How to Acquire

Seminar in
Evidence Base

Presented by
Sara Bahaa Mohamed
Prosthodontics Department

Supervised by
Dr. Ahmed Elheeny
Scientific Research
There are many ways to define research. To put it simply,
research includes gathering, organizing, and implementing
information in order to understand, explain, or prove a theory or
a topic. Even though research is vital in both scientific and non-
scientific fields, one of the most relevant and comprehensive
types of research is scientific research.
Scientific research can be classified in several ways.
Classification can be made according to the data collection
techniques
based on causality, relationship with time and the medium
through which they are applied.
1. According to data collection techniques:
• Observational
• Experimental
2. According to causality relationships:
• Descriptive
• Analytical
3. According to relationships with time:
• Retrospective
• Prospective
• Cross-sectional
4. According to the medium through which they are applied:
• Clinical
• Laboratory
• Social descriptive research
Another method is to classify the research according to its
descriptive or analytical features.
I. Descriptive research
a. Case series
b. Surveillance studies
II. Analytical research
a. Observational studies: cohort, case control and cross-
sectional research
b. Interventional research: quasi-experimental and clinical
research
There are many ways to go about a scientifically based research project.
1 .Ask a Question
No matter the topic, every type of scientific research has to start with a
question, whether it’s “why,” “how,” or “what.” Therefore, the first step
is to identify the research problem apart from which field of science
you’re publishing, arts and humanities, natural science, psychology, etc
At the very beginning of your research, you are also allowed to make
predictions regarding the topic. The prediction can be based on existing
theories and knowledge or your own theories.
2 .Do Background Research
After you decide what type of information your research study will be
based on, the next step is to do background research. This is where you
will make an overview of the previously published literature on the topic
that you’re interested in. At this point, you’re supposed to gather enough
resources and literature to use as references. The more evidence you
have, the better chances of proving your theory.
3 .Construct a Hypothesis and Collect Data
One of the most significant aspects of conducting your own quantitative
research is coming up with a hypothesis that the entire research project
will be about. This step includes specifying the purpose of your research,
devising a framework research design, and outlining specific research
questions.
When it comes to qualitative research, the next step would be to collect
data. This can be done through interviews, focus groups, surveys,
secondary research, or observation.
4 .Test Your Theory
Once you have constructed your hypothesis and collected all the data, it’s
finally time to test your theory. You can select the research method that
will help you achieve your goal most efficiently. Depending on whether
you have chosen quantitative research or qualitative research, or even a
mixed method, the next step is to do a study. This can take the form of an
interview, a case study, a focus group, a questionnaire, etc.
5 .Evaluate the Results and Make a Conclusion
The final step of your scientific research is to assess the results of your
work. Once you have proven, interpreted, or classified the data at hand,
you need to come to a conclusion and report your findings.
TYPES OF DATA
1)PRIMARY DATA: Are those which are collected a fresh and for the
first time and thus happen to be original in character and known as
Primary data.

2) SECONDARY DATA: Are those which have been collected by

someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical
process are known as Secondary data.

-COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA There are several methods of

collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive
researches. In descriptive research, we obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one
form or another or through personal interviews.
-COLLECTION OF SECONDARY DATA These are already available
i.e. they refer to the data which have already been collected and analyzed
by someone else.
• Secondary data may either be published or unpublished data. Researcher
must be very careful in using secondary data, because the data available
may be sometimes unsuitable.

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary Data
1) OBSERVATION METHOD: Observation method is a method under
which data from the field is collected with the help of observation by the
observer or by personally going to the field. In the words of P.V. Young,
“Observation may be defined as systematic viewing, coupled with
consideration of seen phenomenon”.
ADVANTAGES: • Subjective bias eliminated (No bias info)
• Information researcher gets is Current information
• Independent to respondent’s variable (as in interview and may be bias)

DISADVANTAGES: • It is expensive method (time requires more)

• Limited information
• Unforeseen factors may interfere with observational task
• Respondents opinion cannot be recorded on certain subject

TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Structured and Unstructured Observation
• When observation is done by characterizing style of recording the
observed information, standardized conditions of observation, definition
of the units to be observed, selection of pertinent data of observation then
it is structured observation
 • When observation is done without any thought before observation then
it is unstructured observation

Participant & Non-Participant Observation

• When the Observer is member of the group which he is observing then
it is Participant Observation
• In participant observation Researcher can record natural behavior of
group, Researcher can verify the truth of statements given by informants
in the context of questionnaire, Difficult to collect information can obtain
through this method but in this researcher may lose objectivity of
research due emotional feelings. Prob. of control in observation isn’t
solved.

Interview Method
The Interview Method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral- verbal responses. Interviewer
asks questions (which are aimed to get information required for study) to
respondent.
.Steps for An Effective Interview Prepare interview schedule Select
subjects/ key Respondent Conduct the interview Analyze and interpret
data collected from the interview
.Classifications: -
-Structured Interviews: In this case, a set of redecided questions are
there.
-Unstructured Interviews: In this case, we don’t follow a system of pre-
determined questions.
-Focused Interviews: Attention is focused on the given experience of the
respondent and its possible effects.
.Classifications:
- Clinical Interviews: Concerned with broad underlying feelings or
motivations or with the course of an individual’s life experience.
-Group Interviews: a group of 6 to 8 individuals is interviewed.
-Qualitative and quantitative Interviews: divided on the basis of subject
matter i.e., whether qualitative or quantitative.
.Classifications:
- Individual Interviews: Interviewer meets a single person and interviews
him.
-Selection Interviews: Done for selection of people for certain Jobs.
Advantages: 1- More information at greater depth can be obtained
2-Resistance may be overcome by a skilled interviewer
3-Personal information can be obtained
Disadvantages: - It is an expensive Method
-Interviewer bias
-Respondent bias
-Time consuming

Questionnaires
A Questionnaire is sent (by post or by mail) to the persons concerned
with a request to answer the questions and return the Questionnaire. A
Questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed in a definite
order on a form. Steps for An Effective Questionnaire Prepare questions
(Formulate & choose types of questions, order them, write instructions,
make copies) Select your respondents Random/Selected Administer the
questionnaire (date, venue, time) Tabulate data collected Analyze and
interpret data collected
Classifications: - Open-ended questions This gives the respondents the
ability to respond in their own words.
-Close-ended or fixed alternative questions This allows the respondents to
choose one of the given alternatives.
Types: - Dichotomous questions and Multiple Questions.

Essentials of Good Questionnaire

-Should be short and simple
-Follow a sequence of questions from easy to difficult one
-Technical terms should be avoided
-Should provide adequate space for answers in questionnaire
-Directions regarding the filling of questionnaire should be given
-Physical Appearance
– Quality of paper, Color Sequence must be clear
.Advantages:
- Low cost –even when the universe is large and is widespread
Free from interviewer bias
Respondents have adequate time to think through the answers.
Respondents who are not easily approachable, can also be reached
conveniently.
Large samples can be used.
Disadvantages: -
Time consuming
The respondents need to be educated and cooperative This method is
slow
Possibility of unclear replies
.Schedules Very similar to Questionnaire method The main difference
is that a schedule is filled by the enumerator who is specially appointed
for the purpose. Enumerator goes to the respondents, asks them the
questions from the Questionnaire in the order listed, and records the
responses in the space provided. Enumerator must be trained in
administering the schedule.
Questionnaire Vs. Schedule Questionnaire
Q generally send to through mail and no further assistance from sender.
Q is cheaper method.
Non response is high
Incomplete and wrong information is more.
Depends on the quality of questionnaire Schedule
Schedule is filled by the enumerator or research worker.
Costly requires field workers.
Non response is low
Depends on Honesty of the enumerator. Relatively more correct and
complete

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