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There are two graphs discussed in the document. The document defines what it means for two graphs to be isomorphic and discusses some graph invariants. Specifically: 1) Two graphs are isomorphic if there exists a one-to-one and onto mapping between their vertices that preserves adjacency. 2) The degree spectrum of a graph, which records the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex, is a graph invariant, meaning it will be the same for isomorphic graphs. 3) While two graphs may have the same degree spectrum, this does not guarantee they are isomorphic, as the document provides a counter example of two non-isomorphic graphs with the same degree spectrum.

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13 views

DM21

There are two graphs discussed in the document. The document defines what it means for two graphs to be isomorphic and discusses some graph invariants. Specifically: 1) Two graphs are isomorphic if there exists a one-to-one and onto mapping between their vertices that preserves adjacency. 2) The degree spectrum of a graph, which records the in-degree and out-degree of each vertex, is a graph invariant, meaning it will be the same for isomorphic graphs. 3) While two graphs may have the same degree spectrum, this does not guarantee they are isomorphic, as the document provides a counter example of two non-isomorphic graphs with the same degree spectrum.

Uploaded by

Yashwanth
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

MATH F213
Relations and Digraphs
Isomorphisms of Graphs
Are G1 and G2 same or Isomorphic.

G1 v v2 G2 u1
1

u3 u4 u5

v3 v4 v5 u2

v2
G1 and G2 are Isomorphic.

Ch1-2
No

3
Graph isomorphism

Sometimes we are not interested in naming of vertices. If


graphs can be identified after renaming of vertices, then
we call them isomorphic. More formally, we have :
Definition : Two graphs 𝐺1 = 𝑉1 , 𝐸1 and 𝐺2 = 𝑉2 , 𝐸2 are
called isomorphic if there is a one-to-one and onto map
𝑓: 𝑉1 → 𝑉2 which preserves adjacency of vertices; for
digraphs this means 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐸1 if and only if
𝑓(𝑣), 𝑓(𝑤) ∈ 𝐸2 .
If the above condition holds then 𝑓 is called an (directed
graph) isomorphism from 𝐺1 to 𝐺2 .

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


DiGraph isomorphism

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Invariants of graphs

A function 𝑔 on graphs is called invariant of graphs (under


isomorphism) if graphs 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 are isomorphic implies
𝑔(𝐺1 ) = 𝑔(𝐺2 ).
Examples :
1) 𝑉 is a graph invariant as if graphs 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 are
isomorphic then 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ,as the isomorphism 𝑔 is
one-to-one and onto function from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 . It is called
the order of 𝐺.
2) 𝐸 is a graph invariant as if 𝑔 is an isomorphism from
𝐺1 to 𝐺2 then 𝑣, 𝑤 ⟼ 𝑔 𝑣 , 𝑔(𝑤) gives a one-to-one
and onto map from 𝐸1 to 𝐸2 . It is called the size of G.

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Degree spectrum.

For a digraph 𝐺, the degree spectrum of 𝐺 is the collection


of all pairs 𝑖, 𝑗 , where 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑣 , 𝑗 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑣), as
𝑣 varies over the vertices of 𝐺.
Ex : Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a digraph with
V = {a,c,m,w}
E= { (a,a),(m,m) (w,w), (c,a), (c,w),(c,m), (a,m), (m,w) }.
The degree spectrum of G is

{(2, 2), (0,3),(3, 2), (3,1)}.

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus


Another invariant

Theorem : The degree spectrum is an invariant of the digraph.


Proof : Let 𝑔: 𝐺1 → 𝐺2 be an isomorphism of digraphs. For any
vertex 𝑣 of 𝐺1 , if {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 } is the set of all vertices of 𝐺1
adjacent from 𝑣, then {𝑔(𝑣1 ), … , 𝑔(𝑣𝑘 )} is the set of all vertices
of 𝐺2 adjacent from g(𝑣). Thus 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑣)=𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(g(𝑣)).
Similarly 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑔 𝑣 .
Since the pair for every vertex is same as pair for the
corresponding vertices, the result follows.

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Non-isomorphic graphs
Since isomorphic digraphs have same degree spectrum, if
we can show that two digraphs have different degree
spectrums, then it follows that the digraphs are not
isomorphic.
Ex. :Show that the following two digraphs are not
isomorphic.

The digraph on left has a vertex of outdegree 4,


one on right doesn’t.
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Is the converse true?

Note that two digraphs have same degree spectrum does


not imply digraphs are isomorphic.
p. 335 #4 : Prove that the digraphs given below are not
isomorphic (but have same degree spectrum).

In the digraph on right, 𝑎, 𝑑 , (𝑑, 𝑎) are both the edges. If the


digraphs are isomorphic then same will hold in the digraph on
left by replacing 𝑎, 𝑑 by their corresponding vertices. But this is
not true for any pair of vertices in the digraph on left.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
p. 333 #3(b)

For the digraphs in (a) and (b) in the following figure, give a
specific isomorphism from (a) to (b) as a set of ordered
pairs [vertex in (a), vertex in (b)].

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Solution

Since corresponding vertices in the isomorphism in both


digraph must have same indegree and outdegree, the
vertex 𝑐 in digraph (a) must be mapped to the vertex 𝑎 in
digraph (b). Therefore [𝑐, 𝑎].
Where can the vertex 𝑎 in digraph (a) be mapped? Since
all other vertices in both digraphs have same indegrees
and outdegrees, we are unable to decide based on this.
Let us try [𝑎, 𝑏] and see if it works.
As in (a), 𝑏 is adjacent from 𝑎, same must happen to the
corresponding vertices in (b). But only vertex adjacent
from 𝑏 in digraph (b) is 𝑐. Hence it forces 𝑏, 𝑐 .
Continuing in similar manner, we are forced 𝑒, 𝑑 , 𝑑, 𝑒 .

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Now we have got a possible isomorphism 𝑓. But we still don’t
know it is an isomorphism. We have to verify all adjacencies
are preserved. We can do that by verifying, for every edge
(𝑣, 𝑤) in (a), 𝑓 𝑣 , 𝑓 𝑤 is an edge in (b) and these are only
edges in (b).
#3(c) How many isomorphisms exist between (a) and (b)?
Notice that we had a choice only in [𝑎, 𝑏]. Other possibilities there
are 𝑎, 𝑐 , 𝑎, 𝑑 , 𝑎, 𝑒 . See that, just as above, every choice
here gives exactly one isomorphism. Thus there are 4
isomorphisms from (a) to (b).
Geometric way of viewing this is to see that if we rotate digraph
(a) by /2, then the effect is relabeling of vertices only. By
replacing vertices of digraph (a) by new labels in the known
isomorphism, we get a new isomorphism.
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
p.336 #5(a)

Draw all subgraphs (up to isomorphism) with 4 vertices and


2 edges of the digraph given below :

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