BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 4. Static design of members 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 General All members should satisfy the limit states of static strength and of deformation. Deformation is covered ind. Where reference is made to design curves, itis permissible instead for the designer to use formulae from which the curves are derived (see appendix K) Members are usually formed of extrusions, plate, sheet, tube or a combination of these. The rules below do not apply to castings, and designers wishing to employ castings should do so in close consultation with the manufacturers thereof. 4.1.2 Limit state of static strength The factored resistance of a member to a specific actioneffect should not be less than the magnitude of that actioneffect arising under factored loading Rules for obtaining resistance to different actions are given as follows: (a) for beams (resistance to moment and shear force) (see 4.5); () for tes (resistance to axial tension) (see 4.6); (©) for struts (resistance to axial compression) (see 4.7). The procedure for calculating the interaction between montent and axial load in members subject to combined actions is given in 4.8, ‘The formulae given contain limiting stresses (Po, Pay ‘py) related to material properties, which should be taken in accordance with 4.2. They also contain the ‘material factor ym, Which should be read from table 3.3. ‘The resistance of a member may be reduced as a result of local buckling, depending on the slendemess of its cross section. A proposed design is checked (except for a member under axial tension) by classifying the section in terms of its susceptibility to this type of failure. A method for checking the local buckling, including section classification, is given in43 4.1.3 Heat-affected zones (HAZs) Structural aluminium material generally becomes ‘weakened in the heat-affected zone (HAZ) adjacent to welds, and this should be allowed for in the design. This does not apply when the parent material is in the O or T4 condition; or when it is in the F condition and design is based on O-condition properties. Rules for estimating the severity and extent of HAZ, softening are given in 44. Subsequent clauses then show how to allow for the effect of this softening on member resistance. Itis important to realize that a small weld, as used for example in connecting a small attachment, may considerably reduce the resistance of a member, due to softening of part of the cross-section. In beams itis often beneficial to locate welds in low-stress areas, i.e. near the neutral axis or away from the region of peak moment 4.1.4 Advanced design Members can be safely designed using the recommendations of this section and the appropriate appendices, Other appendices provide a fuller treatment of certain specific aspects of member behaviour, and their use may lead to lighter designs, 4.2 Limiting stresses Resistance calculations for members are made using assumed limiting stresses as follows: Po is the limiting stress for bending and overall yielding; Pa is the limiting stress for local capacity of the section in tension or compression; is the limiting stress in shear; is the limiting stress for overall buckling stability, De Ds Values of Po, Pa and py depend on the material properties and should be taken as in table 4.1 or 42. For materials not covered in these tables refer to appendix D. Values of ps should be determined in accordance with 4.5.6.5 or 4.7.6. 43 Section classification and local buckling 43.1 General 1. Section classification Resistance of members under moment or axial compression may become reduced by local buckling, if the slendemess of their component elements is high, ‘The first step in checking such members is to establish the section classification, ie. the susceptibility to local buckling. In order to do this, and also to allow for the effect of local buckling (when necessary), the designer should consider the slendemess of the individual elements comprising the section. 43.1.2 Types of element The following basic types of thin-walled element are identified in these rules: (a) flat outstand element; (b) flat internal element; (c) curved internal element. ‘These are often unreinforced, ic. not longitudinally stiffened (see figure 4.1 (a)). The stability of flat elements can be greatly improved by the provision of longitudinal stiffening ribs or lips, see figure 4.1 (b), in hich case the elements are referred to as reinforced au © pst o7-1999Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 —————— Table 4.1 Limiting stresses, heat-treatable alloys ‘Alloy ] Condition Product Thickness Limiting stress Over |Uptoand | 7, Pe 7 including mm mm Nimm? | N/mm? | Nim? 6061 16 Extrusion - 150 240 260 145 16 Drawn tube = 6 240 | 265, 145 6 10 225 260 135 ‘0063 Ts Extrusion = 150 6 85 40 ™ Drawn tube = 10 95 120 60 ™ Forgings = 150 80 100, 50 Extrusion = 25 110 130 6 Extrusion = 150 160 175 95 Drawn tube = 10 180 190 110 Forgings = 150 160 170 95 6082 ™! Extrusion = 150 115 145 70 ay Sheet 02 3 115 145 70 ™! Plate 3 5 105 140 6 ™ Drawn tube - 10 105 140 65 ™ Forgings _ 150 15, M5 70 16 Extrusion = 20 255 27 155 20 150 270 290 160 16 Sheet 02 3B 255 205: 155 16 Plate 3 6 240 265, 145 6 Drawn tube = 6 255 280 155 6 10 240 25 M5 6 Forgings = 120 255, 205 155 7020 Th Extrusion = 25 185 230 110 | Sheet, plate 02 25 160 205 95 16 Extrusion - 25 280 310 170 76 Sheet, plate 02, 25 270. 295 160 © BSI oT-999 35BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 OO Table 42 Limiting stresses, non-heat-treatable alloys ‘Alloy Condition | Product ‘Thickness | ‘Over [Upto and p, ry 2. | including ] ra 1200 Hu Sheet 02 125 [90 9% 55 3108 Hid Sheet 02 ws [uo | |e His | sheet 02 3 150 [150 [90 3105 Hi Sheet 02 3 we [i0 «(8 HI6 Sheet 02 3 17 |175———| 100 His Sheet 02 3 190 |200 | 115 508 OF Extrusion = 150 [ids [iso ‘|e ° Sheet, plate 02 80 105/450 65 ° Drawn tube = 10 105150] 65 F Sheet, plate 3 % 10 | 75 12 Sheet, plate 02 6 270 | 140 He Drawn tube = 10 270 | 40 BIBAA OF Extrusion = 150 100 ° Sheet, plate o2 6 100 ° Drawn tube = 10 100 #22 Sheet, plate 02 200 14 Sheet, plate 02 6 250 4 Drawn tube = 10 20 5251 F Welded tube 08 20 ES) nee Sheet, plate 02 6 15/155 Sheet, plate 02 6 175 | 200 BABE Extrusion = 150 —*[ 65 100 ‘(40 Sheet, plate 02 6 60 95 35 Sheet 02 3 19 as 10 Sheet 02 3 200 [25 | 120 © pst ormSection 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 I b | Key 0° outstand Ts intemal (2) Uneeintoreed () Reinforced Figure 4.1 Types of flat element 43.13 Shear webs The buckling of shear webs is treated separately (see 4.5.3.3 and also section 5). 2 Slenderness parameter 2 43.2.1 General The susceptibility to local buckling of an element ina beam (moment resistance) or in a strut (axial force resistance) depends on the parameter 8 as defined in43.2.2 104.3.25. 43.2.2 Unreinforced flat elements The parameter f depends on b/t or dt for the element concemed, where fis the element thickness, 6 the ‘width of an element generally, and d the depth of a ‘web element in a beam. b and d should be taken as the flat element width, measured where relevant to the springing of a fillet or to the toe of a weld. Bis defined as follows: (@) element under uniform compression: f = bt (b) element under stress gradient: 2) internal element with a stress B= oda gradient that results in a neutral axis ator the centre: oot (2) for any other stress gradients B= ght or at where g is the stress gradient coefficient and is read from figure 4.2. In figure 42 ye and yo are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the more heavily compressed edge and the other edge respectively of the element, taken positive towards the compression side. They should generally be measured from the elastic neutral axis, although in ch whether a section is fully compact it is permissible to use the plastic neutral axis. 4323 Reinforced flat elements ‘Two possible buckling modes should be considered as follows (See figure 43), and separate f values found for each: (@) mode 1 the reinforced element buckles as a unit taking the reinforcement with it; (b) mode 2 : the sub-elements comprising the reinforced element themselves buckle as elements the junctions between them staying straight. For mode 2 buckling is found separately for each, sub-element in accordance with 4.3.2.2, For mode 1 it is generally determined as follows (but see the note t0.4.5.2.1, conceming outstand elements in beams) (a) Mode 1, uniform compression. (2) Standard reinforcement, defined as reinforcement consisting of single-sided ib or lip Of thickness equal to the element thickness /, located as in figure 44 B= hot where band t are defined as in 4.3.2.2 h Is read from figure 4.4 (a), (b) oF (©) as appropriate, For figure 4.4, ¢ should be taken as the clear depth of the rib or lip measured to the surface of the plate © ps1 O7-1990BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ———————————————— @) Nonstandard reinforcement. With any other 4.3.2.4 Curved internat elements shape of reinforcement 6 should be found by Fora shallow curved element under uniform replacing it with an equivalent rib or lip of the mine i ‘Standard form and preceeding as in(1y The value C™PreSsion, & should be determined as follows: ofc for the equivalent rib or lip is chosen so that its second moment of area about the mid-plane of g _ ot the plate is the same as that for the true T+ C006 reinforcement. where (8) General method. For cases not covered by (1), or (2) 6 may be taken as follows: B= WNGer0/ ee)" Ris the radius of curvature to mid-metal; bis the developed width of element at mic-metal ‘is the thickness where For shallow curved elements under a stress gradient, a Ge. are the elastic ertical stresses, more favourable value of 6 may be taken, obtained by and assuming simple edge support, with factoring the above value by g as found from figure 4.2. Gero _and without the reinforcement. The above treatment is valid, provided £20 is not less tha 0.10/t. Sections containing more deeply curved (b) Mode 1, stress-gradient. eictnenis fous sec sti 8 should be found using the expression in (a) (3) where der and deep NOW relate to the stress at the more heavily compressed edge of the element. 1.0 i t Ht 0s + Cees f YolVo NOTE. For intemal elements or oustands (peak compression at root) use curve A, For outstands (peak compression at toe) use line B. Figure 4.2 Flat elements under stress gradient, value of g Figure 4.3 Buckling modes for flat reinforced elements 38 © BSI 07-1900BS 8118 : Part Section 4 paoods Ajjonby | Lae J] fo 4 Jo anes ‘susmaya pasrouroy Fp anB LL ust 07-1090)BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ————— 43.2.5 Round tubes 8 should be found as follows, with no distinetion between axial compression and bending: B23 (DI) where Dis the diameter to mid-metal; tis the thickness. 4.3.3 Section classification 4.3.3.1 General ‘The procedure is to classify the individual elements, comprising the section, except for any element stressed wholly in tension. The classification of the section is then taken as that for the least favourable element. Individual elements are classified in accordance with 4.3.3.4 or 4.3.3.5. 4.3.3.2 Sections: beams and struts For the section of a beam (moment resistance) or of a strut (axial force resistance) the following Classifications apply. (@) Moment resistance: (1 fally compact: local buckling can be ignored; @) semi-compact: the section can develop a moment equal to pp times the elastic section modulus, (3) slender: the moment resistance is reduced by premature local buckling at an extreme fibre stress below Po, (b) Axial compression resistance: (2) compact: local buckling can be ignored; 2) slender: local buckling lowers the resistance. 4.33.3 Sections subject to combined actions For the classification of sections required to cary biaxial bending, or simultaneous bending with axial force, see 4.8.2.1. 4334 Element classification The classification of an individual element depends on. the value of f (see 4.3.2) as follows: (@) elements in beams (moment resistance): bah, Bi Bo (b) elements in struts (axial resistance): B= Bo compact > Bo slender where fy and fy are as given in table 43. fully compact semi-compact slender ‘Table 4.3 Limiting values of Blements Po A Unwelded | Welded | Unwelded | Welded Outstand Te 6 |Ge Be elements, Intemal 2e Ie | 18e be elements NOTE 1. The quantity «should generally be taken as follows {except for certain Nange elements in beams, see 4.3.3.5); fe (2p) where limiting stress (in Nin (see tables 4.1 and 42), E 2. An element is considered as welded if it contains welding at an edge or at any point in iss width. When the Stability of a particular cross-section of # member is evaluated, however, itis pemnisible to consider an element as unwed i ‘contains no welding at that section, even though i is welded elsewhere along is length NOTE: 8. n a welded element the classification is independent of the extent of the HAZ 43.3.5 Understressed flange elements ‘A more favourable classification may if desired be taken for flange elements in members under bending, or bending with axial force, that are both: ‘a) parallel to the axis of bending; and b) less highly stressed than the most severely stressed fibres in the section. For these it is permissible, in using table 4.3, to take a modified value of ¢ as follows: e = (250u1/Poy2) "* where yj and yp are the distances from the neutral axis of the gross section to the most severely stressed fibres and to the element respectively, They should generally be measured from the elastic neutral axi although in checking whether a section is fully compact it is permissible to use the plastic one. 43.4 Local buckling 43.4.1 General The possibility of local buckling in members classified as slender is generally allowed for by replacing the true section by an effective one. The effective section is obtained by employing a local buckling coefficient ‘ky, to factor down the thickness, this being applied to any uniform thickness slender element that is wholly or partly in compression, Elements that are not ‘uniform in thickness require special study. 4.3.4.2 Determination of ky, The coefficient kj, which is found separately for different elements of the section, is read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.5 selected in accordance with table 4.4. In order to select the correct curve the value of fe should be determined as follows: Bis found as in 4.3.2; (250/p,)"* generally (but see note 3 of 4.5.2.3. for beam conipression flanges); © BSI UT190Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 where ‘Po Js the limiting stress for material (in Nim), regardless of HAZ effects. ‘Table 4.4 Curve selection for figure 4.5 (local buckling) Blements Unwelded Welded Flat outstand curve A curve B elements Intemal elements | curve C curve D (fat or curved) Round tubes Lower of Lower of, curves C and | curves D and E E NOTE, See note 3 to table 4 In order to decide whether an element should count as unwelded or welded in table 44, refer to note 2 to table 4.3. In the case of reinforced flat elements it is important to consider both possible modes of buckling (see figure 4.3) and take the more critical. In the case of mode 1 buckling the factor k, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic plate ickness, 43.4.3 Sections subject to combined actions For the determination of ky, in sections required to carry biaxial bending, or siiultaneous bending with axial force, see 4.8. 4.4 HAZ softening adjacent to welds 4.4.1 General It is necessary in design to allow for the softening that usually occurs in the vicinity of welds. The region ‘worst affected extends immediately around the weld, beyond which the material properties rapidly to their full parent values. The softening affect 2% proof stress more severely than the tensile strength. For design purposes it is acceptable to approximate to the true condition by assuming that around each weld there is a zone, the HAZ, in which strength properties, are reduced by a constant factor k,. Outside this zone it is assumed that the full parent properties apply. The severity of the softening in the HAZ, as defined by kz, is covered in 4.4.2. The extent of the HAZ, defined by a distance z from the weld, is considered in 4.4.3. IL is sometimes possible to mitigate the effects of HAZ, softening by means of artificial ageing applied after welding (see appendix F), 44.2 Severity of softening 44.2.1 HAZ softening factor ‘The factor ke, should normally be taken from table 45. For certain calculations it is permissible instead to use a more favourable value as explained in appendix F, © pst O79 ‘This applies when the resistance of a member is govemed by pa OF py, rather than po, To find ky for materials not covered in table 4.5 see appendix F 44.2.2 7020 material ‘The alternative k, values given in table 4.5 for 7020 ‘material should normally be applied as follows, according to the nature of the stress acting on the TAZ: ‘material: (a) value (A): tensile stress acting transver axis of a butt or fillet weld; (b) value (B): any other stress condition, ie Tongitudinal stress, transverse compressio Its sometimes permissible to increase value (A) to a figure above that in the table, depending on the degree of thermal control exercised during fabrication (see appendix F). 4.4.2.3 Recovery time for heat-treated alloys ‘The k, values given in table 45 are vali from the following times after welding, provided the material has been held at a temperature not less than 15 °C ly to the shear, (a) 6 2 series alloys 3 days; (b) 7 3 ae series alloys 30 clays. In determining the resistance of components that are to be loaded sooner than this, but not less than 24 after welding, the value of k, should be reduced by a factor f found as follows: (MOR f= 09401 — Dey series alloys @TKRR f= 08+ 02 ((M — NR)" series alloys where ‘nis the time (in days) between welding and loading If the material is held at a temperature below 15°C after welding, the recovery time will be prolonged and advice should be sought. 4.4.3 Extent of HAZ 443.1 Definition of = ‘The HAZ is assumed to extend a distance 2 direction from a weld, meastred as follows (1) transversely from the centreine of an inline butt weld (see figure 4.6(a)); (2) at fillet welds, transversely from the point of tersection of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(e)(6),@) and (h)}; (3) at butt welds used in comer, tee or cruciform joints, transversely from the point of intersection ‘of the welded surfaces (see figures 4.6(b), (c) and (a); (4) in any radial direction from the end of a weld (ee figures 4.6(4) and (). any 4BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Curve A: outstands, unvselded Curve Bs oxtstands, welded (@) For Mat outstand elements | Figure 4.5 Local buckling factor i, ‘The HAZ boundaries should generally be taken as straight lines normal to the metal surface, as shown in figure 4.6. However, itis permissible instead to assume a curved boundary of radius 2 as shown at B (in place Of A) in figure 4.6(). This will tend to be advantageous ‘when surface welding is applied to thick material, 443.2 Basic formula for 2 The following expression should generally be used for estimating 2: z= allt where % is the basic value (see 4.4.3.3); and are modifying factors, which may be found from 4.4.3.4 and 4.4.3.5, or alternatively using appendix F. The use of appendix F will tend to be favourable when the interpass temperature during fabrication is held below the normal value required in BS 8118 : Part 2 443.3 Determination of 2 The basic value zo, which would relate to an isolated ‘weld laid on unheated material with complete interpass cooling, should be taken as the lower of the two Values given by (i) and (i) (in mm) (depending on the parent material) as follows: @ inline butt welds: (2) 7 3k a6 series alloys: @ 2 = 30 + ty2 (i) % = 4.5tq (2) other alloys: © 2% = 20+ tyB Gil) 29 = Bly (b) All other types of butt weld and all types of fillet weld: (1) 7 #4 series alloys: @ 25 = 30 + ty2 (Wi) 2p = 45tyPty, (2) other alloys: @ 25 = 20+ 43 Gi) 20 = 3tpPMty where ty is the lesser of 0.5(ty + tc) and L5tp; ty, to are the thickness of the thinnest and thickest elements connected by welding respectively. 2 © BSL 071900Section 4 BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 20 Curve C: intemal elements, unwelded Curve Dr intemal elements, welded (Curve E: round tubes NOTE. See note 8 0 table 43 () For internal elements and round tubes Figure 4.5 Local buckling factor k, (concluded) 44.3.4 Determination of The factor « in 4.4.3.2 provides for the possibility of the material at the start of deposition of a weld pass being at an elevated temperature, due either to preheat, or to the laying of a previous pass or weld in the same joint. Its value may be taken from table 46, which is Valid provided fabrication complies with BS 8118: Part 2 (altematively see appendix F). 44.8.5 Determination of The factor 7 in 4.4.3.2 covers the possibility of increased heat build-up due to the following (@) proximity of a free edge or edges; or (©) other welding in the same vicinity The value of 7 may be found as in (1) or (2) as follows, provided fabrication satisfies BS 8118 : Part Altematively refer to appendix F (2) For a joint away from which there are at least two valid heat-paths: n=l a valid heat-path being one for which f= It, where 1s the distance to a free edge, or half the distance to a nearby weld (see note); Jy ABazy for 7 +k a + series alloys, or = Baze for other alloys. When a weld is located too close to the free edge of an outstand, such that ft < fy, it should be assumed that the entire width of the outstand is subject to the factor NOTE, The distance should be measured from the point of reference in the weld consideted (see igure 4.0) and along the relevant heat path through the metal at mid-thickness “The heat path follows the profle of the section and newt not necessarily be straight (see figure 4.7), (2) For a joint from which there is only one valid hheat-path: f= 25 mm f.> 25 mm n= 150 n= 133 © BSI 07.1900 43BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Table 45 HAZ softening factor k, ‘Alloy Condition Product te (ee nae 1) Nom-heat treatable 1200 Hi s os 3103 Hi 8 018 11s s 0.13 3105 His s 017 H16 s 015 His s 013, 5083 OF 1.00 2 0.46 BIBA OF ESP 1.00 12 SP 040 Hea SP 029 S251 F Wr 020 F F 1.00 2 sp 0.35, 4 SP. 024 Sab OF BSP 100 12 s 0.35 nea s 0.30 Heactreatable 6061 Te B,DT 668 T E | ™ br ™ F i EB Te EF 6 pr 082 TH ESR DEF 6 E,S,RDTF 7020 TH BSP ‘O.80KA) 1.0068) 6 ESP 0.60¢A) 08068) (Gee note 2) NOTE I, tn the product. colamn, ES, DT Wand F refer weapecdvey to exiision, shee, pai, drawn tbe, welded fabs and forgings NOTE 2. For 7020 materia eer to 4.4.22, forthe appicabity ofthe A and B values © BSI 07-1900ction 4 fa) ) © (@) =—— i 2 ©) o () hy 0 o Figure 4.6 Extent of HAZ, definition of z ‘Table 4.6 Extent of HAZ, factor a ‘Case | Joint configuration Value ofa Substantially straight continu is weld figure (see figures 4.6(a), (©), (e) and (g)) P total deposit area = 50 mm 10 15 Q total deposit area > 50 mn 15, 20 R ‘Substantially straight continuous joint containing two or more 1B 20 adjacent welds (see figures 4.6 (b), (@), (D) and (h)) s Localized irregular joint 1B 20 (a) member-to-member joints in trusses; (b) welds connecting transverse stiffeners in beams and plate-girders, (©) Welds used to connect lugs and other attachments, © BSI 07.1990 45BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Figure 4.7 Typical he: measurement 443.6 Overlapping HAZs When two joints are located so that their respective HAZs (determined as in 4.4.8) overlap, it may be assumed that the extent of the HAZ on the outer side of each joint is unaltered by the proximity In calculating whether HAZs overlap, the possibility of elevated temperatures should be taken into account by using the formula for = from 4.4.3.2. 4.43.7 Experimental determination of = AAs an altemative to estimating the extent of the HAZ by calculation, itis permitted instead to determine it experimentally. This may be done by conducting a hardness survey on a representative specimen (see appendix F). 45 Beams 4.5.1 Introduction 45.1.1 General ‘The following checks should generally be carried out on all beams (including plate girders). (@) Moment check. At any cross-section the moment M under factored loading should not exceed the factored moment resistance Mg of that section, as found from 4.5.2 (or alternatively appendix E). ‘Ms should be suitably reduced to allow for coincident shear when necessary (see 4.5.4). (b) Shear check. At any cross-section the shear force V under factored loading should not exceed the factored shear force resistance Vps (see 4.5.3). For some cases it is also necessary to make one or both of the following checks: (1) web bearing check (see 4.5.5); (2) lateral torsional buckling check (see 4.5.6). 45.1.2 Plate girders Plate girders having slender stiffened webs should preferably be designed using 5.4. It is permissible to design them as beams, but with probable loss of ‘econoniy. 45.1.3 Bending with axial load For the design of beams required to carry load, in addition to moment, reference should be made to 4.8, 45.14 Biaxial bending Beams subjected to simultaneous bending about both principal axes should also be checked using 4.8. 45.2 Uniaxial moment resistance of the section 45.2.1 Section classification for moment resistance It is first necessary to classify the section as fully ‘compact, semi-compact, or slender, the classification being based on that of the least favourable of its component elements. This should be carried out in accordance with 4.3.3, In the case of a reinforced outstand element, forming part or all of the compression flange, the presence of reinforcement in the form of an outwardly facing lip should be ignored in classifying the section. 4.5.2.2 Basic calculation The factored moment resistance Mgs at-a given section, in the absence of shear should generally be found as follows: (@ unwelded, fully compact Mes = PoSa/¥ni (©) unwelded, semi-compact Ms = PoZn/Yni (© welded, fully compact Mrs = PoShe!?ni (@ welded, semi-compact Mps = PoZne! ns (© unwelded, slender Mrs, = DoLZelYxy OF DoLalyns Whichever is ‘the smaller; (9 welded, slender Mas; = PolZe!¥mn OF Pobrelm, whichever is the smaller, where Sy and Zy are the plastic moduli respectively of the net section; Spe and Zpe are the plastic and elastic moduli respectively for the net effective section; Ze is the elastic modulus of effective section; Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42); Yn is the material factor (see table 3.3). NOTE. For semi-compact and slender sections itis permissible, if found favourable to take a moment resistance based on aa elasto-plastic siress pattern as set out in appendix B, instead of lasing the expressions in 45.2.2. When this is done, note to 45.23 is vale 416 © BSI 071990Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 —————— 45.23 Assumed section The terminology used in 4.5.2.2 Is as follows: (@) net section includes the deduction for holes only; (b) net effective section includes the reduced thickness taken in the vicinity of welds, to allow for HAZ softening, together with deduction for holes; (©) effective section includes the reduced thicknesses taken to allow for HAZ softening and local buckling, but with no deduction for holes. In items (b) and (©) the reduced thicknesses should generally be taken as follows for different elements in a section (but see notes 1 t05). 1) Slender element free of HAZ effects. A thickness fy/ is taken for the whole element, where hy, is found as in 4.3.4 2) Non-slender elements subject to HAZ effects. A thickness of kt is taken in the softened parts of the element, where k and the extent of the softening are as given in 4.4.2 and 4.4.3 @) Slender element with HAZ effects. The reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of gt and hy in the softened part, and as kin the rest of the element. NOTE 1, When a hoe is located in a reduced thickness relon the deduction for that hole may be based onthe veld thickness. NOTE 2. Inthe case of reinforce elements ky shouldbe apie {0 the area of the enforcement ls tothe base thickness. NOTE 5 In considering slender Nange element that les nearer to the neutral axis than dors the extreme ibe tone mate, i Js permissible o take a more favourable value fork. Tas Is done Uylusinga mode value of in Mgr 45 (instead ofthe norma ‘alu, see 43-42) a follow e504 P59) where andy» are the Astances fromthe elastic neutral xs of {he gro section tothe extreme fibres and to the eeme ‘onsidere, rempoctivey This relaxation only apples ithe ‘lement fs substantially parte 10 the axis of bending NOTE 4. Fora reinforced element forming pat oral ofthe mpresson ange of sender sen, ih which he Feinforeement takes the form of an outwardly Facing Hip, the Jresence ofthe lip should be ignored in determining the moment NOTE 5, Fora welded element in a semi-compact or sender Seetion a more favourable assumed thickness may a taken 8s follows (a) Haz sonening is ignored in any materi less than fom the elastic neutral ans of the gross setion, where isthe distance therefrom to the furehes extreme bres of the section (b) Por HA? materia, a a distance y (kg) fom the Nera axis may be replace by a Valve ky determined a follows vn 45.24 Hybrid sections ‘The moment capacity of a hybrid section, containing parent materials of different strengths, may be safely based on the lowest value of po within the section, Alternatively, the following more advantageous procedure may be used. kyyn katt (@ Each element is classified according to its particular value of Po. (b) For a fully compact section Mys is found using conventional plastic bending theory, allowing for the value of py in each element, and again using the net effective section in the case of welded members (©) For other sections Mp is found from expression (b), (d) ore) in 4.5.2.2 as appropriate, basing po and Z on the point in the section giving the lowest values of Mp 45.25 Semi-compact sections For these it is permitted, if desired, to take an improved value of Mrs which may be obtained by interpolation as follows BoB - Mas = Mg + FF (My ~ Ma) where: ‘Mr and M, are the fully compact and semii-compact values of ‘Mps found from 4. B is the value of f for the most critical ‘element in the section; Ay and fo. are the fully and semi-compaet limiting values of f for that same table element (see table 4.3) 4.5.3 Shear force resistance 4.53.1 Section classification Ieis first necessary to classify the section as compact or slender in terms ofits resistance to shear force as follows: (a) a compact section is unaffected by buckling: (b) a slender section should be checked for buckling The sections are classified as follows: (1) sections containing shear webs orientated in the plane of loading, without tongue-plates: 15496 compact dt>49¢ slender where a Is the clear depth of web between flanges (measured on the slope in the ‘case of inelined webs); t is the web thickness; é = (250¥p9)"* = (150/p,) Po and py are the limiting stress (in N/mm) (Gee tables 4.1 and 4.2); (@) sections as in (1), but with tongue plates: see 4.5.3.5; (8) solid bar: compact; (4) round tube: same classification as for axial compression (see 4.8.2.5 and 4.3.3.4(b)). © BSI 07-1990BS 8118 : Part 1 Section 4 45.3.2 Compact sections ‘The factored shear force resistance Vag at a section, in the absence of moment, may be found using the following equation: Pry ‘i isthe limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42); ‘Ay isthe effective shear area: ‘Ym is the material factor (see table 3.3). | me effective shear area is as follows. (a) For sections containing shear webs without tongue- plates, that are free from HAZ softening, Ay is determined from the following equation: Ay=08NDt where Dis the overall depth of web measured to outer surface of flanges, 1s the web thickness; {Nis the number of webs ‘The presence of small holes may be ignored, provided in total they do not occupy more than 209% of the clear web depth, between flanges. (©) For sections as in (a), but with webs affected by HAZ softening A, is determined from the following equation: "Ay = MOSDE~ (1 ~ kgth where dz is the total depth of HAZ material occurring, within the clear depth of the web between flanges (see 4.4.3); kz, is the softening factor (see 4.4.2), For a web welded over its full depth, or continuously welded longitudinally at any point in its depth, Vag should be taken as k, times the unwelded value. (©) For a solid bar, Ay = 0.84 or 0846. (@) For a compact round tube, Ay = 0.64 or 0.64, where Ais the section area (in the absence of HAZ. softening); Ae 1s the effective section area (when HAZ softening is present), found by taking an effective thickness of k, times the true thickness for HAZ material In the case of sections containing shear webs, the methods provided for the calculation of Vas for plate girders may be used (see 5.4.3.2 and 5.4.35). 453.3 Slender sections The factored shear force resistance Vg in the absence ‘of moment for sections containing slender shear webs without tongue-plates, orientated in the plane of loading, should be taken as the lesser of the two values obtained from (a) and (b) as follows: (a) Yielding check. The resistance is calculated as for a compact section, using 4.5.3.2 (a) or (b) as appropriate. (b) Buckling check. Ves, in kN, is obtained from the following expression: Vas = HONDA, where is the clear depth of web between flanges (mim); tis the web thickness (mm); Nis the number of webs; my is the material factor (See table 33), 4.5.3.4 Inclined shear webs ‘The expressions covering compact sections in 4.5.3.2 (a) and (b) remain valid for inclined webs, provided D is still measured normal to the neutral axis. Bat in checking stender inclined webs (see 4.5.3.3) the expression in (b) should be factored by cos 6, where 6 is the angle between the web and the plane of the applied loading, 45.3.5. Use of tongue-plates ‘The shear force resistance of sections containing shear ‘webs with tongue-plates may safely be found generally using the treatment given in 5.4.3.1 0 5.4.3.5, but with the factors taken as follows: 1 Is the elastic critical shear buckling factor and is determined as given in 5.4.3.3; Is the tension field factor and is equal to zero. This treatment is valid only if the tongue-plates comply with 5.4.5. 4.5.4 Combined moment and shear force 4.5.4.1 Moment with low shear At any section it may be assumed that the factored moment resistance Mys is unaffected by a coincident shear force V (under factored loading) less than half the factored shear force resistance Vas found in4.5.33. 4.54.2 Moment with high shear If Vexceeds 0.5 Vas, a reduced value for the factored moment resistance Hfyso should be found as follows: (@) For sections with shear webs, connected to Manges at both longitudinal edges: ‘Maso = Mgs (1+ (1 — a)(0.6 ~ 12 VVps)) (©) For other sections: ‘Maso = Mas (1.6 ~ 12VVps) where Mps is the factored moment resistance of the section in the absence of shear (see 4.5.2); @ is the ratio of minimum to maximum shear stress in the web, assuming an elastic stress distribution, For sections classified as slender for bending, or affected by HAZ softening, « should be based on the assumed section used in the determination of Ms; (see 4.5.2.3) 48 © pst or909Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 45.5 Web bearing 45.5.1 General ‘This clause concems the design of webs subjected to localized forces caused by concentrated loads or reactions applied to a beam. 45.5.2 Unstiffened web ‘When the web itself is required to carry the localized force, without the provision of a bearing stiffener, as for example under a rolling load, both the following should be met: (2) Pw SPal?m OF KPal Pn’ ©) PoP? where Pi and py2 are stresses arising at its extreme edge and mid-point respectively, assuming a 45° dispersion angle either side of a localized force; Pa is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42); Ps is the buckling stress for the web treated as a thin column between the flanges; is the softening factor for HAZ material (see Appendix F, table 1 and 4.4.2); yn is the material factor (see table 3.3). In (a) the second expression should be used when the web is welded to the flange and HAZ softening occurs. Otherwise the first expression is valid, ‘ps should be determined as given in 4.7.4.1 selecting the curve in figure 4.10(a) that intercepts the stress-axis at a value po (see tables 4.1 and 4.2). The slendemess, parameter \ to be used to select the curve should allow for possible relative lateral movement of the flanges as the web buckles. Assuming a web fixity intemediate between full fixity and simple support, the value of \ is given by 2.54 45.5.3 Web with tongue-plate When a tongue-plate is provided, 4.5.5.2(a) should be satisfied both at the top edge of the tongueplate, and at the upper edge of the thin web, 45.54 Stiffened wed A bearing stiffener, if fitted, should be of compact. section. It may be conservatively designed on the assumption that it resists the entire bearing force, unaided by the web, the stiffener being checked as a strut (see 4.7) for out-of-plane column buckling and local squashing, with bending effects allowed for if necessary (see 4.8). Alternatively, a more economical stiffener may be designed by referring to the plate girder stiffener clause (see 5.4.5). 4.5.6 Lateral torsional buckling 4.5.6.1 General A beam, other than those allowed exemption in 4.5.6.2, should be checked against possible failure by lateral torsional buckling in accordance with 4.5.6.3 1045.68. 4.5.6.2 Exemptions ‘The possibilty of premature failure by lateral torsional buckling may be ignored in any of the following cases: (@) bending about the minor axis; (b) beam supported against lateral movement throughout its length, (©) lateral supports to compression flange provided at spacing not greater than 40ery where % is the minor axis radius of gyration of, the section: € = (250/p0)"*; Po is the limiting stress (in Nimni?) of, compression flange material (see tables 4.1 and 4.2) 4.5.63 Basic condition ‘The beam should be checked for possible lateral torsional buckling in every unsupported bay between points of lateral support. In each of these the following condition should be satisfied: Mu is the moment arising under factored Joading in the length considered; Mex is the factored moment of resistance to lateral torsional buckling, and is equal to PSH s is the plastic section modulus of gross section, without reduction for HAZ softening, local buckling or hol Ym Is the material factor (see table 3:3); Ds is the buckling stress (see 4.5.6.5). 4.5.64 Allowance for moment variation The value of M in 4.5.6.3 may be safely taken as the maximum value arising in the bay considered, Alternatively, it is permitted to take M as the equivalent uniform moment I. For the case of simple moment_ gradient in the length considered (linear variation) 7 may be taken as follows: (@) for 10> MyM, = -05 = 0.60, + 04M; (®) for MyM <-05 M=04M where M, and My are respectively the maximum and minimum moments arising (see figure 4.8). For other cases of moment variation refer to appendix H. © BSI 07.1000 49BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 Figure 4.8 Lateral torsional buckling, equivalent uniform moment 45.6.5 Buckling stress ‘The lateral torsional buckling stress p should be read from figure 4.9 using the curve which intercepts the stress axis at a stress p; found as follows: (a) For unwelded fully compact section P= (b) For other sections, including hybrid Pi = Yess where Po Is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); ‘Mps is the factored moment resistance of the section; Sis the plastic section modulus of gross section; Ym is the material factor (see table 33) Mp should be found generally in accordance with 4.5.2, allowing for local buckling and HAZ softening, but with no deduction for holes. NOTE, For beams of high slenderess (2 > 120) wil be necessary fo refer to the appropriate non-dimensional curve in appendix Ka find hy 4.5.6.6 Slenderness parameter The lateral torsional buckling slendemess parameter 2, needed for figure 49, may be obtained using any of the following expressions (a) to (©) (@) Conservative value: A = Ay = Ury where 1 is the effective length for lateral torsional buckling; 2y is the minor axis radius of gyration for gross section, For the following cases, however, appendix H should bbe used to find the effective length of the beam (D: (2) cantilever beams; (2) beams subject to destabilizing loads, Le. loading between points of lateral support, that effectively acts at a point in the section on the compression side of the neutral axis; (8) beams subject to normal loads when the compression flange is laterally unrestrained, both flanges are free to rotate in plan, and torsional restraint is provided only by the bearing of the bottom flange on the supports, For all other types of support 1 may be safely taken as the distance between points of lateral support Alternatively a more favourable value for certain restraint conditions may be found using H.1 (©) General expression: A = x(ES/Mcx)"* where E 1s the modulus of elasticity; Sis the plastic section modulus of gross section; ‘Mer is the elastic critical uniform moment (see H.2). (©) Channel and Isection members covered by table 4.7: parameter 1. may be taken as follows, but should not exceed the value given by (a): D is the overall section depth; b is the flange thickness; are the coefficients to be found using table 4.7 or they may be conservatively taken as X° ¥ = 005, NOTE. When the Nange reinforcement to an beam or channel member is not ofthe precise form shown in table 4.7 (simple lips), itis sll permissible to obran 2 using the expression in (c) above In so doing, X and ¥ should be taken as for an equivalent simple lip having the same internal depth C, while Ay is calculated forthe stetion with its actual reinforcement. 45.6.7 Effective lateral restraints Bracing systems providing lateral restraint should be designed on the assumption that the total lateral force exerted by a compression flange, under factored loading, shared between the points of restraint in any ‘one span, is 3% of the compression in that flange. © BSI 07-1900Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 300 200 Nim? loo ° 50 NOTE. To find py at A > 180 refer to gure KE Figure 4.9 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, buckling stress p., 100 a Where a series of two or more parallel beams require lateral restraint, it is not adequate merely to tie the compression flanges together so that they become ‘mutually dependent. Adequate restraint will be provided only by anchoring the ties to an independent robust support, or by providing a triangulated bracing system. If the number of parallel beams exceed three, itis sufficient for the restraint system to be designed to resist the sum of the lateral forces derived from the three langest compressive forces only 45.6.8 Beams containing localized welds ‘The value of Mj in 4.5.6.5 for a beam, subject to HAZ softening, should generally refer to the most unfavourable section in the bay considered, even when such softening occurs only locally along the length. However, when HAZ, softening occurs at the ends of the bay only, its presence may be ignored in considering lateral torsional buckling, provided that such softening does not extend a distance along the member, at each end of the bay, greater than the width of the section, 4.6 Tension members 4.6.1 General ‘The tension P arising under factored loading of axially loaded tension members (ties) should not exceed the factored tension resistance Pp of the section (see 4.6.2). For tension members having eccentric end connections itis generally necessary to refer to 4.8 to allow for interaction between axial load and the moments introduced. However, in certain cases (see 4.6.3) it is permissible to use a simplified procedure © BSI 07.1000BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ‘Table 4.7 Lateral torsional buckling of beams, coefficients X and Y eam seco Conlon a x= 0890 ~ 008 + 004 —— pe oot cella © 8 —— D Doak ao X= 091 — 2 (003 ~ 0078) - 03 ait an) ¥= 005 ~ a6 & a) ee uu 8 X= 095 ~ 0.032 + 0,06 ! r=" i B nn r 2 | Rt y= 007 ~ oo, Pie } — D, reat 8 « X= 1.01 — 5 (0.03 — 0.06: ~ 035 rt 5 c hs Y= 007 a10 ol Le at 107-1900Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 4.6.2 Tension resistance 46.2.1 General ‘The factored tension resistance Ps should be taken as the lesser of two values corresponding respectively to: (@) general yielding along the member (see 4.6.2.2); (b) local failure at a critical section (see 4.6.2.3). 4.6.2.2 General yielding The value Pps, is based on the general cross-section of the member along its length, ignoring the effect of end connections, occasional holes or localized HAZ regions as follows, (a) For a member free from HAZ, softening, or on thus affected at localized positions along its length AY a member in which the section contains HAZ material generally along the length, as with longitudinal welds: Piss = PoAcln where Po is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 42) Ais the gross section area; Ac is the effective section area; Ym is the material factor (see table 33) is found by taking a reduced area equal to ky nes the true area for a softened zone, k, being taken as in 4.4.2, and the extent of the zone as nda, 46.2.3 Local failure ‘The value of Pixs is based on the most eritial section as follows: (@) For a section free from HAZ, softening: Pass = Pen! (b) For a section containing HAZ material: Pa is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); An is the net section area, with deduction for holes; Ano is the net effective section area; Yn 18 the material factor (see table 33). ‘The value of Ane is found in the same way as Ae (See 4.6.2.2), but with suitable deduction for holes if necessary. The deduction for holes in HAZ regions may be based on the reduced thickness kt 4.6.24 Staggered holes Where staggered holes occur, alternative values for Ay, or Ane Should be calculated as in (a) and (b) as follows, and the lower value then used in 4.6.2.3. (2) Ay oF Ape is taken at the least favourable cross section. (b) A diagonal or zig-zag section is considered, with Ap OF Ane found as follows. "Ay =A ~ Hot Ane = Ay ~ HT where H=YAy~ Seety are the longitudinal and transverse pitch of holes respectively; ' is the plate thickness or effective plate thickness: Dan is the sum of hole areas on the diagonal or zig-zag section considered wand y 4.6.2.5. Hybrid sections ‘The tension capacity of a hybrid section, containing material of different strengths should be found by adding together the resistances of the various parts, obtained in 4.6.2.3 4.6.3 Eccentrically connected ties Eccentrically connected ties include the following (@) angles connected through one leg; (b) web-connected channels; (©) flange connected tees. Single-ay tension members of these three types may be designed as axially loaded and the variation in stress in the outstanding leg or legs ignored, provided that, in determining the area Ay OF Ane needed for the local check (see 4.6.2.3), part of the outstanding leg area is deducted from the gross area, as well as any deduction for holes or HAZ, effects. The amount of outstanding leg to be deducted is as follows: (1) single component connected one side of a gusset (2) double component symmetrically connected either side of gusset where Ag is the effective area of the outstanding leg or legs lying clear of the connected element, but ignoring any fillet. When such members are continuous over several bays, itis only necessary to apply the above treatment at the ‘outer ends of the end bays. Elsewhere the local tension resistance may be found as in 4.6.2.8, without, any outstanding leg deduction, ‘The general yielding check should be performed as given in 4.6.2.2. 064, 024, © BSL o7-1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 4.7 Compression members 4.7.1 General 4.7.1.1 Three checks are generally needed for axially loaded compression members (struts) as follows: (@) column, ie. flexural, buckling check (see 4.7.3. and 4.7.4) (refers to overall buckling of the member as a whole); (b) torsional buckling check (see 4.7.8 and 4.7.5) (refers to overall buckling of the member as a whole); © local squashing check (see 4.7.7) (relates to the weakest cross-section down its length). ‘Check (a) should always be made. Check (b) is generally required, but may be waived in some cases. Check (¢) is only needed for struts having low slendemess ratios that are significantly weakened locally by holes or welding, 4.7.1.2 To take account of interaction between axial load and bending it is generally necessary to refer to 4.8. However, for struts having eccentric end-connections it is in certain cases permissible to use a simplified procedure (see 4.7.9) to allow for the moments introduced, 4.7.2 Section classification for axial compression Before making any of the three checks given in 4.7.1 it is first necessary to classify the cross-section as compact or slender. The classification is based on that of the least favourable of its component elements, in accordance with 4.3.3, 4.7.3 Resistance to overall buckling With both checks (a) and (b) the axial thrust. P under factored loading should not exceed the factored axial resistance Pp based on overall buckling, given by the following: Pre= Peon where A isthe gross area, without reduction for HAZ softening, local buckling or holes; Ps is the buckling stress in flexural or torsional buckling: Ym 18 the material factor (see table 33), In finding p, for column buckling, failure about both principal axes should be considered and the lower value taken, NOTE. For a strut of high slendemness (2 > 190) it wil be necessary 10 refer to appendix K to find py 4.7.4 Column buckling 4.74.1 Buckling stress ‘The value of p, for column buckling should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.10, selected in accordance with 4.7.6. 4.7.4.2 Slenderness parameter ‘The column buckling slendemess parameter 1 needed for figure 4.10 is defined as follows: wr where Lis the effective length; ‘ris the radius of gyration; both appropriate to the direction of buckling considered, ‘The effective length {should be taken as KL, where L is the length between points of lateral support; or for a cantilever strut, its length. The value of K, the effective length factor for struts should be assessed from a knowledge of the end conditions; table 48 gives guidance. ‘The value of r should be based on the gross section for all members, NOTE, When the cross-section is wholly or substantially affected by HAZ softening ata directionally restrained end of a member, stch restraint shoud be Ignored in arriving at sultable value for K: This for ease | in table 4.8 A should be taken as 10 i the section is fully softened at each end ‘Table 48 Effective length factor K for struts End conditions| K 1 Effectively held in position and 07 restrained in direction at both ends 2 Bifectively held in position at both fends and restrained in direction at one end 3 Bifectively held in position at both | 1.0 ends, but not restrained in direction 085 ‘4 Bifectively held in position at one | 1.25 end, and restrained in direction at both ends 5 Effectively held in position and 15 restrained in direction at one end, and partially restrained in direction but not held in position at the other end 6 Effectively held in position and 20 restrained in direction at one end, but not held in position or restrained at the other end a © BSI O7:1000Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ———— .}._ 300 200 PNimm? too 50 100 @ NOTE, To find, at 2 > 130 refer to igure K. Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts © pst oT-9%56 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 el 300 200 p,.Nievm? too 50 100 © NOTE. To find pg at 2 > 190 refer to figure KL Figure 4.10 Column buekling stress p, for struts (continued) © pst o7-1009Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1 ————— 300 200 p,,NIenm? loo 50 100 A Figure 4.10 Column buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) © BSI oT-1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 —— 4.7.5 Torsional buckling 4.7.5.1 Exemptions ‘The possibility of torsional buckling may be ignored for the following: (@) closed hollow sections; (b) doubly symmetrical Esections; (©) sections composed entirely of radiating outstands, e.g. angles, tees, cruciform, that are classified as compact in accordance with 4.3.3, 4.7.5.2 Slenderness parameter ‘The torsional buckling slendemess parameter 1. may be obtained using either (a) or (b) below, or else by referring to appendix J. It should always be based on the gross area of the section as follows. (@) General formula A= x(EAP.,)'* where A is the gross section area, without reduction for local buckling, HAZ softening or holes; E 1s the modulus of elasticity; Per is the elastic critical load for torsional buckling, allowing for interaction with column buckling when necessary. (b) Sections as given in table 4.9 Anka where kis read from figure 4.11 2, _ is found as follows: (1) for angles, tees, cruciforms Ay (2) for channels, top-nats - do Ae T+ We oy ‘Table 49 contains expressions for 2p and ¥; and also for s and X (needed for figure 4.11), In(2) the quantity 2, should be taken as the effective slendemess for column buckling about axis xx (as defined in table 4.9). 4.75.3 Buckling stress ‘The value of pg for torsional buckling should be read from the appropriate curve in figure 4.12, selected in accordance with 4.7.6. 4.7.6 Strut curve selection 4.7.6.1 Basic procedure ‘The overall buckling stress p, should be read from the appropriate strut curve diagram in figure 4.10 (for column buckling) or figure 4.12 (for torsional buckling). Choice of diagram should be in accordance with table 4.10. In any given diagram the appropriate ccurve is that meeting the stress axis at a stress p, 10 bbe determined as in'4.7.6.2. 4.7.6.2 Determination of p, ‘The value of p; should generally be found as follows (but refer to 4.7.6.4 for sections composed of radiating outstands): (a) compact section, with no HAZ —_p} = Po effects (b) other sections, generally Pi = (AdAYPo where A Is the gross area of section; Ae _ is the area of effective section (See 4.7.6.3); Po is the limiting stress for the material (see tables 4.1 and 42), Curve selection on this basis is valid, provided the ‘member meets the tolerances of straightness and twist, laid down for extruded material (see BS 8118 : Part 2) ‘When there is a possibility that a fabricated strut will fail to meet these tolerances, p; should be taken as sstimes the value given by 4.7.6.2 (a) or (b) above, where $= 06 + 0.5exp(— 0.024) (but not exceeding 1.0). 4.7.6.3 Effective section Effective section applies to strut sections that are as follows: @) classified as slender, (®) affected by HAZ softening; (©) both (a) and (b). ‘The effective section may be obtained by taking reduced thicknesses, with no deduction for holes as follows, and may be based on the least favourable ccross section (but see 4.7.6.5 for welded members). 1) Slender section, free from HAZ softening. The thickness of any element is taken as ky, times its true thickness f, where ky, is found as in 4.3.4. In the case of reinforced elements ky, should be applied to the area of the reinforcement as well as to the basic thickness of the plate. (2) Compact section, with HAZ softening. The thickness of any softened zone should be reduced So as to give it an assumed area equal to k, times its true area. The extent of such a zone should be found from 4.4.3, and the value of k, from 4.4.2. (8) Slender section, with HAZ softening, For slender elements free from HAZ effects the reduced thickness is found as in (I); and for HAZ, regions not located in slender elements it is taken as in (2). If an element is both slender and affected by HAZ, softening, the reduced thickness is taken as the lesser of kf and ,¢ in the softened art and as ky elsewhere in it. Sections composed of radiating outstands are treated specially (see 4.7.6.4). 58 © BSI 07.1990Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts 1 p=5 To = Ay = BBM 06p'(BAy* f ® J who oy x=08 — v at 2 ps6 Jo = Ar = Go-1(2Q0=E — LBP) I’ Lg, |tewses nD 7 tL eo u To 3 | 4 ps5 dg = DIN|AZ + 08 (BDY) ~ 0.69" (Dity* u 05=BD=10 = (1 + 601 - BDY Awa) q (1+ 6 ~ BDPAwAo) le X= X,= 06-040 - BD? ve Le 5 D p=5 Fa + L5pQw-1) ~ 2 (w= f J “gi |ossapsww |sesy gt |isws2s [xem = belt 3 [eeomoee ait ? = Aula) ae Unequal ‘X = 0.60 A we 7 p=35 J = BIBL p' (BI) 8 8. X=1 © BSI 07-1999 59BS 8118 : Part 1 : 1991 Section 4 ‘Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (continued) 8 Y p=5 Jo = Ag = (BOA + 05s DB=20 + 1L1(DB)} - 0.7915 (By 9 A S=Ayho X= Xy= 11-0308 p=5 Ao=ag + LBp(w — 1) - 2 ~ IF 0. ¥ 5 = DB =20 8 = Ayo a I" y 1=w=25 X=% w zy 4 10 | Geenore y q o= Ayo Hava x=083 — y y 5, Ti |(cenove 1) q IH unequat Qe iy 1 [Geenote DY Jo = 8B D S= Ayo |] Unequat X= 089 —* y 13 B 05=DB=20 [Ay = (Dalla + 15BD) + Py] yp 85 + 11@B)} - p!5 (Day al 5 = Ayo | X= 13-08DB + 0200/8? 60 BSI 07-1900Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (continued) HH [ecenoed ay 29 = 65 8 iyo 78 Yy 5 T=DB=3 BINT + LD BYI)) 1st = s=ivh x D/B - 0.04 (DiBy ¥ = 0.14 - 02DB - 0.02t3/t, 6 T=DB=3 Jo = GIN + LSDB + 5CB) OB =04 = Ah | Uniform thickness | X= 0380/8 - 004(D/B) ~ 02578 0.12 = 0.02DB + [0.6(C/BY(DB = 05) 7 1=DB=3 (BINT + LSD B + 5CB) | | OB = 04 $= Ah | Uniform thickness | X' = 0.38D/B - 0.0(D/BY of xe yu Y= 0.12 - 0.2DB - (00(C/BY(DB - 05)) it r= 13 [eeenoeD Jo = 126 —= 5 = Aglh, x -—x ed oo nst orm 61BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 | Table 4.9 Torsional buckling parameters for struts (concluded) No [NOTE 2. The sections are generally of uniform thickness 1, except cases 14 and 15, [NOTE 3, 2s Ay Ay 8 the slendemess parameter (/) for Nexural buckling about the wx oF axis. NOTE 4. p Is-& factor depending on the amount of filet material atthe root of the section as follows: Raiused filets p = Rt 4 filets p= LF ae lary NOTE: 5. The values given for ZX and ¥are only valid within the limits shown. Inthe case of back-to-back angles (eases 8 10 12) the expressions cease to apply I the gap between the angles exceeds 2 ‘Shapes of reinforced section complying with BS 11GL ‘Table 4.10 Choice of strut curve diagram “ype of buckling Unwelded strut | Welded strut Column buckling: symmetric or mildly asymmetric section Figure 4.10(@) Figure 4.10(0) severely asymmetric section Figure 4.10() Figure 4.10(c) “Torsional buckling generally Figure 4.12(@) section composed of radiating outstands (see 4.7.6.4) Figure 4.12(b) NOTE I, A strut should generally be regarded as welded, for the purpose of this table, iF it contains welds on a lengih greater than the largest dimension of the section, This is tegardless of whether or not there are HAZ eects NOTE 2. A milly asymmetric section is one for which yyy = 1.5 whete yy and 1 are the stances from the buckling axis tothe further and nearer extreme fibres, respectively. Otherwise, the section should be treated as severely asymmetric. 4.7.64 Sections composed of radiating outstands _(b) Section containing outstands with tip For sections such as angles, tees and cruciforms, reinforcement. If the reinforced outstands are such ‘composed entirely of radiating outstands, local and ‘that mode 1 would be critical in terms of local tonal buckling are closely related. For such struts ‘buckling (see 43.2.8), the same procedure is the procedure should be as follows: faue Liat oid be ae 2 ee ae gure 4.12 (@) 3 employe effective (Sn catanign refoeousanis En a td considering torsional buckdiny Co oe aed ioe rig ot aeceat 4.7.6.5 Struts containing localized welds figure 4.12 @) (The relevant diagram for column Strut curve selection for a member affected by HAZ buckling is unaltered) softening should generally be based ona value ofp (©) In determining py, needed for selecting the obtained for the most unfavourable section, even when appropriate curve in figures 4.10 and 4.12 such softening occurs only locally along the length. (Gee 4.7.6.2), the area Ay should be based on an This includes HAZ effects due to the welding on of effective Section in which the normal reduction is __ temporary attachments made for zones affected by HAZ softening, but However, when such HAZ softening has a certain with no reduetion for local buckling, specified location along the length, its presence may be ie. take ky,= 1. Thus for such a section free of _ignored in considering overall buckling, provided the = Po: softening does not extend longitudinally a distance greater than the least overall width of the member. The location of the HAZ, softening, for this relaxation to be allowed, is the position of zero or nearzero curvature in the buckled form of the strut. HAZ effects: p; e © Rst o7-1999g Section 4 se oz yAor9¥y WONDEIEN or ‘smuns Jo Suypyong reuoysuEy, L1°F aINFE so 0 63 © SLOT 100BS 8118: Part 1: 1991 Section 4 300 200 p,Nimm? loo 50 @ NOTE. To find py at 4 > 180 refer to igure K.1 | Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts l ‘Thus for a strut held in position at its ends (see table 48, case 3) it may be assumed that the overall buckling resistance is unaffected by the presence of localized softened zones, if these are located at the ends. (In such a case it will be important to make the local squashing check). 4.7.7 Local squashing ‘The axial thrust P under factored loading should not exceed the factored resistance Pps of the most unfavourable section along the length of a strut, determined as follows: (a) compact section, free from HAZ Pps = PaAn/Yni effects, (©) other sections, generally PRs = Pano! 100 where Pa An is the limiting stress (see tables 4.1 and 4.2); is the net section area, with deduction for unfilled holes; Ane. 18 the net effective section area; Ym_ is the material factor (see table 33), ‘The area Ane should be taken as A, less deduction for unfilled holes, where A¢ is the effective area used in the consideration of overall buckling (column or torsional), see 4.7.6.3 and 4.7.6.4. For holes located in reduced thickness regions the deduction may be based ‘on the reduced thickness, instead of the full thickness, © RSI 07.1990Section 4 BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 300 200 Nim? 100 ° 50 100 © Figure 4.12 Torsional buckling stress p, for struts (concluded) 4.7.8 Hybrid sections of the connected element, and if no deliberate bet In struts containing parent materials of different is applied: strengths each element should be classified according _(a) single angle connected through one leg only; to its particular value of Po, (b) back-to-back angles connected one side of a ‘The resistance Pr to overall column or torsional gusset buckling may be found assuming a uniform value of Po, _(c) single channel connected by its web only equal to the weighted average of the Po values for the ss tee connected by its table only. various parts (weighted according to the gross areas ee ei x thereof). For these itis permissible, in making the check for colunin buckling ont of the plane of the attached element or elements, to ignore the eccentricity of loading, and instead take a reduced axial compression ‘The resistance Ps to local squashing may be found by summing the resistance of the various parts, 4.7.9 Certain cases of eccentrically connected —_resistance equal to 40% of the value that would be struts obtained for centroidal loading using the radius of rai scse pen ae gyration about the axis paralel to the gusset. The torsional buckling resistance is assumed unaffected by ‘The following types of eccentrically connected strut the eccentricity. may be treated using a simple method, instead of the interaction procedure given in 4.8, provided the attachment is sufficient to prevent rotation in the plane © BSI 7-000 6BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 4.7.9.2 Struts of two components back-to-back Such struts of double angle, channel or tee constriction, connected either side of end-gussets, may be designed as monolithic centroidally loaded members provided that the following occur: (@) the two components are securely connected together at their ends; and (b) they are connected also at the third points, using spacers equal to the gusset thickness. 4.7.10 Battened struts 4.7.10.1 The general rules for struts given in 4.7.3 to 4.7.7 do not generally apply to battened members, which should be the subject of special study. However, iff a battened strut complies with 4.7.10.2, itis permissible to regard it as monolithic and obtain its resistance in the normal way. 4.7.10.2 To be treated as a monolithic member a battened strat should satisfy the following (a) It should be axially loaded. (b) It should comprise two main components joined by equally spaced battens, the cross-section being, symmetrical about an axis normal to the battens (c) Battens should generally be in pairs. However, if the main components are toetoroe tees or angles, single battens are allowed. (@) 225 08%, where fy and 2g are the slendemess parameters for column buckling of the complete Ietuber about axes parallel to and ‘normal to the battens, respectively. (©) Ag S07 Ay where as is the slendemess parameter for buckling of one main component between battens, based on column or torsional buckling whichever is the more critical, (®) The batten system should be designed to resist a total shear force V in the plane of the battens, taken as 2.5% of the axial force in the whole member ‘under factored loading, (g) The connection of each batten to each main ‘component should be designed to transmit the following simultaneous actions under factored loading: (1) longitudinal shear of Va/Na. (2) moment of Va/2N acting in the plane of the batten; where: dis the longitudinal spacing between centres of battens; @ isthe spacing of main components measured to the centroids of the connections to each batten; Nis the number of battens at each position (org). In designing the battens it is important to consider the possible weakening effects of local buckling and HAZ softening (if welded). 4.8 Bending with axial force and biaxial bending 48.1 General 4.8.1.1 This clause gives interaction formulae for checking members subjected to the following cases of combined action effect: (@) case A, major axis bending with axial force hc +P; (©) case B, minor axis bending with axial force (My +P); (© case C, biaxial bending (My +.M,); (d) case D, biaxial bending with axial force (My+My +P) where P is the axial force arising under factored loading; My and My are the uniaxial moments about major and minor axes respectively arising. under factored loading. 4.8.1.2 Two checks are in general needed, as follows: (@ section check (see 4.8.3); (®) overall buckling check (see 4.8.4), ‘The section check is always needed. The overall buckling check may be waived for the following circumstances: 2) in case A, when P is tensile and also the member is exempt from lateral torsional buckling (See 4.5.6.2); 2) in case B, when P is tensile. In making the section check the values taken for Pes, ‘Myx and Mgsy should take due account of the presence of holes and of HAZ softening where Pres is the factored axial resistance of the cross-section, see 4.6.2 (tension) or 4.7.7 (compression); are the factored uniaxial moment resistances of the cross-section (see 4.5.2), adjusted to allow for coincident shear if necessary (Gee 4.5.4), about major and minor axes respectively. ‘Mpsx and Mrsy o71000BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 In making the overall buckling check the values of Mrsx and Mrsy should generally refer to the most unfavourable section in the bay considered, taking account of local buckling and HAZ softening, but ignoring holes. HAZ softening may be ignored when it occurs at the extreme ends of a spanning, ie, non-cantilever, bay. For sections exempt from lateral torsional buckling 6.2), Mr should be taken equal to Mrsy ‘Mpg. is the factored moment resistance to lateral torsional buckling (see 4.5.6.3), 4.8.2 Section classification and local buckling under combined actions 482.1 Section classification The section should be given a single classification (fully compact, semi-compact or siender) generally in accordance with 4.3.8.2 and 4.3.3.4 (a) In so doing, the value of f for any given element should be based on a value of g (see figure 4.2 corresponding to the stress paitemn produced in that clement when all the actions (P.M, M,) are applied simultaneously. The quantities y, and ye, needed for figure 4.2, should generally be found using the elastic neutral axis of the gross section under the combined actions, although in checking whether a section is fully compact itis permitted to use the plastic one. Note that itis possible for the elastic neutral axis to ie outside the section, in which case yo and ye will be of the same sign. The method given in 4.3.3.5 for determining a more favourable classification for under stressed flange elements, is still valid provided y and ‘ye again relate to the stress pattem under the combined actions. Any section found to be fully compact or Semi-compact under the above procedure is counted as ‘compact when obtaining the axial resistance, no reduction being made for local buckling 48.2.2 Effective section For a member classed as slender (see 4.8.2.1) each individual resistance should be found using an effective section that relates specifically to the action concemed (P.M, of My), this being generally different for the different actions. Thus when obtaining axial resistance, the factor ky, (see figure 4.5) for each element is based on a A value for that element corresponding to uniform stress (g = 1). While for finding moment resistance, a value is taken that relates to the stress pattem in the element when the section is under pure bending. 4.8.3 Section check 4.8.3.1 General formula (case D) ‘The cross-section is adequate if the following is satisfied at every position along the length, all six ‘quantities being taken as positive: Po. Me, My yy Pies * tess * Mesy = When the aa force, is tensile, the factored axial resistance, Py, shoukd be found from clause 4.62.3 (local failure), 4.8.3.2 Other cases For cases A, B or ( (see 4.8.1.1) the formula given in 4.8.3.1 should be used, with the appropriate numerator quantity put equal to zero. 4.8.4 Overall buckling cheek 4841 General For members subject to axial tension combined with bending the presence of the axa force should be ignored in checking against overall buckling. For tremhers subject to axial compression with bending o to biaxial bending, the appropriate interaction formulae (see 4.8.4.2 to 4.8.4.5) should be satisfied on any unsupported length liable to buckle. ‘All quantities inthe interaction formulae should be taken as postive 484.2 Case A (major axis bending with axial compression) For case A both conditions (a) and (b) as follows: should be satisfied (a) prevention of major axis buckling: My. Pax * Mss * Pred <1 (©) prevention of minor axis buckling is the equivalent uniform moment, about the major axis obtained as in 45.6.4; are the factored axial resistances to overall column buckling, about major and minor axes respectively, see 4.7.3 and 4.7.4, If the axi 4.7.5), the factored axial resistances to torsional buckling should be used in (a) and (b), force P causes torsional buckling (see 4.8.4.3 Case B (minor axis bending with axial compression) For case B following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor axis buckling): Po My, Fi Pry” Mpsy 2PryMrsy where My _ is the equivalent uniform moment about the minor axis obtained as in 4.5.6.4 © BSI o7-1900BS 8118 : Part 1: 1991 Section 4 ee 4844 Case C (biaxial bending) For case C the following single condition should be satisfied (prevention of minor axis buckling): i , We Mx * Mss 4.8.4.5 Case D (biaxial bending with axial force) For case D the condition should be satisfied = 10 mii Me iy Maes * Mary = where Myo isthe value of Fy that would be acceptable in combination with P, but in the absence of minor axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.3 (lesser value), isthe similar value for Ty in the absence of Mppy major axis bending, as given in 4.8.4.4 4.9 Deformation (serviceability limit state) 4.9.1 General ‘The recoverable elastic deflection (see 4.9.2) under nominal loading (unfactored) should not exceed the limiting value (see 3.4), If the ultimate limit state (static strength) has been satisfied, using 4.2 to 4.8, it may be assumed that permanent inelastic deformation in service will be negligible. No separate check for this is generally needed. 4.9.2 Recoverable elastic deflection 4.92.1 Compact sections ‘The elastic deflection of these may be calculated using ‘gross section properties, ignoring holes or HAZ effects. For beams this applies both to fully and to compact sections and semi-compact sections. 492.2 Stender sections Deflection calculations should generally be performed. using section properties calculated for an effective section that allows for local buckling, but ignores any effects of HAZ softening or holes. The assumed effective section may be conservatively based on reduced thicknesses as given in 4.5.2.3(1) for bending, or 4.7.6.3(1) for axial conipression, or the following. more favourable procedure may be adopted. (a) Reclassify and slender element using a modified value for ¢ in 4.3.3.4, obtained by taking py equal to ‘wo-thirds of the normal value given in tables 4.1 and 4.2 (b) Ifthe section is then found to be no longer slender, the gross section properties are taken. (©) I as reclassified, itis still slender, a new effective section is assumed, based on kj, values found by using the modified value of e from (a) for figure 4.5. © BSI 07.1900