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Chapter‐1
Magnetic Circuits
Dr. Atif Iqbal
Dept. of Electrical Engineering
Qatar University

ELEC 312-Electric Machines

Content of Chapter‐1

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1. Introduction

• Materials that can be magnetized, which are also the ones

that are strongly attracted to a magnet, are called
magnetic/ferromagnetic.
• In all electrical machines, magnetic materials are used to
enhance magnetic field for better energy conversion.
• High flux density can be obtained in the machine by using
magnetic material which results in high torque or high
machine output per unit machine volume.
• In other words, the size of the machine is greatly reduced by
the use of magnetic materials.

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• Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which
energy is converted from one form to other form in motors,
generators and transformers.
• Magnetic materials are classified in terms of their magnetic
properties and their uses. If a material is easily magnetized
and demagnetized then it is referred to as a soft magnetic
material, whereas if it is difficult to demagnetize then it is
referred to as a hard (or permanent) magnetic material. E.g.
Iron, Nickle, Cobalt and their Alloys

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• A current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field
around it.
• A time varying magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil
of wire if it passes through that coil (Transformer
action)
• A current carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic
field has a force induced in it (Motor action)
• A moving conductor in the presence of a magnetic
field has a voltage induced in it. (Generator action)

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Electric Field and Magnetic Field

• A static charge produces electric field around its vicinity

• A magnet produces magnetic field around it
• A moving charge produces both electric and magnetic fields. The
electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other. The
resultant field is the vector sum of the two fields.
• The electric field lines originate from positive charges and sinks into
negative charges.
• The magnetic field lines originate from North Pole and sink into
South Pole (outside the magnet) and reverse inside the magnet body.

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Terms Relted to Magnetic Circuit

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Relatioon between B and H

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Types of Materials based on Magnetic
Properties

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Magnetic Circuits

• In electric machines, the magnetic circuits is formed by

ferromagnetic materials only (as in transformers)
• In rotating machine magnetic circuit is formed by ferromagnetic
materials in conjunction with an air gap.
• The magnetic field (or flux) is produced by passing an electrical
current through coils wound on ferromagnetic materials.
• In permanent magnet machines magnetic flux is produced by PM.

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Magnetic Circuit Examples

Magnetic Circuit without Air-gap

Magnetic Circuit with Air-gap

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 1.1 i−H RELATION
• The relationship between current (i) and field intensity (H) can be
obtained by using Ampère’s circuit law.
• Which states that the line integral of the magnetic field intensity H
around a closed path is equal to the total current enclosed by the
contour.
 
Ampère’s circuit law
 H  dl   i  i1  i2  i3

 H  dl  cos  i
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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 1.1 i−H RELATION
• For the circular path case, at each point on this
circular contour, H and dl are in the same
direction, that is, θ=0.
• Because of symmetry, H will be the same at all
points on this contour.

 Hdl  H  dl  i H 2r  i

i
H
2r
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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Circuits 13
 1.2 B−H RELATION
• The magnetic field intensity H produces a magnetic flux density B
everywhere it exists.
• These quantities are functionally related by:

B  H Weber/m 2
or Tesla

B  0 r H Wb/m 2
or T
 μ is a characteristic of the medium and is called the
permeability of the medium.
 μ0 is the permeability of free space and is 4π10−7
henry/meter.
 μr is the relative permeability of the medium.
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 1.2 B−H RELATION
• For free space or electrical conductors (such as aluminum or
copper) or insulators, the value of μr is unity.
• However, for ferromagnetic materials such as iron, cobalt, and
nickel, the value of μr varies from several hundred to several
thousand.
• For materials used in electrical machines, μr varies in the range of
2000 to 6000.
• A large value of μr implies that a small current can produce a large
flux density in the machine.

B  0  r H
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Circuits 15
Magnetic Equivalent Circuit

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 1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• Example: Toroid Magnetic Circuit.
• Assumptions:
• When current i flows through the coil of N
turns, magnetic flux is mostly confined in
the core material.
• The flux outside the toroid, called leakage
flux, is so small that for all practical
purposes it can be neglected.

Toroid magnetic circuit

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 17
 1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• Consider a path at a radius r.
• The magnetic field intensity on this

Prof. Adel
path is H and, from Ampère’s

Gastli
circuit law:
 
 H  dl Ni Hl  Ni
H 2r  Ni  F The quantity Ni is called the
magnetomotive force (mmf ) F, and its
unit is ampere‐turn.
Hl  Ni
Ni Ni
H (At/m) B (T)
l l
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
Circuits 18
 1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• Magnetic Flux:
• If no leakage flux:
   B  dA

  BA (Web)
where B is the average flux density in the
core and A is the area of cross section of
the toroid.
Ni Ni Ni F
 A  
l l / A R R
l 1 R is called reluctance of the magnetic path,
R  and P is called the permeance of the
A P magnetic path.
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 1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
• Previous equations suggest that the driving force
in the magnetic circuit is the magnetomotive force
F =Ni, which produces a flux  against a magnetic
reluctance R.
• The magnetic circuit of the toroid can therefore be
represented by a magnetic equivalent circuit as
shown below:

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 20
1.3 MAGNETIC EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Prof. Adel Gastli

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Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Circuits
• In Fig. 1 the source of magnetic field is the ampre turn or
mmf Ni acting on the circuit. The mmf is given as
(Ampere’s law);

• F  Ni   H .dl
F  Ni  Hlc  R
R Ni Hlc
H ;H  ;i  etc
lc lc N
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Note: Inverse of Reluctance is permeance

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 The element of R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in
concept to the electrical resistance. It is basically the measure of
material resistance to the flow of magnetic flux. Reluctance in
this analogy obeys the rule of electrical resistance (Series and
Parallel Rules). Reluctance is measured in Ampere-turns per
weber.

Series Reluctance Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….

Parallel Reluctance,
1 1 1 1
    ...
Req R1 R2 R3

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Assumptions

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 Fringing Effect

Without Ag  Ac
Fringing With Ag  1.02 to 1.05(Ac )
Fringing
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Example 1

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Example 2

A ferromagnetic core is shown. Three sides of this core are of

uniform width, while the fourth side is somewhat thinner. The
depth of the core is 10cm, and the other dimensions are shown
in the figure. There is a 200 turn coil wrapped around the left
side of the core. Assuming relative permeability µr of 2500, how
much flux will be produced by a 1A input current?

Solution: 3 sides of the core have the same cross sectional

area, while the 4th side has a different area. Thus the core can
be divided into 2 regions:
(1) the single thinner side
(2) the other 3 sides taken together

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The magnetic circuit corresponding to this core:

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 1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP
• In electric machines, the rotor is
physically isolated from the stator
by the air gap.
• Practically the same flux is present
in the poles (made of magnetic
core) and the air gap.

 To maintain the same flux density, the air gap will require
much more mmf than the core.
 If the flux density is high, the core portion of the magnetic
circuit may exhibit a saturation effect.
 However, the air gap remains unsaturated, since the B−H
curve for the air medium is linear (μ is constant).

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 36
 1.5 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP
• A magnetic circuit having two or more media is known as a
composite structure.
• For the purpose of analysis, a magnetic equivalent circuit
can be derived for the composite structure.
• Let us consider the following simple composite structure
with its equivalent electric circuit:

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 37
 1.4 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP
• The driving force in this magnetic circuit is the mmf, F=Ni,
and the core medium and the air gap medium can be
represented by their corresponding reluctances:
lc lg
Rc  Rg 
 c Ac 0 Ag

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Prof. Adel Gastli
Circuits 38
1.4 MAGNETIC CIRCUIT WITH AIR GAP
Ni
 Ni  H c lc  H g l g
Rc  Rg Prof. Adel Gastli

 
BC  Bg 
Ac Ag

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Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Circuits
Example‐3

• In the given magnetic circuit, calculate the current if the magnetic

flux density in the air‐gap is 0.5 T and the relative permeability of the
core is 4000. The fringing effect is considered by a factor of 5%.

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Solution
3

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 Example 4
Figure shows a simplified rotor and
stator for a dc motor. The mean path
length of the stator is 50cm, and its
csa is 12cm2. The mean path length
of the rotor is 5 cm, and its csa also
may be assumed to be 12cm2. Each
air gap between the rotor and the
stator is 0.05cm wide, and the csa of
each air gap (including fringing) is
14cm2. The iron of the core has a
relative permeability of 2000, and
there are 200 turns of wire on the
core. If the current in the wire is
adjusted to be 1A, what will the
resulting flux density in the air
gaps be?
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 4

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Non‐Linear Behavior of Magnetic Material

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Non‐Linear problem

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 Example‐5 (Case‐1)
• For the given magnetic circuit, the flux density B in the core is 12
mWb. The average core length is 55 cm, the cross sectional area is
150 cm2 and the number of turns (N) is 200. The B‐H curve is also
given. Compute;
• (i) the current in the coil
• (ii) the relative permeability
• (iii) the reluctance of the core

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 5

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Example 6

• Calculate the current if the magnetic flux is 0.5 mWb.

a) Without air‐gap and relative permeability of 4000.
b) With an air‐gap of 1 mm length and relative permeability of 4000.
• c) With an air‐gap of 1 mm length based on the following B‐H table:

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 6

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 Example‐7 (Case 2)
• In the following electric motor calculate the MMF if the magnetic flux
density in the air‐gap is 0.8 T. B‐H curve is given below.

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 7

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 (Case 3)

General case when Ac and Ag may be different

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Example –8 (Case 3)

• In the following electromagnetic system calculate the magnetic flux

density if the current is 4 A. B‐H curve is given below.

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 8

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Example ‐9
• A steel loop with diameter of 3 cm and average length of 80 cm is
shown below. If the air‐gap length is 1 mm and N=600
• a) Calculate the current if the magnetic flux in the air‐gap is 0.75
mWb
• b) Calculate the magnetic flux if the current is 2 A.

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 9

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 1.5 INDUCTANCE
• A coil wound on a magnetic core, such as that shown below, is
frequently used in electric circuits.
• This coil may be represented by an ideal electric circuit element,
called inductance, which is defined as the flux linkage of the coil per
ampere of its current.


=N 
i

Inductance of a coil–core assembly.

(a) Coil–core assembly. (b) Equivalent inductance.

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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 1.5 INDUCTANCE 
Flux linkage   N
=N
 (Henri, Flux
Inductance L  linkage per
i ampere)

N N ( BA) N ( H ) A NHA
L   
i i i ( Hl / N ) 


Ni  Hl
i

N2 N2
L 
l / A R
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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Circuits 64
Example-10

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Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Circuits
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Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Circuits
Example-11

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Example‐12

• In the following Electromagnetic circuit N=250, the inner and outer

radii of the toroid are 20 and 25 cm respectively. The cross sectional
area is circular. If the current is 2.5 A, calculate the flux density and
the inductance.

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 12

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Energy Losses in a Ferromagnetic Core

• Hysteresis Losses
• Eddy current losses

Hysteresis Loss

Consider AC current, there will

be residual flux when moving from
the positive half cycle to the
negative cycle of the ac current
flow and vice versa.

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Hystresis Losses

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Explanation of Hysteresis Loop
 Apply AC current. Assume flux in the core is initially zero.
 As current increases, the flux traces the path ab. (saturation
curve)
 When the current decreases, the flux traces out a different path
from the one when the current increases (path bcd).
 When the current increases again, it traces out path deb.
 HYSTERESIS is the dependence on the preceding flux history
and the resulting failure to retrace flux paths.
 When a large mmf is first applied to the core and then removed,
the flux path in the core will be abc.
 When mmf is removed, the flux does not go to zero – residual
flux. This is how permanent magnets are produced.
 To force the flux to zero, an amount of mmf known as coercive
mmf must be applied in the opposite direction.

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Why does hysteresis occur?
To understand hysteresis in a ferromagnetic core, we have to
look into the behaviour of its atomic structure before, during,
and after the presence of a magnetic field.

The atoms of iron and similar metals (cobalt, nickel, and

some of their alloys) tend to have their magnetic fields closely
aligned with each other. Within the metal, there is an
existence of small regions known as domains where in each
domain there is a presence of a small magnetic field which
randomly aligned through the metal structure.

This as shown below:

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1.7 Hysteresis Loss

• The hysteresis loops are obtained by slowly varying the

current i of the coil over a cycle.
• When i is varied through a cycle, during some interval of
time, energy flows from the source to the coil–core
assembly, and during some other interval of time, energy
returns to the source.
• However, the energy flowing in is greater than the energy
returned back.

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• Therefore, during a cycle of variation of i (hence H), there is
a net energy flow from the source to the coil–core assembly.
• This energy loss heat the core.
• The loss of power in the core due to the hysteresis effect is
called hysteresis loss.
• The amount of the hysteresis loss is proportional to the
hysteresis loop size (or the area of loop).

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Eddy Current Loss

A time-changing flux induces voltage within a ferromagnetic core.

These voltages cause swirls of current to flow within the core – eddy
currents.

Energy is dissipated (in the form of heat) because these eddy

currents are flowing in a resistive material (iron)

The amount of energy lost to eddy currents is proportional to the size

of the paths they follow within the core.

 To reduce energy loss, ferromagnetic core should be broken up into

small strips, or laminations, and build the core up out of these strips.
An insulating oxide or resin is used between the strips, so that the
current paths for eddy currents are limited to small areas.

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 1.8 EDDY CURRENT LOSS
• The eddy current loss in a magnetic core subjected
to a time‐varying flux is:

Pe  K e B 2
max f 2

where Ke is a constant whose value depends

on the type of material and its lamination
thickness.
 The lamination thickness varies from 0.5 to 5 mm
in electrical machines and from 0.01 to 5 mm in
devices used in electronic circuits operating at
higher frequencies.
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
Prof. Adel Gastli
Circuits 83
1.9 CORE LOSS

Hysteresis Loss
Core or iron Loss
Eddy Current Loss

Pc  Ph  Pe

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

Circuits 84
Laminated core to reduce eddy current losses

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1.10 SINUSOIDAL EXCITATION
• In ac electric machines as well as many other applications, the
voltages and fluxes vary sinusoidally with time.
• Consider the following coil–core assembly:

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 86
• Assume that the core flux Φ(t) varies sinusoidally with time.

 (t )   max sin t
max is the magnitude of the core flux
E =2f is the angular frequency
f is the frequency

From Faraday’s law, the

voltage induced in the N-turn
 coil is:

d  
e t   N  Nmaxcost   Emax sint  
dt  2
Induced voltage lead the flux by 90 degree
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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Circuits 87
• The root‐mean‐square (rms) value of the induced voltage is:

Emax N max 2

Erms    Nf max
2 2 2

Erms  4.44 Nf max

Note: This is an important equation and will be
referred to frequently in the theory of ac machines.
Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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Circuits 88
Example-13

Note: Induced emf is

considered equal to the
applied voltage
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Circuits
Erms  4.44 Nf max

Prof. Adel Gastli

Bmax
H max 
r 0

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Circuits
1.11 EXCITING CURRENT
• If a coil is connected to a
sinusoidal voltage source, a
current flows in the coil to
establish a sinusoidal flux in the
core.
 This current is called the exciting current, iΦ.
 If the B−H characteristic of the ferromagnetic core
is nonlinear, the exciting current will be
nonsinusoidal.
Current waveforms differ!

Without Hysteresis With Hysteresis

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic
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Circuits 91
 Prof. Adel Gastli
1.11 EXCITING CURRENT
 Without Hysteresis Loop:

4 
3 5 5
4
i 3
4 6
2 6 2
3 5

2 6 13
1 7 8 12 7 1 , 13 i

9 11
8 12 8
10 12
9
9 11
11
10 10 92
FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current for no hysteresis: Φ−i characteristic and exciting current.
Without Hysteresis
i 8/23/2023
• The Exciting current is non‐sinusoidal
i
• The Exciting current in phase with the flux

i
• The Exciting current is symmetrical with respect to voltage e
• The fundamental component of the exciting current lags the
i1
voltage e. Hence no power loss is involved (because the hysteresis
loop is neglected and hence the power loss is zero)
• The excitation current is thus a purely lagging current and hence the
circuit can be represented by a pure inductor.

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FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current for no hysteresis. (a) Φ−i characteristic and
exciting
current. (b) Equivalent circuit. (c) Phasor diagram.

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 94
• With Hysteresis Loop:
• The exciting current is non‐sinusoidal as well as nonsymmetrical with
respect to the voltage waveform.
• The exciting current can be split into two components, one (ic) in phase
with voltage e accounting for the core loss and the other (im) in phase with
Φ and symmetrical with respect to e, accounting for the magnetization of
the core.

FIGURE 1.18 Exciting current with hysteresis loop. (a) Φ−i loop and exciting
current. (b) Phasor diagram. (c) Equivalent circuit..

Electrical Machines Chapter1: Magnetic

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Circuits 95
• With Hysteresis Loop:
• The magnetizing component im is the
same as the exciting current if the
hysteresis loop is neglected.
• The exciting current can therefore be
represented by a resistance Rc, to
represent core loss, and a magnetizing
inductance Lm, to represent the
magnetization of the core.
• Usually, in the phasor diagram only the
fundamental component of the
magnetizing current im is considered.

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Circuits 96
Practice Problems

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Permanent Magnets

• A permanent magnet is capable of maintaining a magnetic field

without any excitation mmf provided to it.
• Permanent magnets are normally alloys of iron, nickel, and cobalt.
• They are characterized by a large B−H loop, high retentivity (high
value of Br), and high coercive force (high value Hc).
• These alloys are subjected to heat treatment, resulting in mechanical
hardness of the material.
• Permanent magnets are often referred to as hard iron, and other
magnetic materials as soft iron.
• E.g. of PM materials: Alnico (al‐nickel‐cobalt), Neodymium‐iron‐
cobalt, Samirium‐cobalt etc

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• A good permanent magnet should produce a high magnetic field with
a low mass, and should be stable against the influences which would
demagnetize it. The desirable properties of such magnets are
typically stated in terms of the remanence and coercivity of the
magnet materials.

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• B.H = Energy stored per unit volume (Energy Density)
• For compact size of a PM machine, BH (product of B and H)
should be maximized.
• The operating point should be chosen at maximum value of BH
(as shown in the next slide). Rare Earth magnet has highest BH
but it is costly.
• Curie Temperature-is the temperature at which material looses
its magnetic property.
• Rare earth magnet has lowest Curie temp.

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PM Material Curie Temp (degree celcius)
Rare earth (Nieodium (Ne)+Fe+Boron) 350
Samarium Cobalt (rare earth) 700
Ferrite Magnet 450
Alnico 890

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• The End of Chapter‐1

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