Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 501 ..

Electric Motors

UNIT 5
ELECTRIC MOTORS
(Prerequisites: Concepts of magnetic circuit, electromagnetic induction.)
(Key words: Stator, rotor, torque. speed.)
5.1 Introduction
An electric motor takes electric power input and converts it into mechanical power output.
For such a conversion, magnetic flux is necessary. Electric motor is a rotary machine. It has
basically two parts- stator and rotor. Today, electric motors are available in a wide range of
size, power rating and performance characteristics. Due to easy availability and other
advantages of electric supply, electric motors are used instead of engines in many applications
in industry, railways and other locomotives, domestic equipment, commercial equipment and
scientific works.
5.2 Basic principle of electric motor
In any electric motor, two magnetic fluxes are necessary to produce the rotation. One flux
is produced by the stator and second flux is produced by the rotor. Direction of the two fluxes
should be different at some location on the rotor. Generally, the stator flux is a strong flux and
rotor flux is a weaker flux. The rotor flux disturbs the stator flux at local points. Hence, the
resultant flux at that location is a vector sum of these two fluxes. (Refer to the figure below.)

N
N N

Force

S S
S

Flux 2 due to Reshaping of flux lines Regaining the original distribution

Flux 1 due to stator
Rotor conductor In the common region => Production of flux

Fig: Interaction between two magnetic fluxes and resulting force

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The reshaped flux lines tend to regain the original shape of the stronger flux. Due to this, a
force acts on the movable member (rotor). Direction of the force is opposite to the direction of
distortion. (Refer to the figure.)
This force has one component along the tangent to the rotor circumference. Due to this
component, a torque is produced. Hence the rotor starts rotating.
5.3 Fleming’s left hand rule
Usually, in an electric motor, at least one of the magnetic flux is produced by passing
electric current in a winding. For example, in the previous figure, current is passed in a
conductor mounted on the rotor. This produces magnetic flux lines in the form of concentric
circles around the conductor. (Direction of this circular flux depends on direction of current in
the conductor.) In such a case, Fleming’s left hand rule is a technique to obtain the force
direction.
Fleming’s left hand rule: Whenever a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic
field, a force is exerted on the conductor. To obtain the direction of the force, hold the first 3
fingers of the left hand such that the pointing finger indicates direction of background magnetic
flux and the longest finger indicates direction of the current in conductor. Then, the thumb
indicates direction of the force on conductor.

Force on conductor
(Thumb)

Flux
Magnetic flux downwards
Current in the conductor current
(pointing finger)
(Longest finger) Out of the plane

Fig.: Fleming’s left hand rule

5.4 Effect of rotor speed on the torque in electric motor
When voltage is applied to a stationary electric motor, a torque is produced in it. Due to the
torque, the rotor rotates. The rotor speed goes on increasing in the initial acceleration period.
Due to the rotation, other effects like induction, power loss etc. occur in the motor. These
effects may change the magnetic fluxes inside the motor. Hence, the torque changes. Thus, the
speed affects the torque. The speed and the torque change until a balance is achieved. Then, the
values of speed and torque stabilize. Similarly, whenever, any other parameter changes (e.g.
supply voltage, frequency, load etc.), immediately the speed changes. Then, due to change in
the speed, the torque changes. Soon, a new balance is attained.
The plot of all such speed-torque points for different values of load (but for constant
value of other parameters) is called as speed torque characteristics of the motor.
5.5 HP rating of a motor
Horse power is the unit of mechanical power.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 503 .. Electric Motors

For electric motors, 1 hp = 746 W (British hp)

Let N= speed in rpm and T= torque in Nm
Then, Mechanical power developed by motor = Watt

Hence, hp rating of motor = where T = full load torque in Nm

5.6 Types of electric motors
Depending on the nature of supply voltage, electric motors can be classified as
(i)AC motors ii)DC motors (iii)AC-DC motors (iv)Digital motors
(i) AC motors-
They became popular due to easy availability of AC supply. They have following main features-
1. Robust construction. Hence, less maintenance is required.
2. Large output for small sizes.
3. Low cost.
4. A large range of characteristics available with different types of a.c. motors.
(ii)DC motors-
1. They can be controlled in a better way.
2. They can be run at very low speeds.
3. A large range of characteristics available with different types of d.c. motors.
(iii) AC- DC motors-
These are useful because they can be operate on ac supply or dc supply.
(iv)Digital motors-
They operate on digital supply i.e. voltage pulses.

5.7 DC motor
Construction of DC Motor:
Main parts : 1. Field System on the stator
2. Armature system on the rotor
3. Commutator and brushes
1. Field System: Field system consists of magnets. Electromagnets are used in bigger
motors, permanent magnets are used in small motors. There are two parts in an electromagnet.
They are- (main) poles and (main) field winding.
Each pole has two parts- Pole core and pole shoe. Pole core is rectangular shaped and the
pole shoe is wider then pole core. Poles are made of insulated steel laminations. Insulated
laminations are used to reduce the dynamically induced eddy currents in the pole. i.e. to reduce
the eddy current loss.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 504 .. Electric Motors

Field winding

Pole shoe
Pole core
Yoke

Interpole
winding

Interpole

Armature winding Armature core

Fig.: DC Motor

The poles are fitted on the inner surface of the cylindrical body (yoke) of the motor.
The Field winding is an insulated Copper wire wound on the poles. When dc current is
passed in the field winding, N –S –N –S... sequence of the magnetic poles is formed on the
stator circumference. Field winding terminals are available on the terminal box.
When a d.c. current is passed in the field winding, a dc magnetic flux is produced at the
poles. This is called as the ‘main flux’. The pole shoes spread the main flux over the armature.
Yoke: Yoke is the outermost cylindrical body of the motor. It is made of cast iron or cast steel
or rolled steel.
Interpoles and interpole winding: These are sometimes used in a bigger d.c. motor to
improve the commutation. Interpole size is smaller than the main pole, Each interpole is fitted
to the yoke between N and S main poles. The interpole winding is wound on the interpole.
Interpole winding is connected in series with the armature winding.
2. Armature system : It consists of the armature core and the armature winding.
The armature core is a steel cylinder fitted on the central shaft of the motor. The armature
core has slots on its outer surface. The slots are parallel to the axis of motor. The armature is
made of insulated, circular steel laminations. Laminations are used to reduce the dynamically
induced eddy currents in the armature core. i.e to reduce the eddy current loss. . .
. . The armature winding is made using insulated Copper conductors. The conductors are laid
in insulated armature slots. A single slot may contain many conductors.
One end of each conductor is connected to another conductor in a different slot. Other end
of each conductor is connected to a commutator segment. Thus, the armature winding is formed.
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Types of the armature winding : Wave winding, Lap winding

When a d.c. current is passed in the armature winding, each armature conductor produces a
magnetic flux. Interaction between this ‘conductor flux’ and the ‘main flux’ results into a force
on the armature conductors.
3. Commutator and brushes :
The commutator is a ring of copper segments. Each segment is wedge shaped.
Neighbouring segments are insulated from each other using mica layers. The commutator ring
is mounted on one end of the motor shaft. The commutator is insulated from the shaft. Each
segment is connected to an armature conductor.
Each brush is a rectangular Carbon piece. The brushes are fixed on the stator body at one
end of the motor. Each brush is pressed on the commutator surface. The number of brushes is
equal to the number of main poles. The brushes are connected to armature terminals. Armature
terminals and field terminals are available on the terminal box on stator.
The brushes and the commutator segments are useful to connect the armature winding to
the d.c. supply.
Function of all parts in a d.c. motor :
1.Yoke To protect the inner parts.
To provide a low reluctance path for magnetic flux.
To provide mechanical support to the poles.
2.Main poles Main Pole core To concentrate the magnetic flux produced by the
. field winding.
Pole shoe To spread the magnetic flux over the armature surface.
To support the field winding.
Field winding To produce main magnetic flux when conducting a
current.
3. Interpoles Interpole To concentrate interpole flux.
Interpole winding To produce a flux that helps to improve the
commutation.
4. Armature Armature core To house the armature conductors .
To provide a low reluctance path to the main flux.
Armature windng To produce a force and torque.
5. Commutator To connect the armature conductors to the dc supply
Commutator (through the brushes).
and brushes To reverse the current in the armature conductor at the
mag. neutral plane & make the torque unidirectional.
Brushes Connect the commutator to the dc supply.
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5.8 Working of dc motor

 When dc voltage is applied to the motor, dc current flows in the field winding and the
armature winding.
N and S poles are formed on the stator and magnetic flux is produced. Also, each armature
conductor produces its own magnetic flux.
 Interaction between these two fluxes results in a force on each conductor.
Magnitude of the force on each conductor is given by F =B I L where B = flux density around
the conductor, I = current in the armature conductor, L=length of the armature conductor.
Direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule. One component of this force that is
tangential to the armature cylinder results into a torque.
N pole

Conductor current outwards

F
F

Ia Tangential component
flux .of Force
….

Magnetic Neutral plane Torque clockwise

Ia
Torque clockwise
F
F flux

Conductor current intwards

S pole

Fig.: Working of dc motor

Due to the torque, the conductors rotate i.e. the armature rotates. Net torque is the sum of
torques produced by all armature conductors.
 All conductors should produce a torque in the same direction. Hence, conductors under
opposite natured poles should conduct current in opposite directions. In other words, when
same conductor is under opposite natured poles, current in it should be in opposite
direction.
 But, the dc source always supplies the current in one direction. Hence, connection of a
conductor to the dc supply are reversed at the magnetic neutral plane. Commutator is used for
this reversal.
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5.9 Drawbacks of dc motor

1. Due to the friction between the commutator and brush, the brushes need to be replaced often.
More maintenance is required.
2. Sparking occurs at brushes. So the motor cannot be used in hazardous and explosive
environment.

5.10 Types of d.c. motors

1. Permanent magnet d.c. motor (Permanent magnets produce the Magnetic field .)
2. Separately excited d.c. motor (Electromagnets produce the magnetic field. Field winding and
the armature winding are excited from separate d.c. sources.)
3. Shunt d.c. motor (Electromagnets produce the magnetic field. Field winding and the armature
winding are connected in parallel and excited from a common source.)
4. Series d.c. motor (Electromagnets produce the magnetic field. Field winding and the armature
winding are connected in series and excited from a common source.)
5. Compound d.c. motor ( Two field windings are used. One field winding is connected in
parallel with the armature winding and the other field winding is connected in series with
armature winding. The circuit is connected to a common source.)

1PM motor 2 Separately excited motor 3 Shunt motor 4 Series motor 5 Compound motor

When there is no mechanical load on the motor, the motor takes very small armature
current. Output power is zero. But, the motor takes a small input power. Thus input
power at no load = power loss . When mechanical load is present, the motor supplies
output power to the load. So, it takes more input power (V*I ) from dc source. Hence, it
takes more armature current.
WHEN MECHANICAL LOAD ON THE MOTOR INCREASES, THE ARMATURE CURRENT Ia
INCREASES, THE SPEED DECREASES AND TORQUE INCREASES .

The mechanical commutator is the reason of sparking and wear. To eliminate these
drawbacks, the brushless DC motor is designed with electronic commutation. In this
motor, permanent magnets are placed on the rotor and the armature windings are located
on the stator. The winding is connected to dc supply through power electronic circuit.
Position sensors are used to sense position of the rotor and based on that position, the
power electronics circuit decides the direction of current in the armature conductors.
BLDC motors are small in size, reliable and they are particularly suited to high-speed
operation, around 1000 rpm.
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5.11 Speed torque characteristics of dc motor

 Torque of a dc motor is T = ϕ Ia

 Speed of a dc motor is N = where V=Supply voltage, Ia = Armature

current, Ra = resistance of the armature winding, ϕ = main flux produced by field
winding current ‘If’. Hence, ϕ  If . A, Z, P are certain constants.
 Thus, T  If Ia -----------------------(1)
N ------------------------(2)

In a dc motor, if mechanical load increases, armature current Ia increases.

Then, from (1), the torque increases
and from (2), the speed decreases due to the term ‘–IaRa’ in the numerator.

(i) For a series motor,

1. Field winding is connected in series with the armature winding. Hence, field current
and armature current are same. Hence, N  .
2. As mechanical load increases, armature current Ia increases, speed decreases by a
large value due to the term Ia in the denominator.
3. At no load, Ia is negligible. i.e. If is negligible. Hence, speed is infinite at no load. The
motor should never be used at no load.
4. As T  Ia2 , the series motor develops higher starting torque than a shunt motor.
5. Used to drive electric trains, cranes, hoists, lifts, elevators.
(ii) For a shunt motor,
1. Field winding is connected in parallel with armature.
2. The field current and magnetic flux do not depend on mechanical load.
3. When the mechanical load increases, the speed decreases by a very small value, speed
is almost constant at all loads.
4. The shunt motor has finite speed at no load.
5. Used to drive constant speed lathes. Used in control engineering, machine tools, robots.
(The performance of a separately excited dc motor and permanent magnet motor is similar
to shunt motor. Their applications are also similar.)
(iii) A compound motor
1. It has both shunt field and series field. Hence, it combines the features of shunt motor
and series motor. For small load, small Ia, it behaves as a shunt motor. For large load,
large Ia, it behaves as a series motor.
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2. In this motor, as mechanical load increases, the decrease in the speed is more than in
the shunt motor, but less than in the series motor.
3. The motor has finite speed at no load.
4. The motor develops high starting torque as compared to shunt motor.
5. Used for punching machines, metal shears, presses, cranes, hoists, lifts, elevators
(iv)Permanent magnet dc motor
1. Main flux produced by permanent magnets is constant. Hence size of the machine is
small.
2. This motor can be controlled accurately by varying voltage applied to the armature.
Hence, these machines are used in controlling equipment, in robotics etc.

Series motor Shunt motor Compound motor

5.12 Universal Motor (AC/ DC series motor)

Introduction:
Universal motor is a motor that can operate on ac supply as well as dc supply. The idea of
developing such a motor was inspired from the fact that a d.c. series motor continues to run in
same direction even when the supply current is reversed.
Thus, the universal motor is a series motor i.e. its field winding and armature winding are
connected in series. If a dc series motor is operated on ac supply, its performance is
deteriorated. But, an universal motor has improved design. Hence, this drawback is removed.

slots
Armature Armature
core ….winding

Fig.: (i) and (ii)Stator (iii) rotor

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Universal motor has almost same speed torque characteristics on both types of supply. Just like
a dc series motor, universal motor also has high starting torque and high speed.

5.13 Types of the universal motor

1. Salient pole type uncompensated universal motor: Its performance is poorer as
compared to Distributed field type motor.
2. Distributed field type compensated universal motor :

Armature
winding
AC or DC
Armature
supply
winding

AC or DC Field
Field supply winding
winding

Fig.: Symbol for Uncompensated universal motors

5.14 Construction of salient pole (uncompensated) universal motor

Main parts : Stator or field system, Rotor or armature system.
Stator: In a salient pole type uncompensated universal motor the stator is cylindrical in
shape with only two salient poles.
A small number of poles helps to reduce the iron loss in the salient pole universal motor. As
cross sectional area of pole is more, the flux density is less.
Stator core: Cast iron or Steel is used to construct the stator core. A bunch of ring shaped,
insulated laminations is bolted together to form the cylindrical stator core. Rectangular steel
laminations are bolted together to form poles. Poles are bolted to stator core.
Field winding: Insulated Copper wire is wound around the poles to form a concentrated
winding. Impregnated cotton is used as insulation between layers and as insulation between pole
and the winding. Ends of the winding are connected to the brushes.
Rotor or armature system :The rotor consists of a core, winding and a commutator.
Rotor core: The core is cylindrical in shape with slots on outer surface to house winding. The
core is fitted on a shaft. To form the core, insulated, circular, slotted steel stampings are used.
The slots may be parallel to the shaft. But in some motors the slots are skewed to minimize
magnetic hum and to suppress locking tendency of the rotor.
Armature winding: Insulated Copper conductors are inserted in the slots. Impregnated cotton
is used as insulation between two layers and as insulation from core. Each armature conductor
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 511 .. Electric Motors

is connected to other conductor at one end and at the other end, it is connected to a commutator
segment.
Commutator : It is a ring made of Copper or brass segments and mounted on shaft. The
segments are insulated from each other and from the shaft. Commutator slides under the
brushes. Commutator connects the armature winding to the supply. The commutator reverses
current in each armature conductor at Magnetic Neutral Plane. Due to this torque produced by
all conductors has same direction.
Brushes: Rectangular Carbon pieces are mounted on stator. The stationary brush contacts the
surface of rotating commutator.To improve commutation, large brush area is used.

5.15 Working of universal motor

(i)Opeartion on d.c. supply:
 When dc voltage is applied to the motor, current flows in the field winding and the
armature winding. (As both these windings are connected in series, same current flows in them.)
Due to field winding current, magnetic flux is produced. ( Location of N and S pole depends on
direction of the field current. As direction of dc current is constant, the locations of the N and S
poles on the stator is fixed for operation on dc supply. )
Each armature conductor produces its own magnetic flux.
 Interaction between the stator flux and the armature conductor flux results in a force on
each conductor.
Magnitude of such force on each conductor is given by F =BIL where B = flux density around
the conductor, I = current in the armature conductor, L=length of the armature conductor.
Direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule. One component of this force that is
tangential to the armature cylinder- results into a torque.
Due to the torque, the conductor rotates i.e. the armature rotates. Net torque is the sum of
torques produced by all armature conductors.
Reversal due to commutator Reversals due to ac supply
Conductor position changes , flux (conductor position same,

N . combination
direction same , Ia reversed If and Ia reverse)

If If
N N S
If
Ia F
Ф T
Ia
F
Ф x T F  T
x
Ia
S S If
S x combination
N
For same direction of If and
same flux direction
N . combination
Only Ia is reversed by the commutator.

Fig. Two types of reversals in the universal motor

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 512 .. Electric Motors

 All conductors should produce a torque in same direction. Hence, Conductors under
opposite poles should conduct current in opposite directions. In other words, when under
opposite poles, the conductor should conduct current in opposite directions. But the current
supplied by dc source has only one direction. Hence, connection of each conductor to the
source is reversed at the magnetic neutral plane. Commutator is used for this reversal. (Note that
the current in a conductor is reversed because its position has changed to opposite side of
MNP.)
(ii) Operation with ac supply:
 Unidirectional torque is produced exactly in the same way as with dc supply.
Commutator action is also the same.
 We know that ac supply current reverses repeatedly. When supply current reverses, both
the armature current and field current reverse at the same instant (because they are connected
in series and same supply current flows through them.) Hence, direction of flux under a pole
reverses and direction of current in the conductor under that pole reverses at the same instant.
(Note that conductor is at same position at this instant.)

Flux
upwards
current
Into the plane

Flux
downwards
current
Out of the plane

Flux and current in (i)first half cycle (ii) next half cycle
Fig.: Fleming’s left hand rule

By Fleming’s left hand rule, it is seen that, force direction and torque direction do not change if
both the flux and current reverse. Hence the motor continues to run in same direction.

With a sinusoidal a.c. supply, magnitude of current varies time. Hence, magnitude of the
torque varies with time.

Mathematical proof for torque direction with ac current:

Torque produced by any motor is proportional to stator magnetic flux and rotor current.
Stator flux is proportional to field current. But, in a series motor, as field winding and
armature winding are connected in series, field current is nothing but the armature current .
Hence, T α Ia2
This means whether Ia is +ve or –ve, T is always +ve. i.e. even when ac supply is given to the
motor, it produces unidirectional torque.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 513 .. Electric Motors

Torque

Torque with dc current Torque with ac current With DC supply

With AC supply

time t time t speed

With ac supply, magnetic flux is ac. This results in more hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss in the magnetic parts. This increases heating of the motor.
5.16 Advantages and drawbacks of universal motor
Advantages:
1. The motor provides high starting torque.
2. The motor has high speed- From 3000 rpm to 30000rpm
3. Its size and weight are smaller for a certain output power, due to high speed.
4. In practice, no load speed is limited to safe value by increasing friction to rotation. Hence
the motor can also be operated at no load.
5. Electronic control of universal motor is relatively easy.
6. It can operate on dc supply or ac supply.

Drawbacks:
1. Its operation is noisy due to friction at the commutator.
2. The commutation problem is severe.

5.17 Applications of universal motor

The universal motor is used in mixers, blenders and other kitchen appliances, vacuum
cleaner, hair drier, sewing machine, washing machine, drilling machine, circular saw, jig saw,
weed trimmer, blower, polisher etc.

5.18 Single phase induction motor

Introduction:
This is a general purpose motor. Its speed is almost constant when mechanical load on this
motor changes.
Generally, in an electric motor, current in the rotor conductors produces rotor flux. In
induction motor, the rotor current is obtained by mutual induction from a moving magnetic
flux. In single phase induction motor, for production of the moving magnetic flux two ac
magnetic fluxes with a ‘phase difference and axial displacement’ are necessary.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 514 .. Electric Motors

5.19 Types of single phase induction motor

Depending upon the method of obtaining a moving ac magnetic fluxes, there are following
type of induction motor--
1. Split Phase induction motor
(Subtypes: i)Resistance start motor
ii)Capacitor start motor
iii)Capacitor run motor or permanent split phase induction motor
iv)Capacitor start, capacitor run motor or two capacitor motor )
2. Shaded pole induction motor (No subtypes)

5.20 Operating Principle of split phase induction motor

On this motor, there are two stator windings electrically 90° apart. A capacitor (orresistor)
is connected in series with one winding. The two windings are connected in parallel across a
common ac source.
When single phase ac voltage is applied to the stator windings, currents in them have a
phase difference of approx. 90°. Each winding produces an ac magnetic flux. These two ac
magnetic fluxes have their axes electrically 90° apart and they have a phase difference of 90°.
Resultant of these fluxes is a rotating magnetic flux (RMF). This flux has a fixed magnitude and
fixed speed = where f is supply frequency and P is number of stator poles.

Amplitude
Фm
φ1 Flux due to im
φ2 flux due to ia

t1 t2 t3 t4 t5

0.707Фm
Resultant
Flux 0.707Фm
Фm Фm Фm Фm Фm

Production of RMF: Magnetic axes of Φ1 and Φ2 make 90° electrical angle, say, axis of
Φ1 is horizontal and axis of Φ2 is vertical. Further, during its +ve cycle, Φ1 points
rightwards and during –ve cycle, it points leftwards. Similarly, during its +ve cycle, Φ2
points upwards and during –ve cycle, it points downwards.
At t1, Φ1=0, Φ2= -Φm Resultant flux magnitude is Φm with direction downwards.
At t2, Φ1=Φm, Φ2=0 Resultant flux magnitude is Φm with direction rightwards.
At t3, Φ1=0, Φ2=+Φm Resultant flux magnitude is Φm with direction upwards.
At t4, Φ1= -Φm, Φ2=0 Resultant flux magnitude is Φm with direction leftwards.
Thus, magnitude of the resultant flux is constant, but its direction is continuously
changing i.e. The flux rotates continuously.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 515 .. Electric Motors

The rotating flux links with the rotor and induces an emf in them. Hence, current flows in
these conductors. (Direction of the induced current is obtained by Fleming’s right hand rule.
(Refer to following figure. )
The rotor current also produces another flux. Due to the interaction between stator flux and
the rotor flux, a force is produced. Direction of the force on the rotor conductors is obtained by
Fleming’s left hand rule. (Refer to the following figure.) Tangential component of the force
results into a torque. Hence the rotor starts rotating.
flux upwards flux upwards

Relative flux
Movement movement
of conductor emf emf torque
inwards inwards

Fig.: (i) Direction of induced current (ii) Direction of torque

Direction of the torque is also explained using Lenz’s law. Lenz’s law says that the
direction of emf induced in the rotor and hence the torque direction is so as to oppose the
very cause of induction i.e. relative movement between rotor and RMF. If rotor rotates in a
direction same as the rotational direction of flux, only then the relative movement of flux
decreases.

5.21 Synchronus speed and Slip

In induction motor, the magnetic flux produced by stator rotates at a fixed speed. This
speed is called as synchronous speed ‘ ’. Rotor rotates in same direction as the stator
magnetic flux (RMF). But, the rotor speed is always less than speed of the RMF. This is due to
the power loss in the rotor. The phenomenon wherein ‘rotor falls behind the RMF’ is called
as slip.
-
Slip =
-
Slip s =
At the time of starting, N=0. Hence slip =1.
At no load, s is very small. (Ideally, at no load N= Ns , slip =0)
Thus range of slip is 1 to 0.
As the mechanical load increases, speed of the motor decreases slightly. i.e. the slip
increases slightly. However, change in the slip from no load to full load is very small - typically
about 2% to 5%. Hence for all practical purposes, induction motor is useful as a constant speed
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 516 .. Electric Motors

motor. Without slip, the torque cannot be produced and mechanical power cannot be delivered.
Hence, the slip is necessary in the induction motor.
If the rotor catches up the RMF i.e. N= Ns or slip=0, then there is no relative movement
between the flux and the rotor. Hence induction is not possible, and torque is not produced.
In the absence of the torque, rotor slows down and again the slip is introduced. Thus the
induction motor can run continuously only because slip is not zero.

5.22 Capacitor run induction motor (Permanent split phase induction motor)
Construction:
Main parts of an induction motor are stator and rotor.
Stator: It consists of a core and two windings.

Fig.: Stator and rotor of single phase capacitor run type induction motor

Stator core:
It is a hollow cylinder with slots on the inner surface. The core is constructed using
insulated steel laminations. A large number of such laminations are bolted together to obtain
required length of the core cylinder.
Stator Windings:
Insulated Copper conductors are used to form two windings--Main winding and Starting
winding or auxiliary winding. These two windings are placed in the stator slots. Impregnated
cotton is used as insulation in the stator slots. The two windings are distributed over the stator
such that there is 90°electrical position difference between them.
An external capacitor is connected in series with the auxiliary winding. Generally, 2 microF to
20 microF capacitors can be used. Then the two windings are connected in parallel.
Rotor:
In single phase induction motor, squirrel cage type rotor is used. It consists of a core and a
cage structure.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 517 .. Electric Motors

Rotor core: It is a solid steel cylinder mounted on the shaft. It may be formed using circular
laminations. Lengthwise parallel slots are provided on surface. These slots are not parallel to
shaft, but given a skew to avoid locking tendency of rotor.
Cage structure: Thick copper bar is inserted in each slot. All the bars are shorted at two ends
using thick Copper rings. The rings and the bars together looks like a squirrel cage.

Fig.: Capacitor run type induction motor

5.23 Working of capacitor run induction motor

When main winding and auxiliary winding are connected in parallel with ac supply, supply
current is split into two components Im and Ia. Due to the difference in reactance of the two
parallel paths, Im lags supply voltage by about 40°; but, Ia leads supply voltage by about 60°.
Hence, there is a phase difference of more than 90° between Im and Ia. Each current produces ac
magnetic flux. Resultant of these fluxes is a constant magnitude rotating magnetic flux
(RMF)with speed of where f is supply frequency and P is number of stator poles. The
rotating flux links with rotor conductors and induces an emf in them. Hence current flows in
the rotor conductors. Every rotor conductor produces own magnetic flux. Due to the interaction
between the stator flux and the rotor flux, a force is produced. Tangential component of the flux
results into a torque. Hence rotor rotates in same direction as the RMF. But, rotor speed is less
than the speed of RMF.
Ia Torque

V
High
IT starting
torque
Im
speed
Ns

Fig.: Phasors and torque speed characteristics

5.24 Advantages and drawbacks of capacitor run induction motor
Advantages:
1. High starting torque.
2. Operation is smoother and quieter.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 518 .. Electric Motors

3. High power factor of the supply current drawn, because the supply current is phasor sum of
a leading current Ia and a lagging current Im .
4. Direction of rotation can be easily reversed externally, by changing location of capacitor from
one winding to other winding.
Drawbacks:
1. With 50 Hz frequency supply, maximum speed of the motor can be 3000 rpm. ( Speed of the
induction motor is always less than 120 f/P. Minimum number of poles ‘P’ is 2. )

5.25 Applications of Capacitor run type induction motor

This motor is suitable for loads needing high starting torque as well as for loads needing
low starting torque e.g. Ceiling fan, exhaust fan, blowers, air circulators.
Used for loads needing quiet operation. e.g. oil burners.
Used for loads needing frequent reversal for back and forth operation. e.g. rheostats,
induction regulators, furnace controls, arc welding controls, valves.

5.26 Shaded pole induction motor

Construction :
Main parts are stator and rotor.
Stator : It consists of a core and salient, shaded poles.
The stator core is a hollow cylinder made of insulated, circular steel laminations.
Poles are bolted to the inner surface of the core. The poles are made of rectangular steel
laminations.
About 1/3 rd part of each pole is separated from the rest by cutting a slot. The smaller part
is shaded by placing a thick Copper ring around it. This ring is highly inductive in nature.
Field winding is an insulated Copper winding. It is wound on each pole.

Fig.: Shaded pole induction motor

Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 519 .. Electric Motors

Rotor core: It is a solid steel cylinder mounted on the shaft. It may be formed using circular
laminations. Lengthwise parallel slots are provided on surface. These slots are not parallel to
shaft, but given a skew to avoid locking tendency of rotor.
Cage structure: Thick copper bar is inserted in each slot. All the bars are shorted at two ends
using thick Copper rings. The rings and the bars together looks like a squirrel cage.

5.27 Working of shaded pole induction motor

Operating principle of the shaded pole single phase induction motor is based on mutual
electromagnetic induction in the rotor conductors due to a shifting magnetic flux (SMF) and
Lorentz force experienced by these conductors.
The main ac flux linking with shading ring induces an emf and hence a current in it

Flux Фu in
unshaded
region

t1 t2 t3 Flux Фs in
shaded region

200 to 300 Фu
Фs

Fig.: Flux in poles of shaded pole induction motor

Current in the shading ring produces own flux that has a tendency to oppose the main
flux (as per Lenz’s law). Thus, net flux in the shaded part of the pole lags flux in the
unshaded part of the pole by about 30°.
Consider three instants t1, t2, t3 as shown.
At t1, Φs =0. Hence, magnetic axis is at centre of unshaded part of the pole.
At t2, both Φs and Φu are non-zero. Hence, magnetic axis is approximately at the centre
of whole pole.
At t3, Φu = 0. Hence, magnetic axis is at the centre of shaded part of the pole.
magnetic axis
Фu φu φs φs

At t1 At t2 At t3

Fig.: Shifting of the flux

Thus, resultant flux under the pole shifts from unshaded region to the shaded region.
Basics of Applied Electrical Engineering .. 520 .. Electric Motors

When ac voltage is applied to the field winding on poles of shaded pole induction motor,
ac magnetic flux is produced. In the poles, the flux gets divided into two parts-- Flux Φu in the
unshaded part and flux Φs in the shaded part. Due to effect of the shading, the flux Φs lags the
flux Φu in time. Due to this, resultant of these two fluxes i.e. net flux under each pole appears to
be physically moving from unshaded part to the shaded part.
Such a shifting flux (SMF) links with rotor conductors and induces an emf in them.
Hence, current flows in the rotor conductors. Then, these conductors produce own magnetic
flux.
Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux, a force is produced. Tangential
components of the force results into a torque. Hence, the rotor rotates in same direction as the
SMF.

5.28 Features of the shaded pole induction motor

Shifting flux does not result into strong induction as compared to rotating flux. Hence this
motor develops small starting torque. It has small power capacity and size, rugged construction,
low cost, It gives noiseless operation.
Torque

Low
Starting
Torque
speed

Fig.: Torque speed characteristics of shaded pole Induction Motor

5.29 Drawbacks of shaded pole induction motor

1. With 50 Hz frequency supply, maximum speed of the motor can be 3000 rpm. (Speed of the
induction motor is always less than 120 f/P and minimum number of poles ‘P’ is 2. )
2. Draws current at low power factor.
3. Direction of rotation cannot be reversed.
4, Low efficiency.
5. Small overload capacity.

5.30 Applications of shaded pole induction motor

Shaded pole induction motor is used in record players, tape recorders, phonograph turn
tables, slide projectors, electric clocks, timing machines, photo-copying machines, churns,
advertising displays, vending machines, small fans, toys, instruments, hair driers, ventilators,
circulators .