1

Figure 1

V ie w in g S c r e e n

The basic operation of the interferometer is as follows. Light from a

light source is split into two parts. One part of the light travels a
different path length than the other. After traversing these different path
lengths, the two parts of the light are brought together to interfere with
each other. The interference pattern can be seen on a screen.
Light from the source strikes the beam splitter (BS). The beam
splitter allows 50% of the radiation to be transmitted to the fixed mirror
M1. The other 50% of the radiation is reflected to the translatable mirror
M2. The compensator plate C is introduced along this path to make each path
have the same optical path length when M1 and M2 are the same distance from
the beam splitter. After returning from M1, 50% of the light is reflected
toward the frosted glass screen. Likewise, 50% of the light returning from
M2 is transmitted to the glass screen. At the screen, the two beams are
superposed and one can observe the interference between them.
Note: - Compensating Plate: Above figure, notice that one beam passing
through the beam splitter only once, while other beam passes through it
three times. If a highly coherent and monochromatic light source is used,
such as a laser, then this is no problem. But with other light source such as
white light source this is a problem. (The difference in the effective path
length of the separated beams is increased, thereby decreasing the
coherence of the beam at the viewing screen.) A compensator is identical to
the beam splitter, but without the reflective coating. By placing in the
beam path, as shown in figure, both beams pass through same thickness of
glass, eliminating this problem.
Set-up and Operation

Michelson Interferometer

Viewing from different angles

How to Get Circular Fringes:

<Set the Michelson Interferometer on lab table with coarse adjustable knob
pointing towards you.
<Set the lab jack in front of microscopic objective holder and set the
height using lifting knob.
<Place the He-Ne Laser source on lab jack, pointing the source towards the
centre of fixed mirror.
<Plug-in the laser cord on AC 220V, 50Hz socket.
<Turn the laser on and adjust the laser beam height using lab jack lifting
knob until the beam is approximately parallel with the top of the
interferometer and strikes the fired mirror in the centre. (To check that
the beam is parallel with the base, place a piece of paper in the beam path,
with the edge of the paper flush against the base. Mark the height of the
beam on the paper. Using the piece of paper to check that, the beam height
is the same at both ends of the interferometer.)
<Set the viewing screen just opposite of the adjustable mirror M2 to get the
laser beam field view. (Note: Viewing screen should be placed at 1-2meter
from the adjustable mirror to get better resolution).
<To get circular fringes, M1 should be exactly perpendicular to M2. In this
position, Michelson interferometer is said to be in normal adjustment. The
setting needs that the plane of BS exactly bisects the angle (45°) between
the polished surfaces of M1 & M2.
<Using coarse adjustment knob makes the distance of M1 and M2 from BS nearly
equal. (The distance of M1 and M2 from BS should not be exactly equal;
otherwise the field of view on viewing screen will be dark).

<When laser beam will be passing through beam splitter (BS) at 45° and
observed in the direction M2, four spots of the He-Ne Laser beam are seen
on the viewing screen; two of which are faint and two are intense as shown
in figure. The faint spots are due to reflection from un-silvered surface
of BS and then from M1 and M2 respectively. The intense spots are due to
reflection from silvered surface of BS and M1, M2. (Note: Two spots of He-
Ne laser beam also been seen on the viewing screen other than four spots,
which are ignorable. Because these two spots are formed through
compensating plate).
<The tilting screws at the back of M1
and M2 as shown in fig. are adjusted
to obtain only two images as shown in
fig. This happens only when the
mirrors M1 and M2 are exactly
perpendicular to each other.
<Now Place the Microscope Objective in
Microscopic objective holder.
<Adjust the height of the microscope
objective so that clear circular
fringes are obtained on viewing
screen.

<Make fine adjustments of mirrors M1 and M2 using top tilting screws to

obtain concentric circular fringes in the viewing screen.
Determination of wavelength of He-Ne laser light source
<Move the mirror M2 using fine adjustment knob as shown in figure8. The
fringes appear or disappear in the field of view. (Always move the knob in
one direction for precise measurement.)
<Note down the reading of coarse adjustment knob. Let is be 'm'. Multiply
this reading with least count 0.01mm.
<Take the reading of fine adjustment knob. Let it be 'n'. Multiply this
reading with least count 0.0001mm
<Now add the above two readings of coarse and fine adjustment knobs. Let it
be L1.
<Rotate the fine adjustment knob to count the number of fringes appearing or
disappearing. Let it be N.
<Note the observations as already explained in (c) & (d). Let it be L2.
<Subtract L1 from L2 to get the value of'd' for 'm' fringes.
<Use the formula to calculate the value of d.
Note: Experiment can also be performed using a Sodium light Source.
Experiment

Experiment: To determine the wave length of monochromatic light source i.e

He-Ne Laser source using Michelson Interferometer.
Formula used: Wavelength of monochromatic light is calculated by the
relation
8 = 2d/m
Where, d is the distance moved by the screw for the shift of m number of
fringes.

Mirror Adjustment Screws

Adjustable Mirror M2

Fixed Mirroe M1
Microscopic objective

He-Ne Laser

Compensating Plate
Beam-Splitter

Viewing Screen

Optical paths: The rays falling on mirrors M1 and M2 are derived from the
same wave (source) originally incident at center point on beam splitter
'BS'. The wave reflected from M1 and entering the viewing screen crosses the
compensating plate C twice. However the path of the wave falling on the
mirror M1, in the absence of compensating plate 'C' travels totally in air.
Thus an extra optical path 2(µ -1)t is introduced where, 't' is the
thickness of the compensating plate C and 'µ' is the refractive index of the
medium. It is immaterial if we produce fringes with monochromatic light,
but it produces a serious problem when white light is used. Thus, it becomes
necessary to compensate for the extra optical path 2(µ -1)t for all
wavelengths. This is done by introducing another glass plate C
(compensating plate) of same thickness as that of Beam Splitter parallel to
it. Light reflected from M1 passes trough plate twice and an extra optical
path 2(µ -1)t produced in plate BS is compensated by the plate C.
Change in phase: A phase change of ø occurs on reflection at M1 and M2. The
exact phase change at the Beam Splitter will depend on the nature of the
semi reflecting film deposited on it. The optical path difference between
the two rays is due to the different paths traveled in air before reaching
the viewing screen. The two waves will interfere constructively or
destructively according as the path difference,
D = 2m ë / 2 = m ë (for maxima) and
D = (2m+1) ë /2 (for minima)
The path difference between the two rays can be varied by moving M2.
The beam splitter and compensating plate are inclined at 45° to the
incident and reflected beams. Hence, M1 is imaged virtually in the plate
BS. Thus, one of the interfering beams from M2 and other from M1 (or as if it
had come from M1).The virtual image M1 and the mirror M2 may be supposed as
two surfaces of an air film. The air film may be wedge shaped or parallel
depending upon whether M1 and M2 are parallel or not.
Types of fringes: - The fringes formed in Michelson interferometer may be
straight, circular, parabolas or hyperbola depending upon the distance d
between M1, M2 and angle è between these surfaces.
(1) Circular fringes: To obtain circular fringes, the planes of M1 and M2
must be perpendicular.
(2) Localized fringes or fringes of equal optical thickness: When the
mirror M1 and virtual image M2 are inclined to each other, the film enclosed
is wedge shaped.
(3) White Light Fringes: When M2 and M1 intersect, the path difference
along the line of intersection is zero and therefore, is same for all the
wavelengths. When a source of white light is used we get central achromatic
bright fringe. On either side of central fringe, three or four colored
straight fringes are observed.

Observations: - Wavelength of He-Ne laser light.

S. No. Initial 'L1' (Cm) No. of fringes 'm' Final 'L2' (Cm) Distance (d= L2-L1) ë= 2d/m (cm)
1
2

Calculations:
(i) Mean value of ë =
(ii)Exact value of ë = 632.8nm
Percentage error = (calculated value ~ exact value) / exact value x 100

Tips for Accurate Fringe Counting

The following techniques can help you make precisely measurements of
fringes patterns.
1.The firing pattern will be symmetrical or sharp. As long as you can
clearly distinguish the maxima and minima, you can make accurate counting
during your measurements.
2.Centre of the fringe pattern on the viewing plate using adjustable mirror
screws on the back of the fixed mirror. Using fine adjustment knob, find out
whether boundary of maxima and minima reaches the same position as original
boundary. The fringe pattern should look the same as in the original
position, when one fringe has gone by.
3.When turning the fine adjustment knob to count fringes, always turn it
one complete revolution before you start counting. This will almost
entirely eliminate errors due to backlash in fine adjustment knob.
4.Always turn the fine adjustment knob in one direction either clock-wise
or anti clock-wise.
5.Always take several readings and average them for greater accuracy.

Source of Error
1.Mirror Movement- The amount of adjustable mirror M2 movement per fine
adjustment knob is constant to with 1%. Most of error occurs at extreme
end of the mirror's total possible movements.
2.Movement of fine adjustment knob- The rotation of fine adjustment
knob should be either clock-wise or anti clock-wise during the
experiment to reduce any distortion on the fringes.
3.Backlash- Although INDOSAW carefully design mirror movement reduce
backlash considerably, but every mechanical system is susceptible to
backlash. However, the effect of backlash can be practically eliminated
by using proper technique when counting fringes.
4.The fixed Mirror M1 should be exactly perpendicular to movable mirror
M2 and nearly equal distance to get the circular fringe pattern.

Troubleshooting
Although INDOSAW SK025 Michelson Interferometer is design such way to
accurately measure the wavelength for monochromatic light source and
precisely formed the fringes. If you have trouble producing a clear set of
interference fringes, consider the following possible source of
difficulty.
1.Laser beam alignments: To eliminate any possible fringes or intensity
variations, allow the laser beam to fall exactly on the centre of fixed
mirror passing through center of Beam splitter and compensating plate at
45°.
2.Check your Mirror: Although both the mirror M1 & M2 are well fitted in
mirror holder. If these mirrors are slightly out of alignment, the
resulting fringe pattern will be distorted somewhat. If they are
significantly out of alignment, it may be impossible to obtain fringes.
3.Background Fringes: Reflection from front and back surface of the
mirror and beam splitter often cause mirror interference pattern in the
background of the main fringes pattern. The background patterns normally do
not move when the mirror is moved, and have no impact on measurements made
using the main interference pattern.
4.Vibration Free: Under normal conditions, the Michelson interferometer
base and lab jack are stable enough to provide a vibration free setup.
However, if the experiment table is vibrating sufficiently, it will affect
the fringe pattern.

Suggestion for Additional experiments

1.Michelson interferometer can be used to find the wavelength of a sodium
light source.
Maintenance
1.The mirror and beam splitter surfaces are precision coated. Dirt or
scratches will distort the fringe pattern, so handle all optical
surfaces with care. Clean the surfaces occasionally with lens tissue
papers.
2.Place the whole set up in dust free space.
3.Laser should be operated carefully.

Teacher's Guide
1.Which source of light are you using in the experiment?
2.Do you need a point source or an extended source of light?
3.Why do you prefer a monochromatic source of light?
4.Can you use white light in your experiment?
5.What is the use of semi silvered glass plate?
6.Why do we use a compensating plate?
7.Should the mirror M1 be exactly perpendicular to mirror M2?
8.What happens if the mirror M1 is not perpendicular to M2?
9.What happens when the distance of M1 and M2 from the back surface of
semi silvered glass plate is exactly equal?
10.What type of fringes you get in your experiment?
11.Do you get circular fringes? if so, how?
12.Can you obtain straight-line fringes in your experiment? Explain?
13.What are the conditions for obtaining straight and circular fringes
in a Michelson interferometer?
14.How Michelson interferometer is used to determine the refractive
index of a thin transparent film?
15.What are the conditions for maxima and minima? When the plate is
silvered or un-silvered in Michelson interferometer?
16.What types of fringes are produced with white light in Michelson
interferometer?
17.Why do we use white light to determine the thickness of a thin
transparent sheet?
18.What are localized fringes? How do we obtain them?
19.Why do you get less number of fringes when white light is used?
20.Can you study phenomenon of magnetostriction using interferometer?
21.What is magnetostriction?
22.Why should the glass plate A is incline an angle of 45 to the axis
of the incident beam of light?
 CONTENTS

S.No. PAGE

1. WORKING PRINCIPLE 2

2. DESCRIPTION 3

3. ADJUSTMENT OF THE ULTRASONIC 4

INTERFEROMETER

4. PROCEDURE 4

5. PRECAUTIONS 5
6. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION 6

7. TROUBLE SHOOTING 6

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 1

 ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

(FOR THE MEASUREMENT OF ULTRASONIC VELOCITY IN LIQUIDS)

1. WORKING PRINCIPLE

An Ultrasonic Interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine

the ultrasonic velocity in liquids with a high degree of accuracy.

The principle used in the measurement of velocity (v) is based on the

accurate determination of the wavelength (λ) in the medium. Ultrasonic

waves of known frequency (f) are produced by a quartz crystal fixed at

the bottom of the cell. These waves are reflected by a movable metallic

plate kept parallel to the quartz crystal. If the separation between these

two plates is exactly a whole multiple of the sound wavelength, standing

waves are formed in the medium. This acoustic resonance gives rise to

an electrical reaction on the generator driving the quartz crystal and the

anode current of the generator becomes a maximum.

If the distance is now increased or decreased and the variation is exactly

one half wavelength (λ/2) or multiple of it, anode current becomes

maximum. From the knowledge of wavelength (λ) the velocity (v) can

be obtained by the relation:

Velocity = Wavelength × Frequency

v= λ×f

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 2

2. DESCRIPTION

The Ultrasonic Interferometer consists of the following parts:

a) The High Frequency Generator : 2 MHz

b) The Measuring Cell : 2 MHz

a) The High Frequency Generator is designed to excite the quartz

crystal fixed at the bottom of the measuring cell at its resonant

frequency to generate ultrasonic waves in the experimental liquid

filled in the " Measuring Cell ". A micrometer to observe the

changes in current and two controls for the purpose of sensitivity

regulation and initial adjustment of the micrometer are provided

on the panel of the High Frequency Generator.

b) The Measuring Cell is specially designed double walled cell for

maintaining the temperature of the liquid constant during the

experiment. A fine micrometer screw has been provided at the

top, which can lower or raise the reflector plate in the liquid in

the liquid in the cell through a known distance. It has a quartz

crystal fixed at its bottom.

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 3

3. ADJUSTMENTS OF ULTRASONIC INTERFEROMETER

For initial adjustment two knobs are provided on high frequency generator, one

is marked with "ADJ" to adjust the position of the needle on the Ammeter and

the knob marked "GAIN" is used to increase the sensitivity of the instrument

for greater deflection, if desired.

The ammeter is used to notice the number of maximum deflections while

micrometer is moved up and down in liquid.

4. PROCEDURE

1. Unscrew the knurled cap of cell and lift it away from double

walled construction of the cell. In the middle portion of it pour

experimental liquid and screw the knurled cap. Wipe out excess

liquid overflowing from the cell.

2. Insert the cell in the heavy base socket and clamp it with the help

of a screw provided on its side.

3. Connect the High Frequency Generator with cell by co-axial

cable provided with the instrument.

4. Unlock the micrometer head by rotating Clamp knob (Part 8 in

specification sheet) anticlockwise. Move the micrometer slowly

in either clockwise or anticlockwise direction till the anode

current on the ammeter on the High Frequency Generator shows

a maximum or minimum. If micrometer head is locked, rotate the

knob above display anticlockwise to unlock the micrometer head.

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 4

 5. Note the readings of micrometer corresponding to the maximum

or minimum (whichever is sharper) in micro-ammeter. Take

about 50 readings of consecutive maximum or minimum and

tabulate them as shown below:

S. No. Micrometer Reading Difference between

corresponding to Maximum / consecutive
Minimum maxima/minima
( in mm) (λ/2)
1 N1

2 N2 N2 – N1

3 N3 N3 – N2

50 N50 N50 – N49

6. Take average of all the differences (λ/2)

7. Once the wavelength (λ) is known the velocity (v) in the liquid

can be calculated with the help of the relation

v=λ×f

5. PRECAUTIONS:

A. Do not switch on the generator without filling the experimental liquid in

the cell.

B. Remove experimental liquid out of cell after use. Keep it cleaned and

dried.

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 5

C. Avoid sudden rise or fall in temperature of circulated liquid to prevent

thermal shock to the quartz crystal.

D. While cleaning the cell care should be taken not to spoil or scratch the

gold plating on the quartz crystal.

E. Give your generator 15 seconds warming up time before the observation.

6. TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

1) HIGH FREQUENCY GENERATOR

Mains Voltage 220v, 50 Hz

Measuring frequency 2MHz

Fuse 500 mA.

2) MEASURING CELL

Max. displacement of the reflector 20 mm

Required Quantity of liquid 10 c.c.

Least Count of digital micrometer 0.001 mm

3) SHIELDED CABLE

Length of connecting cable between the generator and the cell. is 50 cm

approximately.

Ultrasonic Interferometer Model : F-05(S.No. 08090 ) is MHz

4) TUBE FOR WATER BATH 6mm OD polyethylene tube

7. TROUBLE SHOOTING

A. If deflection in the Ammeter is nil or insufficient for any particular

liquid, try to increase the same with the help of GAIN knob. If problem still

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 6

persist, please follow following tuning instructions for the high frequency

generator:

1. Turn trimmer A on the back side of the generator till maximum

deflection is achieved in Ammeter. Then turn trimmer B for minimum

deflection.

2. Repeat the process by again turning trimmer A for maximum followed

by turning trimmer B for minimum.

3. This can be done for a number of times till they are properly tuned.

B. If there is no display on the digital micrometer head, battery (SR44 or

equivalent) have to be replaced. Battery may be procured from any local watch
shop.
SAMPLE CALCULATIONS

Sample : Water

Frequency f = 2 MHz

Average λ 2 = 0.375 mm

Ultrasonic velocity in
sample, v = λ×f = 1480 m/sec

Density of liquid ρ = 996.458 kg/m 3

1
Compressibility β ad =
ρv 2
1
=
996.458 × (1480 )
2

= 4.58 × 10−10 N/m2

Note 1. Above calculations are for 2 MHz Ultrasonic

Interferometer. Check the frequency of Interferometer from
Specifications and calculate velocity etc. as given above.

2. You may take other liquids of your choice.

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 7

 3. Compressibility and ultrasonic velocity is temperature
dependent. Suitable water bath may be provided on extra cost
to vary the temperature for ultrasonic velocity and calculations
of compressibility at different temperatures.

Fig 1. Cross-Section of the Liquid Cell

Fig 2. Position of Reflector vs Crystal Current

Note: Extra peaks in between minima and maxima may occurs due to a number of

reasons, but they don’t effect the value of λ/2.

Instruction manual of Ultrasonic Interferometer Model F-05 8