Lectures

Presented by
B.K.ROY
Assistant Professor
Mechanical Engineering Department
Text and reference books
Text book
1. Heat and Mass Transfer: R.K. Rajput
Reference book
1.Engineering heat and mass transfer: Mahesh M.
Rathore
2.Heat transfer: A practical approach: Cengel Y.A.
3.Heat and Mass Transfer-Fundamentals and
Application: Cengel Y.A.and Ghajar, A.J.
4.Heat transfer-A basic approach: Necati Ozisik
Chapter-1

Basic concepts and mechanism of heat transfer

Mechanical Engineering: Heat exchangers,
Turbines, Boilers, Internal combustion engines, Heat
treatment of metals, Refrigeration and air
conditioning units etc.
Electrical Engineering: Cooling system for electric
motors, generators and transformers.
Civil Engineering: In the design of suspension
bridge, Railway tracks, Air-conditioning and
insulation of buildings etc.
Chemical Engineering: Process equipments used
in refineries, Chemical plants etc.
Nuclear Engineering: Design of nuclear power
plant.
Aerospace Engineering: Design of aircraft
system and components, Rockets, Missiles,
Thermal control of space vehicle etc.
Cryogenic Engineering: In the production,
Storage, Transportation and utilization of
cryogenic liquids, Research and defense
applications.
What is heat transfer?
Heat: is a form of energy that can be transferred from
one system to another as a result of temperature
difference.
Heat transfer: The transmission of energy from one
region to another as a result of temperature gradient.
Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred per
unit time is called heat transfer rate and is denoted
by Q. its unit is J/s or Watt
Difference between thermodynamics and heat transfer
Thermodynamics Heat transfer

Thermodynamics deals with Heat transfer, on the other hand,

equilibrium states and changes deals with systems that lack
from one equilibrium state to thermal equilibrium, and thus it is
another. a non-equilibrium phenomenon.

When a system undergoes from one It helps to predict the distribution

equilibrium state to another of temperature and to determine
thermodynamics helps to the rate at which energy is
determine the quantity of work and transferred across a surface of
heat interactions. It describes how interest due to temperate gradients
much heat is to be exchanged at the surface and difference of
during a process but does not hint temperature between different
how the same could be achieved. surfaces.
Basic laws governing heat transfer

1. First law of thermodynamics-gives conservation of

energy.
2. Second law of thermodynamics-gives direction of
heat flow.
3.Equation of continuity- gives conservation of
mass.
4. Newton's law of motion-gives fluid flow
parameters.
Basic laws governing heat transfer(Contd…)

5. The rate equations-governs the three modes of

equation
 Conduction-Fourier’s law of conduction
 Convection-Newton’s law of cooling
 Radiation-Stefan-Boltzman’s law
6.Emperical relations for fluid properties-such as
specific heat, conductivity, viscosity etc.
Modes of heat transfer
There three main modes
 Conduction- is the transfer of thermal
energy by molecular action, without
any motion of the medium.
Conduction can occur in solids, liquids
and gasses, but it is usually most
important in solids.
 Convection- is the transfer of thermal
energy by the actual motion of the
medium itself. The medium in
motion is usually a gas or a liquid.
Fig: a combination of
 Radiation-transfer of thermal energy three modes of HT
by electromagnetic waves.
In practical, a combination of one or
more of the above modes are present.
Mechanism of conduction heat transfer

In solids, the heat is conducted by the following two

mechanism.
 By lattice vibration
 By transfer of free electron
Mechanism of conduction heat
transfer(Contd…)

By lattice vibration-
 Heat from the source as
causing the atoms of the
solid to vibrate and gain
kinetic energy.
 These atoms cause
neighbouring atoms to
vibrate. Kinetic energy is
transferred from one
atom to the next.
Mechanism of conduction heat transfer(Contd…)

Heat energy is conducted

through the solid in this
way. As the atoms of the
solid gain kinetic energy
the temperature of the
solid increases.
Mechanism of conduction heat
transfer(Contd…)
By transport of free electron-
 The valence electrons in the outermost orbit of an
atom get excited.
 They overcome the binding force and becomes free
to move
 While travelling these free electron carry some
parts of energy along with them and contribute to
conduction.
Thank you
Lecture 3
Convection: There are two types of convection

 Forced convection - The

fluid is forced to flow over a
surface by external means
such as a fan, pump, or the
wind.
 Free or natural convection -
The fluid motion is caused by
buoyancy forces induced by
density differences due to the
variation of temperature in the Fig: forced and free convection
fluid.
Mechanism of convection
 In natural convection the
circulation of the fluid
medium is caused by buoyancy
effect i.e., by the difference in
the densities of cold and
heated particles.
 When the water at the bottom
of the pan is heated the
temperature increases.
 Because of temperature rise
these particle becomes less
dense than the surrounding
particles.
Mechanism of convection(Contd…)
 The lighter particles move
upward to a region of low
temperature where they mix
with and transfer a part of
their energy to the cold
particles.
 Simultaneously the cold
particles descend
downward to fill the space
vacated by the hot particles.
 This circulation movement
of the particle is called
convection current.
Mechanism of radiation
Radiation: Radiation is the transmission of heat in the form
of radiant energy or wave motion without affecting the
material medium between the heat source and receiver.
Radiation exchange requires no intervening medium or
space and infect, it occurs most effectively in vacuum.
The mechanism of heat flow by radiation consist of three
distinct phases-
1. Conversion of thermal energy of the hot source into
electromagnetic waves.
2. Passage of wave motion (photon) through intervening
medium with speed equal to light.
3. Transformation of waves into heat.
Rate equation: Fourier law
Fourier’s law of heat conduction:
It states that the rate of heat conduction
per unit area is directly proportional to the T1
temperature gradient.
T2

dx
Rate equation: Fourier law(contd…)
Where Q= rate of heat transfer in W
A = heat transfer area in m2; normal to the
direction of heat flow.

temperature gradient in °C/m

K = constant of proportionality, called the thermal

conductivity of material in W/m°C or W/mK

The minus sign is inserted to make the natural heat flow, a

positive quantity.
According to the second law of thermodynamics , the heat
energy always flows in the direction of decreasing temperature,
thus the temperature gradient becomes negative.
Rate equation: Fourier law(contd…)
Assumptions:
1.Conduction of heat takes place under steady state
condition
2. The heat flow is unidirectional.
3. The temperature gradient is constant and the
temperature profile is constant.
4. There is no internal heat generation
5. The bounding surface are isothermal in character.
6. The material is homogeneous and isotropic.
Thermal
Conductivity
Thermal conductivity: The rate of
heat transfer through a unit
thickness of the material per unit
area per unit temperature difference.
The thermal conductivity of a
material is a measure of the ability of
the material to conduct heat.
A high value for thermal
conductivity indicates that the
material is a good heat conductor,
and a low value indicates that the
material is a poor heat conductor or
insulator.
The range of
thermal
conductivity
of various
materials at
room
temperature
 The thermal conductivities of gases such as
air vary by a factor of 104 from those of pure
metals such as copper.
Pure crystals and metals have the highest
thermal conductivities, and gases and
insulating materials the lowest.

The mechanisms of heat

conduction in different phases of
a substance.
The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and gases
with temperature.
Thank you
Lecture 4
Newton’s law of cooling: it states that the rate of heat transfer
per unit area is directly proportional to the temperature
difference between a surface and a fluid. Mathematically,

Where, ts = surf ace temperature °C

tα = fluid temperature °C
A = surface area for convection heat transfer, m2
h = constant of proportionality called heat transfer
coefficient, W/m2°C or W/m2K
Stefan-Boltzmann law: It states that the rate of radiation
heat transfer per unit area from a black surface is directly
proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature of the surface and is given by

Where, Ts = absolute temperatue of the surface

σ = constant of proportionality, called
Stefan-Boltzman constant.
= 5.67 x 10-8 W/m2K4
General heat conduction equation in Cartesian
co-ordinates Qy+dy
Consider the flow of heat Y Qz
D H
through an infinitesimal
volume element oriented in a C G
three dimensional co-ordinate dy
system as shown in the fig: 1.1
Qx Qx+dx
Let, t = temperature at the left A E X
face ABCD.
B F dz
kx , ky, kz = thermal
dx
conductivities along x, y, z Qy
direction. Z Qz+dx
qg = heat generation per unit
time per unit volume.
ρ = mass density of material.
c = specific heat of material.
Quantity of heat flowing into the element from the face ABCD during
the time interval dτ in the X- direction is given by

During the same time interval dτ the heat flowing out of the right face EFGH
of the element will be

Heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in X-direction

Similarly heat accumulation in the element due to heat flow in Y and
Z directions are:

Net heat accumulation=

Total heat generated within the element

The increase in thermal energy is given by =

=mass x specific heat of the material

x rise in temperature of body
From energy balance considerations
Using the vector operator

This is known as the general heat conduction equation for non-

homogeneous material, self heat generation and unsteady three
dimensional heat flow.

General heat conduction equation for homogeneous and

isentropic materials: A homogeneous material implies that the
properties i.e., density, specific heat and thermal conductivity of the
material are same everywhere in the material.

The thermal conductivity for an isotropic and homogeneous material is

same at every point and in all directions.
 By using Laplacian operator equation (2) can be written as

1. When no internal source of heat generation is present

2. For steady state heat conduction

3. In the absence of internal heat generation