UNIT 2: SINGLE PHASE

AC FUNDAMENTALS
 INRODUCTION
 Alternating current in an electric circuit has two different directions (+ve
and -ve) . Single phase ac supply is ONE ac emf.
 3 phase ac supply is a group of three emfs- all of same magnitude (volts),
same frequency and same waveform, but with a phase difference of 120°
with respect to each other.
 In India, domestic electric supply is 230 V (rms) sinusoidal ac with 50
Hertz frequency.
 All over the world, use of AC electric voltage is preferred to DC voltage.
Some reasons behind this are
1.As compared to dc generator, AC generator of same power rating has
smaller size.
2. AC generators, motors are more simple, reliable and cheaper than dc
generators, motors.
3. AC voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down.
4. AC to DC conversion is relatively easier than DC to AC conversion.
 GENERATION OF SINGLE PHASE A.C
 Consider a magnet with two poles as shown
in the figure. Between the two poles, there is
uniform magnetic flux density ‘B’. A conductor
is rotated in the magnetic field with speed
V m/s. Magnetic flux ‘Ф’ linking with the
conductor changes. Hence, according to
Faraday’s laws, an emf is induced in the
conductor.
 Rate of change of magnetic flux dø/dt is
different at different instants magnitude of
induced emf is different at different positions.
 positions A and C, the conductor moves parallel to the flux lines. dø/dt is zero and
induced emf is zero.
 B and D, conductor moves perpendicular to the flux lines. dø/dt is maximum and
induced emf is maximum. Em = BLV where L= Active length of the conductor.
 θ is the angle between the magnetic flux direction and velocity direction. Vsinθ is
the component of velocity perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines.
 e = dø/dt = rate of change of magnetic flux linking with the conductor.
 induced emf e = BLVsin θ = Em sin θ, θ = ωt. e= Em sin ωt
 AC THROUGH PURE RESISTIVE,
INDUCTIVE AND CAPACITIVE LOAD
 Important concepts in AC circuits
1.Active and reactive components of current:
(i).Component along the voltage phasor ‘I cosθ’ is called as
active component or wattfull component. This component is
responsible for power consumption i.e. active power in the
circuit.
(ii) Component in quadrature with the voltage phasor ‘I sinθ’
is called as reactive component or wattless component.
2.Power in ac circuit
1)Average power or active power:
 It is the average of instantaneous power drawn by device in the circuit in one cycle of
voltage or current.
 Average power = Vrms Irms cos θ

 Unit of average power = watt.

 Average power drawn is the total input power drawn by a device that it converts into
other form of power.
2) Reactive power :
 It is the product of voltage and reactive component of the

current.
 Reactive power = Vrms Irms sin θ

 Unit of reactive power =VAr.

3) Apparent power:
 It is the product of rms voltage and rms current.
 Apparent power = Vrms Irms
 Unit of apparent power = VA.
3. Power factor
 It is cosine angle between voltage & current

4.Impedance triangle
 It is a right angled triangle
whose adjacent side is resistance
R, opposite side is reactance X
and the diagonal is impedance
Z = √(R2 + X2).
 Range of θ is 0< θ <90° From
this triangle, cos θ =R/Z , sin θ =X/Z
 Examples based on series ac circuits
1.A non inductive resistor of 5 ohm is connected in series with pure
inductance of 5mH. Find power drawn, pf, reactive power, impedance and
current if applied voltage is 200V (rms), 50Hz.
Ex.2 .A resistance of 20 ohm is connected in series with a capacitance of 500 micro F. AC voltage of
200V, 50 Hz is applied to the branch . Find active power, reactive power, pf.
Solution:
 Parallel AC circuits
 All electric appliances are connected in parallel because, for parallel
connection, voltage across each component is same.Thus every consumer
uses a parallel circuit.
 Properties of single phase ac parallel circuit :
1. Voltage across each branch is same.
2. Current in each branch different
3. Power drawn by each branch is independent of power drawn by other
branches
4. Total instantaneous current drawn from source is the algebraic sum of
instantaneous currents drawn by individual branches.
5. Total rms current drawn from source is the phasor sum of rms currents
drawn by individual branches.
6. Total active power drawn from supply is the (arithmetic) sum of powers
drawn by each branch.
7. Total reactive power drawn from supply is the algebraic sum of reactive
powers drawn by each branch.
8. Total apparent power drawn from supply is the product of voltage and total
rms current drawn from the supply.
 Admittance(Y) in parallel ac circuit
 Admittance is defined as the acceptance offered by a component to the
current flow in it. or
 Admittance is reciprocal of impedance, Y=1/Z

 Its unit is Siemen.

 Conductance(G):

 It is the acceptance offered by a purely resistive circuit to the current flow

in it. or
 It is reciprocal of resistance,G=1/R

 Susceptance(B):

 It is the acceptance offered by a purely inductive or purely capacitive

circuit. or
 It is reciprocal of reactance. B=1/X

 I1 =V/ Z1 = V * Y1,

 I2 = V/Z2= V * Y2

 where Y1, Y2 are the admittances.

 Total current I = I1 + I2 (Phasor sum)

 = V * (Y1+Y2) = V * Y

 where Y = Y1+Y2 is the phasor sum of two

admittances.
1.Admittance of series RL branch :
 In the rectangular form, impedance Z = R+jX where X = ωL.
Then, corresponding admittance
 Multiplying and dividing by complex conjugate,

 In the polar form, impedance Z = lZl∟θ

Then, corresponding admittance is
2. Admittance of series RC branch :
(i) In rectangular form,
impedance Z = R –jX where X =1/ ωC
Corresponding admittance Y =1/ R –jX
Multiplying and dividing by complex conjugate,

(ii) In polar form,

 impedance Z = lZl∟-θ.
 Corresponding admittance Y =
 Importance of power factor (Advantages of high
pf)
 power drawn by the load = source voltage *load current *pf of load
current drawn from source =
 Current drawn by an equipment is inversely proportional to its pf. High pf circuit
draws smaller supply current
 Smaller supply current gives following advantages

1. Advantages to the load i.e. electric device : Less I2 R loss in the load. Hence less
heating of the load. This simplifies the design. Hence, Smaller size and cost. Better
efficiency.
2. Advantages to transmission and distribution system:
 Less I2 R loss in transmission line. Hence, better efficiency of the power system.

 Less IR or IZ voltage drop in transmission line. Voltage regulation improves. Power

quality improves.
3. Advantages to the generator:
Generator with a certain VA capacity (i.e. apparent power rating) delivers more useful
power (Watts), because Useful power = apparent power x pf of load (or Watts
delivered = VA delivered * pf of load)
4.Advantages to industrial consumer :
If pf of the industrial load is high, the industry is charged less for the electricity used, because,
 Normally, electricity bill for industries is decided by energy consumed (kwh) as well as apparent
power (VA) drawn. For a certain amount of watts drawn, if pf is higher, then VA drawn is
smaller. Hence bill is smaller.

 The industry has to pay a penalty if power factor of the industry falls below a limit. (Typically
below 0.95 lagging). The industry will get an incentive if the power factor is better. Hence, higher
power factor saves the cost of electric energy used by the industry.

 Reasons for low pf

1. Transformers and loads containing motors (Most of the motors are induction motors)
draw current at lagging pf. Their pf is especially poor at no load and light load. This
is because at no load and light load, their magnetization current is comparable with
load current component.
2. Discharge lamps circuits have series chokes for current stabilizing. Choke is an
inductive coil. It draws lagging pf current.
3.Switching circuits like SMPS used in PCs, TVs, electronic instruments and arc
furnaces, arc welding units etc. draw discontinuous current.
Discontinuous current = fundamental frequency current + harmonic currents.
Hence fundamental frequency power drawn is only a small part of the total power
drawn. Hence the fundamental power factor is smaller in such devices.
 Power factor improvement methods
1.Connecting a static capacitor in parallel with lagging load.
2. Using a few number of synchronous motors along with induction motors. Also, using high
pf motors like rotary converters and other commutator motors.
3. Using phase advancement technique for induction motor.
4. Filtering or suppressing harmonics generated by switching circuits.
 Power factor improvement by connecting a parallel capacitor

 Let Supply voltage = V, power factor of load = cos φ load, Active Power drawn by load = P

 Current drawn by the load = Iload =

 To improve power factor of the supply current, a

capacitor C is connected in parallel with load across the

source.
 A pure capacitor draws leading current IC at 90° with

respect to source voltage and it draws no active power.

 Hence net power drawn from source does not change.

But, total current drawn from supply i.e. the new supply
current IT changes.
 IT = phasor sum of Iload + IC .

 The capacitor does not draw active power. So, net power

drawn from source does not change.

 P=V Iload pfload = V IT pfnew

 New pf = (Iload / IT) * Load pf. Thus the pf has improved.