MODULE 2

Functional Testing
Boundary Value Testing (BVT)
Boundary Value Analysis
Robustness Testing
Worst Case Testing
Special Value Testing
Equivalence Class Testing
Decision Table Based testing
 Overview
• Any program can be considered to be a function
– Program inputs form its domain (function maps the value
from one set to another set)
– Program outputs form its range

• Boundary value analysis is the best known functional

testing technique.

• The objective of functional testing is to use knowledge of

the functional nature of a program to identify test cases.

• Historically, functional testing has focused on the input

domain, but it is a good supplement to consider test cases
based on the range as well.
 Boundary Value Analysis
• Boundary value analysis focuses on the boundary of the
input space to identify test cases.

• The reason behind boundary value analysis is that errors

tend to occur near the extreme values of an input
variable.

• Programs written in non-strongly typed languages

are more appropriate candidates for boundary value
testing.

• In our discussion we will assume a program P

accepting two inputs y1 and y2 such that a ≤ y1 ≤ b
and c ≤ y2 ≤ d
 Valid Input for Program P
• Consider the following function:

f (y1,y2), wher
a  y1 b ,c  y2 d
• Boundary inequalities of n input variables define an n-
dimensional input space: interval[a,b] and [c,d] is referred to
as ranges of y1 and y2

y2
d

a b y1
Value Selection in Boundary Value Analysis
• The basic idea in boundary value analysis is to select input
variable values at their:

– Minimum

– Just above the minimum

– A nominal value

– Just below the maximum

– Maximum
 Single Fault Assumption
• Boundary value analysis is also augmented by the single fault
assumption principle.
“Failures occur rarely as the result of the simultaneous
occurrence of two (or more) faults”

• In this respect, boundary value analysis test cases can be

obtained by holding the values of all but one variable at
their nominal values, and letting that variable assume its
extreme values.

• The reason basic boundary testing is affected by this

assumption is because this technique will create different
testing scenarios by focusing only the boundaries of a
single data input, disregarding the combination effect of
multiple inputs.
 Boundary Value Analysis for
Program P

y2
d ..
.. .. ..
c .
a b y1
T = { <y1nom, y2min>, <y1nom, y2min+>, <y1nom, y2nom>, <y1nom, y2max->,
<y1nom, y2max+>, <y1min, y2nom>, < 1nin+, y2nom>, <y1max-, y2nom>,
<y1max, y2nom> }
Example Test Cases Using Boundary
Value Analysis
Case # a b c Expected Output
1 100 100 1 Isosceles
2 100 100 2 Isosceles
3 100 100 100 Equilateral
4 100 100 199 Isosceles
5 100 100 200 Not a Triangle
6 100 1 100 Isosceles
7 100 2 100 Isosceles
8 100 100 100 Equilateral
9 100 199 100 Isosceles
10 100 200 100 Not a Triangle
11 1 100 100 Isosceles
12 2 100 100 Isosceles
13 100 100 100 Equilateral
14 199 100 100 Isosceles
15 200 100 100 Not a Triangle
 Generalizing Boundary Value Analysis
• The basic boundary value analysis can be generalized in two
ways:

1.By the number of variables - yields(4n +1) unique test

cases for n variables

2.By the kinds of ranges of variables

• Programming language dependent

• Bounded discrete(distinct)

• Unbounded discrete (no upper or lower bounds clearly

defined)

• Logical variables
 Limitations of Boundary Value Analysis
• Boundary value analysis works well when the program to
be tested is a function of several independent variables that
represent bounded physical quantities.

• We can distinguish between physical and logical type of

variables as well (e.g. temperature, pressure speed, or PIN
numbers, telephone numbers etc.) eg:feb in nextdate
problem. Stress occur on feb and leap year
 Robustness Testing
• Robustness testing is a simple extension of
boundary value analysis.
• In addition to the five boundary value analysis
values of variables, we add values slightly greater
that the maximum (max+) and a value slightly less
than the minimum (min-).

• The main value of robustness testing is to force

attention on exception handling.

• In some strongly typed languages values beyond

the predefined range will cause a run-time error.
Robustness Test Cases for Program P

y2
d
..
... .. …
c ..
a b y1
 Worst Case Testing
• In worst case testing we reject the single fault
assumption as we are interested what happens when
more than one variable has an extreme value.

• In this respect we can have 5n test cases for n input

variables.

• Worst case testing can be further augmented by

considering robust worst case testing (i.e. adding
slightly out of bounds values to the five already
considered).
Worst Case Testing for Program P

y2
d .... .. ....
.... .. ....
c .. . ..
a b y1
 Robust Worst Case Testing for
Program P

y2
d
...
...
... ... …
…
…
... . …
...
... ... …
…
c
... …
a b y1

In this respect we can have 7n test cases for n input variables.

 Output Boundary Value Test Cases
Case # Locks Stocks Barrels Sales Comm. Comments

1 1 1 1 100 10 min

2 10 10 9 975 97.5 border-

3 10 9 10 970 97 border-

4 9 10 10 955 95.5 border-

5 10 10 10 1000 100 border

6 10 10 11 1025 103.75 border+

7 10 11 10 1030 104.5 border+

8 11 10 10 1045 106.75 border+

 UNIT 2

Chapter 4
Equivalence Class Testing
 Equivalence Class Testing
• The use of equivalence class testing has two motivations:
– Sense of complete testing
– Avoid redundancy
• Equivalence classes form a partition of a set, that is a
collection of mutually disjoint subsets whose union is
the entire set.
• Two important implications for testing:
1. The fact that the entire set is represented provides a
form of completeness
2. The disjointedness assures a form of non-redundancy
 Equivalence Classes
• The idea of equivalence class testing is to identify test
cases by using one element from each equivalence class.

• If the equivalence classes are chosen wisely, this reduces the

potential redundancy among test cases.

• The key point in equivalence class testing is the choice of the

equivalence relation that determines the classes
(partitions).
• The Triangle Problem, for example, we would certainly have
a test case for an equilateral triangle, and we might pick the
triple (5, 5, 5) as inputs for a test case.

• If we did this, we would not expect to learn much from test

cases such as (6, 6, 6) and (100, 100, 100).

• Our intuition tells us that these would be "treated the same"

as the first test case, thus, they would be redundant.
 Equivalence Class Selection
• It tends to be a “key”:

– No dependence on knowledge of code, only the

specification

– Needs knowledge of input domain that usually goes

beyond what an interface design specification provides

» familiarity with specifications

– Must understand how inputs are mutually dependent.

• A function F of two variables, x1 and x2.

• When F is implemented as a program, the input

variable x1 and x2 will have following boundaries.

• Intervals within the boundaries:


a
x
1d,
with
int
ervals
[
a,
b),
[
b
,c
),
[
c
,d]

ex
2
g,
with
int
ervals
[
e
,f),
[f
,g]
 Example
• Let us consider a program P with 3 inputs: a, b and c and
the corresponding input domains are A, B, and C.

– define the partition:

A = A1 U A2 U A3
B = B1 U B2 U B3 U B4
C = C1 U C2
 
• Define a1, a2 and a3 as: a
1A1
,
a2
A2
,
a3
A3

– let ai be a “representative” or “typical” value within its

respective equivalence class (e.g. the midpoint in a linear
equivalence class).

– similarly define bi and ci.

• Test cases can be stated for the inputs <a,b,c> in terms of the
representative points.

• The basic idea behind the techniques is that one point within an
equivalence class is just as good as any other point within the
same class.
 Types of Equivalence testing
• There are four types of equivalence testing:
– Weak Normal equivalence class testing
– Strong Normal equivalence class testing
– Weak Robust equivalence class testing
– Strong Robust equivalence class testing
 Weak Normal Equivalence Class Testing
• Weak equivalence class testing is accomplished by using one variable from
each equivalence class (interval) in a test case (single fault assumption).

• The minimum number of test cases is equal to the number of classes in

the partition with the largest number of subsets.

• Always number of equivalence class test cases are same as classes in the
partition with the largest number of subsets.
 Strong Normal Equivalence Class Testing
• Strong equivalence class testing is based on the Cartesian Product of the
equivalence classes (multiple fault assumption).

• The Cartesian Product guarantees the notion of completeness in two

senses: we cover all the equivalence classes, and we have one of each
possible combinations of inputs
 Weak Robust!!! Equivalence Class Testing
• Robust comes from consideration of invalid values

• Strong- refers to the single fault assumptions

• Valid Inputs

– Use one value from each valid class (as in what we have
called weak normal equivalence class testing). In this context,
each input in these test cases will be valid.

• Invalid Inputs

– A test case will have one invalid value and the remaining
values will be valid. In this context, a “single failure” should
cause the test case to fail.
Weak Robust!!! Equivalence Class Testing
• Two problems occur with robust
equivalence testing.
• The first is that, very often, the specification does not
define what the expected output for an invalid test case
should be. Thus, testers spend a lot of time defining
expected outputs for these cases.

• The second problem is that strongly typed languages

eliminate the need for the consideration of invalid inputs.
Strong Robust Equivalence Class Testing
• Robust comes from consideration of invalid values

• Strong- refers to the multiple fault assumptions

• Test cases are obtained from each element of the Cartesian

product of all the equivalence classes.
 Example
• For example consider a program with two input
variables size and weight:
– valid ranges:
S1: 0 < size < 200
W1: 0 < weight < 1500
– corresponding invalid ranges might be:
S2: size200
S3: size0
W2: weight1500
W3: weight0
 Test Cases Example (Traditional
Equivalence Class Testing)

Test Case size weight Expected Output

WR1 100 750 whatever it should be

WR2 100 -1 invalid input

WR3 100 1500 invalid input

WR4 -1 750 invalid input

WR5 200 750 invalid input

 Equivalence Test Cases for the Triangle
Problem (Output Domain)
• In the problem statement we note that there are four possible outputs:
– Not a Triangle
– Isosceles
– Equilateral
– Scalene
• We can use these to identify output (range) equivalence classes:

R1= {<a, b, c> | the triangle with sides a, b, c, is equilateral}

R2= {<a, b, c> | the triangle with sides a, b, c, is isosceles}
R3= {<a, b, c> | the triangle with sides a, b, c, is scalene}
R4= {<a, b, c> | sides a, b, c do not form a triangle}

• These classes yield the following simple set of test cases:

Sample Test Cases based on Output
Domain
Test Case a b c Expected
Output

WN1 5 5 5 Equilateral

WN2 2 2 3 Isosceles

WN3 3 4 5 Scalene

WN4 4 1 2 Not a
Triangle
Table 1: Weak and Strong Normal class test cases
Table 2: Weak Robust class test cases
Table 3: Strong Robust class test cases
 Equivalence Test Cases for the Triangle
Problem (Input Domain)
• If we base the equivalence classes on the input domain, we
will obtain a larger set of test cases. We can define the sets:

D1= {<a,b,c> | a=b=c}

D2= {<a,b,c> | a=b, a≠c}

D3= {<a,b,c> | a=c, a≠b}

D4= {<a,b,c> | b=c, a≠b}

D5= {<a,b,c> | a≠b, a≠c, b≠c}

Equivalence Test Cases for the Triangle
Problem (Input Domain)
• As a separate property we can apply the triangle property
to see even if the input constitutes a triangle

D6= {<a, b, c> | a ≥ b+c}

D7= {<a, b, c> | b ≥ a+c}

D8= {<a, b, c> | c ≥ a+b}

• If we wanted also we could split D6 into

D6’={<a, b, c> | a = b+c} and

D6’’= {<a, b, c> | a > b+c}

Equivalence Test Cases for the NextDate
Problem (Input Domain)
• Nextdate is a function of three variables, month,
day, and year and these have ranges defined as:

1 ≤ month ≤ 12
1 ≤ day ≤ 31
1812 ≤ year ≤ 2012

• We will examine below the valid, invalid

equivalence classes, strong, and weak equivalence
class testing.
 Traditional Test Cases
• The valid equivalence classes are:
M1= {month | 1 ≤ month ≤ 12}
D1= {day | 1 ≤ day ≤ 31}
Y1= {year | 1812 ≤ year ≤ 2012}

The invalid equivalence classes are:

M2= {month | month < 1}
M3= {month | month > 12}
D2= {day | day < 1}
D3= {day | day > 31}
Y2= {year | year < 1812}
Y3= {year | year > 2012}

• These classes yield the following test cases, where the valid inputs are mechanically
selected from the approximate middle of the valid range:

Case ID Month Day Year Expected Output

WN1,SN1 6 15 1912 6/16/1912

 Traditional Test Cases
Case ID Month Day Year Expected
Output

WR1 6 15 1912 6/16/1912

WR2 -1 15 1912 Invalid

WR3 13 15 1912 Invalid

WR4 6 -1 1912 Invalid

WR5 6 32 1912 Invalid

WR6 6 15 1811 Invalid

WR7 6 15 2013 Invalid

Table 4: Weak Robust class test cases
Table 5: Strong Robust class test cases
 Choice of Equivalence Classes
• If we more carefully chose the equivalence relation, the
resulting equivalence classes will be more useful

M1= {month | month has 30 days}

M2= {month | month has 31 days}
M3= {month | month is February}
D1= {day | 1 ≤ day ≤ 28}
D2= {day | day = 29}
D3= {day | day = 30}
D4= {day | day=31}
Y1= {year | year = 1900}
Y2= {year | 1812 ≤ year ≤ 2012 AND year ≠ 1900 AND (0 =
year mod 4}
Y3= {year | 1812 ≤ year ≤ 2012 AND 0 ≠ year mod 4}
Weak Equivalence Class Test Cases

Case ID Month Day Year Expected

Output

WN1 6 14 1900 6/15/1900

WN2 7 29 1912 7/30/1912

WN3 2 30 1913 Invalid

WN4 6 31 1900 Invalid

Table 6: Weak Normal class test cases

 Strong Equivalence Test Cases
CASN ID Month Day Year Output

SN1 6 14 1900 6/15/1900

SN2 6 14 1912 6/15/1912

SN3 6 14 1913 6/15/1913

SN4 6 29 1900 6/30/1900

SN5 6 29 1912 6/30/1912

SN6 6 29 1913 6/30/1913

SN7 6 30 1900 7/1/1900

SN8 6 30 1912 7/1/1912

SN9 6 30 1913 7/1/1913

SN10 6 31 1900 ERROR

SN11 6 31 1912 ERROR

SN12 6 31 1913 ERROR

SN13 7 14 1900 7/15/1900

SN14 7 14 1912 7/15/1912

SN15 7 14 1913 7/15/1913

Strong Equivalence Test Classes
CASN ID Month Day Year Output

SN16 7 29 1900 7/30/1900

SN17 7 29 1912 7/30/1912

SN18 7 29 1913 7/30/1913

SN19 7 30 1900 7/31/1900

SN20 7 30 1912 7/31/1912

SN21 7 30 1913 7/31/1913

SN22 7 31 1900 8/1/1900

SN23 7 31 1912 8/1/1912

SN24 7 31 1913 8/1/1913

SN25 2 14 1900 2/15/1900

SN26 2 14 1912 2/15/1912

SN27 2 14 1913 2/15/1913

SN28 2 29 1900 ERROR

SN29 2 29 1912 3/1/1912

SN30 2 29 1913 ERROR

SN31 2 30 1900 ERROR

SN132 2 30 1912 ERROR

SN33 2 30 1913 ERROR

SN34 2 31 1900 ERROR

SN35 2 31 1912 ERROR

SN36 2 31 1913 ERROR

 Equivalence Test Cases for the
Commission Problem (Input Domain)
The valid input classes are:

The corresponding invalid input classes are:

Table 6: Weak Robust class test cases
 Equivalence Test Cases for the
Commission Problem (Output Domain)
Example Test Cases Using Output Range Values

Barrels 90
72

40
Locks
22.2 70
60

33.3

60
Stocks
80
 Guidelines and Considerations
• The weak forms of equivalence class testing (normal
or robust) are not as comprehensive(complete) as the
corresponding strong forms.

• If the implementation is strongly typed, it makes no

sense to use the robust forms.

• If error conditions is a priority we can extend strong

equivalence testing to include invalid classes’

• Equivalence class testing is appropriate when input

data is defined in terms of ranges and sets of
discrete values.
• Logic of functionality of the program can help
define the equivalence classes

• Strong equivalence takes the presumption that

variables are independent, otherwise it generates
some “error” test cases

• Can be strengthened by using it with domain

testing (boundary value):r elements at equivalence
class boundaries
– Reuse the work to define the ranges
– Does not consider
– Need to expand ECT to include BVT-like
requirements (domain testing)
 UNIT 2

Chapter 5
Decision Table-Based Testing
 Decision Tables - General
• Decision tables have been used to represent and
analyze complex logical relationships (since 1960s).
• Decision tables, like if-then-else and switch-case
statements, associate conditions with actions to
perform.
• A decision table has four portions: the left-most column
is the stub portion; and to the right is the entry
portion.
• The condition portion is noted by c’s, and the action
portion is noted by a’s.
• Thus, decision table consisting of 4 areas called the
condition stub, condition entry, action stub and the action
entry
 Decision Tables - Structure
Conditions - (Condition stub) Condition Alternatives –
(Condition Entry)
Actions – (Action Stub) Action Entries

• Each condition corresponds to a variable, relation or predicate

• Possible values for conditions are listed among the
condition alternatives
• Boolean values (true/false, yes/no, 0/1) – Limited Entry
Decision Tables(triangle)
• Several values – Extended Entry Decision Tables(next
date)
• Don’t care value

• Each action is a procedure or operation to perform

• The entries specify whether (or in what order) the action is to
be performed
• A column in the entry portion is a rule.
• Rules indicate which actions, if any, are taken for the
circumstances indicated in the condition portion of the rule.
Condition entry

Condition
stub

Action stub

Action Entry

• The condition portion of a DT is a truth table that has been rotated 90o(ATM)
 Decision Table - Example
Printer does not print Y Y Y Y N N N N

A red light is flashing Y Y N N Y Y N N

Conditions
Printer is unrecognized
Y N Y N Y N Y N

check the power cable X

Check the printer-computer cable X X

Actions Ensure printer software is installed X X X X

Check/replace ink X X X X

Check for paper jam X X

Printer Troubleshooting
 Decision Tables - Usage
• The use of the decision-table model is applicable when :
– the specification is given or can be converted to a
decision table .

– once a rule is satisfied and the action selected, no other

rule need be examined.

– the order of executing actions in a satisfied rule is of no

consequence.
 Decision Tables - Issues
• Before using the tables, ensure:

– Rules must be complete

• every combination of predicate truth values plus
default cases are explicit in the decision table

– Rules must be consistent (unchanging in

nature))
• every combination of predicate truth values results in
only one action or set of actions
 Test Case Design
• To identify test cases with decision tables, we interpret
conditions as inputs, and actions as outputs.

• Sometimes conditions end up referring to

equivalence classes of inputs, and actions refer to
major functional processing portions of the item being
tested.

• The rules are then interpreted as test cases.

• One helpful style of producing DT is to add an action

to show when a rule is logically impossible.
 Mutually Exclusive conditions
• When conditions refers to equivalence classes, DT have a
characteristic appearance.
• The conditions may be mutually exclusive (NextDate Function)
• The don’t care entries (-) really mean “must be false”.
• So some decision tables use notation as F! to make this point.

• For a limited entry DT, if ‘n’ conditions exist, then there must be
2n rules.
• When a don’t care entries really indicate that the condition is
irrelevant, we can develop the rule count as follows:
“rules in which no don’t care entries occur as one rule,
and each don’t care entry in a rule doubles the count
of that rule”.
 •Notice that the sum of the rule count is 64 in Table 7.5.

•We should have only eight rules, so we have a problem.

•To see the where the problem lies, we expand each of the three
rules, replacing ‘-’ entry with ‘T’ and ‘F’ possibilities as next.
Test Cases for the Triangle Problem
Case ID a b c Expected
Output
DT1 4 1 2 Not a Triangle
DT2 1 4 2 Not a Triangle
DT3 1 2 4 Not a Triangle
DT4 5 5 5 Equilateral
DT5 ? ? ? Impossible
DT6 ? ? ? Impossible
DT7 2 2 3 Isosceles
DT8 ? ? ? Impossible
DT9 2 3 2 Isosceles
DT10 3 2 2 Isosceles
DT11 3 4 5 Scalene
 Decision Table for NextDate
(First Attempt)
• Let us consider the following equivalence classes:

M1= {month | month has 30 days}

M2= {month | month has 31 days}
M3= {month | month is February}
D1= {day | 1 ≤ day ≤ 28}
D2= {day | day = 29}
D3= {day | day = 30}
D4= {day | day=31}
Y1= {year | year is a leap year}
Y2= {year | year is a common year}
• If we wish to highlight impossible conditions, we could make limited entry
decision table with following conditions and actions.
 Decision Table for NextDate
(Second Attempt)
• Let us consider the following equivalence classes:

M1= {month | month has 30 days}

M2= {month | month has 31 days}
M3= {month | month is February}
D1= {day | 1 ≤ day ≤ 28}
D2= {day | day = 29}
D3= {day | day = 30}
D4= {day | day = 31}
Y1= {year | year = 2000}
Y2= {year | year is a non-centenary leap year}
Y3= {year | year is a common year}

• These classes have a Cartesian product that contains 36 entries (test cases),
with several that are impossible.
Decision Table for NextDate (1)
Conditions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
C1: month in M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M2

C2: day in D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D3 D4

C3: year in - - - - - - - -

Rule count 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Actions
A1: Impossible X

A2: Increment day X X X X X

A3: Reset day X X

A4: Increment month X ?

A5: reset month ?

A6: Increment year ?

Decision Table for NextDate (2)
Conditions 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
C1: month in M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M3

C2: day in D1 D1 D1 D2 D2 D2 D3 D3

C3: year in Y1 Y2 Y3 Y1 Y2 Y3 - -

Rule count 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3

Actions
A1: Impossible X X X X

A2: Increment day X

A3: Reset day X X X

A4: Increment month X X X

A5: reset month

A6: Increment year
 Decision Table for NextDate
(Third Attempt)
• Let us consider the following equivalence classes:

M1= {month | month has 30 days}

M2= {month | month has 31 days except December}
M3= {month | month is December}
M4= {month | month is February}
D1= {day | 1 ≤ day ≤ 27}
D2= {day | day = 28}
D3= {day | day = 29}
D4= {day | day = 30}
D5= {day | day = 31}
Y1= {year | year is a leap year}
Y2= {year | year is a common year}

• These classes have a Cartesian product that contains 40 entries (test cases),
with several that are impossible.
 Decision Table for NextDate (1)
Conditions 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C1: month in M1 M1 M1 M1 M1 M2 M2 M2 M2 M2

C2: day in D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5

C3: year in - - - - - - - - - -

Actions
A1: Impossible X

A2: Increment day X X X X X X X

A3: Reset day X X

A4: Increment month X X

A5: reset month

A6: Increment year
 Decision Table for NextDate (2)
Conditions 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
C1: month in M3 M3 M3 M3 M3 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4 M4

C2: day in D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D1 D2 D2 D3 D3 D4 D5

C3: year in - - - - - - Y1 Y2 Y1 Y2 - -

Actions
A1: Impossible X X X

A2: Increment day X X X X X X

A3: Reset day X X X

A4: Increment month X X

A5: reset month X

A6: Increment year X

 Guidelines and Observations
• Decision Table testing is most appropriate for programs
where
– There is a lot of decision making
– There are important logical relationships among input variables
– There are calculations involving subsets of input variables
– There are cause and effect relationships between input and output
– There is complex computation logic (high cyclomatic complexity)

• Decision tables do not scale up very well

• Decision tables can be iteratively refined