1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING; THE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
PROCESS; STRUCTURAL FORMS, NATURE OF LOADS; BUILDINGS

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

a. Structural Engineer - A registered Civil Engineer with special qualification in the practice of
Structural Engineering as recognized by the following:

b. Structural Engineering - A discipline of civil engineering dealing

with the analysis and design of structures that support or resists
loads insuring the safety of the structures against natural forces.

c. Structural Failure - is the reduction of capability of a structural

system or component to such a degree that it cannot safely serve its
intended purpose

d. Structural Inspection - is the visual observation by a structural inspector of a particular type of

construction work or cooperation for the purpose of ensuring its general compliance to the
approved plans and specifications and the applicable workmanship provisions of this code as well
as overall construction safety at various stages of construction. Detailed Examination of all the
construction work in progress relative to the design concept shown on the contract documents. The
inspection usually includes a written report, or another form of communication, that is used by the
contractor to correct defects.
Reinforcing Steel Placement (verification of the size, spacing, and placement of all bars)
Common Inspection items:
i. Welding

ii. Applying Shotcrete

iii. High-strength bolting

iv. Prestressing Steel Tendons

e. Structural Observation - is the visual observation of the structural system by the structural
observer as provided for in Section 107.9.2, for its general conformance to the approved plans and
specifications, at significant construction stages and at completion of the structural system.
Structural observation does not include or waive the responsibility for the structural inspections
required by section 107.1 or other sections of this code.

Design Drawings VS. As built Construction

A general review of the project at appropriate intervals during construction. The

objective is to become generally familiar with progress and quality of the contractor’s work and
to determine if the work is proceeding in general accordance with the contract documents.
f. Structures -refers to a system of connected parts used to support a load.

f.1 Classification of Structures

i. Tension Structures
- Structures which are subjected to pure tension under the action of external loads.
- Composed of flexible cables which are frequently employed to support bridges and long span
roofs.
- Because of their flexibility, cables have negligible bending stiffness and can develop only
tension.

ii. Compression Structures

- develop mainly compressive stress under the action of external loads
- Examples: Columns and arches
- Columns are straight members subjected to axially compressive loads.
-Beam-column – when a straight member is subjected to lateral loads or
moments in addition to axial loads.
- Arch, a curved structures, with
a shape similar to that of inverted
cable.

iii. Trusses
-composed of straight members connected at their ends by hinged connection to form stable
configuration.
-when the loads are applied to the truss only at joints, its member either elongate or shorten.
- Thus, the members of an ideal truss are always either in uniform tension or in uniform
compression.
iv. Shear Structures
- e.g. reinforced concrete shear wall which are used in multistory buildings to reduce lateral
movement due to wind load and earthquake excitations.
-structures develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively small bending stresses under the action
of external loads.

v. Bending Structures
- structures develop mainly bending stresses under the action of external
loads.
- In some structures, the shear stresses associated with the changes in
bending moments may also be significant and should be considered in their
designs.
-Some of the most commonly used structures: beams, rigid frames, slabs
and plates
g. Loads are forces or other actions that result from the weight of all the building materials,
occupants and their possessions, environmental effects, differential movements, and restrained
dimensional changes. Permanent loads are those loads in which variations over time are rar of
small magnitude. All other loads are variable loads.
g. 1 Kinds of Loadings
g.2 Types of Loads

i. Dead Loads
- are gravity loads of constant magnitudes and fixed positions that act permanently on the structure.
- e.g. weights of the structures itself and other material and equipment permanently attached to the
structural system.
- weights of frames, framing, and bracing system floors, roofs, walls, stairway heating and air
conditioning system, plumbing, and electrical system
ii. Live Loads
- are loads varying magnitudes and or positions caused by the used of the structure.
-refer to all the loads except dead loads, such as snow or wind loads.
iii. Impact
- When live loads are applied rapidly to a
structure, they cause larger stress than those that
would be produced if the same loads would have
been applied gradually.
-The dynamic effect of the load that causes this
increase in stress in the structure.

iv. Wind Loads

- produced by the flow of wind around the structure.
- The magnitudes of wind load that may act on the structure depend on the geographical location
of the structure, obstruction in its surrounding terrain, such as nearby buildings, and geometry and
vibrational characteristics of the structure itself.

v. Snow Loads
-considered in designing structures in many parts of United States and the world.
 vi. Earthquake Loads
- horizontal components of ground motion that causes structural damage and that must be
considered in designs structures located in earthquake prone areas.
vii. Hydrostatic and Soil Pressure
- structure used to retain water, such as dams and tanks, as well as coastal structures partially of
fully submerged in water
-Hydrostatic pressure- acts normal to submerged surface of the structures, with its magnitude
varying linearly with height.
-Lateral soil pressure depends on the type of soil and is usually considerably smaller than vertical
pressure.
-For the portions of structure below the ground table, the combined effect of hydrostatic pressure
and soil pressure should be considered.
viii. Thermal and other effects
-Statically indeterminate structures may be subjected to stresses due to temperature
changes, shrinkage of materials, fabrication errors, and differential settlements of supports

ix. Load Combinations

- all loads that might act simultaneously on a structure at a given time.
- It is important to realize that the structure must be designed to have adequate strength to
resist the most unfavorable of all the load combinations.
 05/10/2023

Building Materials Steel

Course Aggregate
Fine Aggregates

Timber
Concrete

1
 05/10/2023

Rebar
Elements of Structures
1. Beams/Girders – usually straight horizontal
members used to carry vertical loads (pointed or
horizontal loads).

Types of Beams

2. Columns – vertical
members of the
structures that resists
axial and
comprehensive loads.

2
 05/10/2023

3. Slabs – are three dimensional flat structural

components usually made of reinforced concrete. 4. Foundation -
connects the
structure to the
ground and
receives the load
of the whole
structure.

Slab Slab
Supports
Slab Slab Supports – is a part of a building or structure
providing the necessary stiffness and strength in
order the necessary stiffness and strength to resist
the internal and external forces or loads
Column
Girder
Beam
Slab

3
 05/10/2023

Types of supports
2. Roller Support –
A. External Supports – The prevent vertical
supports which are usually movement; supply
provided externally without vertical reaction.
disturbing the structural
members.
1. Pinned Support or Hinge
Support – prevent vertical and
horizontal movement to the body;
supply vertical and horizontal
reaction.

3. Fixed Support –
Pinned support Roller support
Translation and
rotation are generally
prevented and always
Simply supported beam have moment.

4
 05/10/2023

Fixed support Fixed support

B. Internal Support – are
provided internally in
the structural member
also divides the full
member into parts.

Fixed-supported girder 1. Internal Hinge – similar

to hinge support that
resists translation in
both directions and
allows only rotation.

Fixed support
Internal Hinge support

Frame Structure
2. Internal Roller Support – are same as roller supports but
Pinned
Pinned they are provided in the middle of structural member.
support
support

Internal Hinge support

Arc

5
 05/10/2023

Internal Roller support

Load Combinations
Pinned Pinned
support support Allowable Stress or Allowable Strength Design
(ASD)
Internal Roller support - Serviceability
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
- Strength Design

6
T
3
%

} 2-10 CHAPTER 2 -- Minimum Design Loads

WIND-BORNE DEBRIS REGIONS are areas within

yphoon prone regions located at:

t

I. Within 1.6 km of the coastal mean high ater

w line 203.1 General

where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than

200 k ph, or Buildings, towers and other vertical structures and all

portions thereof shall be designed to resist the load

2. In areas where the basic wind speed is equal to or combinations specified in Section 203.3, 203.4 and 203.5.

greater than 250 kph.

The most critical effect can occur when one or more of the

WOOD OF NATURAL RESISTANCE TO DECAY contributing loads are not acting. All applicable loads shall

OR TERMITES is the heartwood of the species set fort h be considered, including both earthquake and wind,

below. C orner s apwood is permitted on 5 percent of the accordance with the specified load combinations.

pieces prov di ed 0 percent or more of the width of each

9

side on which it occurs is heartwood. Recognized species 203.2 Symbols and Notations

are:

D dead load

• Decay resistant: Narra, Kamagong, Dao, Tangile. E earthquake load set forth in Section 208.6.I

E, = estimated maximum earthquake force that

• Termite resistant: Narra, Kamagong.
can be developed in the structure as set forth

in Section 208.6.1
WOOD STRUCTURAL PANEL is a structural panel
F load due to fluids with well-defined
product composed primarily of wood and meeting the UBC
pressures and maximum heights
Standard 23-2 and 23-3 or equivalent requirements of
H load due to lateral pressure of soil and water
Philippine National Standards (PNS). Wood structural
in soil
panels include all-veneer plywood, composite panels
L live load, except roof live load, including
containing a combination of veneer and wood-based
any permitted live load reduction
material, and mat-formed panel such as oriented stranded
L, roof Jive load, including any permitted live
board and wafer board.
load reduction

p ponding load
WYTHE is the portion ofa wall which is one masonry unit
R rain load on the undeflected roof
in thickness. A collar joint is not considered a wythe.
T self-straining force and effects arising from

contraction or expansion resulting from

temperature change, shrinkage, moisture 4

change, creep in component materials,

movement due to differential settlement, or

combinations thereof
%

w = load due to wind pressure

.
#

Ass ociation of St ructural ngineers of

E the hilippines,
P Inc. (ASEP)
 CHAPTER 2 -- Minimum Design Loads 2-11

3 Load Combinations using Strength Design or No increase in allowable stresses shall be used with these

Load and Resistance Factor Design load combinations except as specifically permitted by

Section 203.4.2.

Basie Load Combinations

203.4.2 Alternate Basic Load Combinations

ere strength design or load and resistance factor design

L

used, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the In lieu of the basic load combinations specified in Section

host critical effects from the following combinations of 2 0 3 . 4 . 1 , structures and portions thereof shall be permitted

ietored loads: to be designed for the most critical effects resulting from
pg
the following load combinations. When using these

alternate basic load combinations, a one-third increase

(203-1)
shall be permitted in allowable stresses for all

combinations, including W or E.
L . 2 ( D + F + T ) + 1 . 6 L + HD )
(203-2)
+ 0 . 5 ( L , or R)
D ++r+0.75/L + L , ( 0 . 6 w o r ",) ( 0 - 1 3 )
1.4
1.2D + 1 . 6 ( L , or R) + (f,L or 0.5W) (203-3)
0.6D + 0 . 6 W + H (203-14)

t.2D + 1 . 0 W + f , L + 0.5(L, or R) (203-4)

E
0.6D 4 + H (203-15)
1.4
1. 2 D + 1 . 0 E + f , L (203-5)

D +L+(L, or R) (203-16)

(203-6)
D +L+0.6W (203-17)

(203-7)
E
D + L + ­ (203-18)
1.4

Exception:
LO for floors in places of public assembly,

for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for

garage live load, or Crane hook loads need not be combined with roof live load

0.5 for other live loads or with more than one-half o

f the wind load.

Other Loads 203.4.3 Other Loads

· re P i s to be considered in design, the applicable load Where P i s to be considered in design, each applicable load

shall be added to the combinations specified in Sections

l be added to Section 203.3.1 factored as 1 . 2 P .
203.4.1 and 203.4.2.

Load Combinations Using Allowable Stress or

llowable Strength Design 203.5 Special Seismic Load Combinations

For both allowable stress design and strength design for

Basic Load C o m b i n at io n s
concrete, and Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

and Allowable Strength Design (ASD) for steel, the

here allowable stress or allowable strength design is
following special load combinations for seismic design
sed, structures and all portions thereof shall resist the most

ritical effects resulting from the following combinations shall be used as specifically required by Section 208, or by

floads: Chapters 3 through 7.

0+r (203-8)
1 . 2 D + f , L + 1.0E, (203-19)

(203-9)
0.9D ±1.0E, (203-20)

+H+F+(L, Or R) (203-10)

+H + F + 0 . 7 5 [ L + T ( L , or R)] (203-11

ii E

D + H + F + ( 0 6 w o r ,) (203-12)
1.4

National Structural Code of the Philippines Volume l, 7th Edition, 2015

2-12 CHAPTER 2 - Minimum Design Loads

where

f 1 . 0 for floors in places of public assembly,

1

for live loads in excess of 4.8 kPa, and for

204.1 General
garage live load, or

0.5 for other live loads

Dead loads consist of the weight of all materials o
E, the maximum effect of horizontal and
construction incorporated into the building or othe
vertical forces as set forth in Section 20 8 . 6 . 1
structure, including but not limited to walls, floors, roofs

ceilings, stairways, built-in partitions, finishes, claddin

and other similarly incorporated architectural an

structural items, and fixed service equipment, including th

weight of cranes.

204.2 Weights of Materials and Constructions

The actual weights of materials and constructions shall

used in determining dead loads for purposes of design. 1

the absence of definite information, it shall be permitted t

use the minimum values in Tables 204-1 and 204-2.

204.3 Partition Loads

Floors in office buildings and other buildings wher

partition locations are subject to change shall be designe

to support, in addition to all other loads, a uniforml

distributed dead load equal to L.0 kPa.

Exception:

Access floor systems shall be designed to support,

addition to all other loads, a uniformly distributed de

load not less than 0.5 kPa.

Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (ASEP)

 10/18/2023

TYPES OF FORCES
 Internal Forces
Internal forces are the forces and couples
exerted on a member or portion of the
structure by the rest of the structure.

 External Forces
External forces are the actions of other
bodies on the structure under
consideration. For the purposes of analysis,
it is usually convenient to further classify
these forces as applied forces and reaction
forces.

TYPES OF SUPPORTS 4

STABILITY
 10/18/2023

TYPES OF STABILITY 6

 Internal Stability OVERALL STABILITY

A structure is considered to be internally stable,
or rigid, if it maintains its shape and remains a
rigid body when detached from the supports.
Conversely, a structure is termed internally
unstable (or nonrigid) if it cannot maintain its
Overall Stability = Internal Stability +
shape and may undergo large displacements
under small disturbances when not supported
External Stability
externally.
 External Stability
External stability evaluates if there are
enough support reactions to prevent the
structure from moving as a rigid body.

DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURE DETERMINACY OF STRUCTURE

 Statically Determinate
o When the unknown forces can be computed using equilibrium equations

o A structure which has enough connections to be stable

 Statically Indeterminate
o When the number of unknown forces is more than the equilibrium equations

o A structure which has more than enough connections to be stable

 10/18/2023

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
1) Stable / Unstable
A stable structure is one that will not collapse when disturbed. Stability is the
capability for a structure to recover equilibrium.
In general, there are many ways that a structure may become unstable, including
IMPORTANT buckling of compression members, yielding/rupture of members, or nonlinear geometric
effects (like so-called P-Delta effects); however, in linear structural analysis, our

CONCEPTS main concern is instability caused by insufficient reaction points or poor layout of
structural members.
An unstable structure generally cannot be analyzed. Therefore, it is useful to know
if a structure is stable or unstable before you conduct a structural analysis.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

2) Internally Stable 3) External Determinacy
A stable structure is one that will not collapse when disturbed. Stability is the
In an externally statically determinate structure, all of the external reaction force
capability for a structure to recover equilibrium.
components may be calculated using only static equilibrium (i.e. using the three
equilibrium equations in 2D). A structure for which the external reactions
An internally stable structure is one that would maintain its shape if all the component forces cannot be calculated using only equilibrium is called externally
reaction supports were removed. A structure that is internally unstable may still statically indeterminate.
be generally stable if it has sufficient external support reactions.
4) Internal Determinacy

In an internally statically determinate structure, all of the external reaction

component forces and internal forces may be calculated using only static
equilibrium. A structure for which the internal forces cannot be calculated using
only equilibrium is internally statically indeterminate.
 10/18/2023

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS DETERMINACY OF

5) Redundant Forces INTERNALLY STABLE
Indeterminate structures have more unknown forces than you can solve using the
Where;
three equilibrium equations alone (or six equilibrium equations in 3D). These
extra unknown forces are called redundant forces or redundants. r = no. of reactions

6) Degree of Determinacy

The degree of indeterminacy for a structure is equal to the number of redundant

forces. An indeterminate structure with 2 redundants may be said to be statically
indeterminate to the second degree or "2 S.I." For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be
written as

DETERMINACY OF 15 INTERNALLY UNSTABLE 16

INTERNALLY UNSTABLE As this figure indicates, these reactions, which would have been sufficient to
fully constrain an internally stable or rigid structure, are not sufficient for this
Where; structure.
r = no. of reactions
fi = no. of internal forces
nr = no. of rigid members

For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be

written as
 10/18/2023

INTERNALLY UNSTABLE 17

EXAMPLE
In order for the structure to be made externally stable;
Determine whether each of
the beams and frames below
are internally stable or
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
unstable and determinate, STATICALLY UNSTABLE EXTERNALLY
indeterminate, or unstable.

If it is indeterminate, what
degree is it indeterminate?
INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE EXTERNALLY
The roller support at A can be replaced by a hinged support to prevent the AT 2ND DEG
horizontal movement of end A of the structure.

EXAMPLE
Determine whether each of
frames is determinate,
indeterminate, or unstable. INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE

If it is indeterminate, what
EXTERNALLY
DETERMINACY AND
degree is it indeterminate? STABILITY OF TRUSS
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY
 10/18/2023

WHAT IS TRUSS? 21 COMMON BRIDGE TRUSSES 22

 Truss is a structure composed of

slender members joined together at
their end points.

 The members commonly used in

construction consist of wooden struts,
metal bars, angles, or channels.

 The joint connections are usually

formed by bolting or welding the
ends of the members to a common
plate, called a gusset plate.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR ANALYSIS OF 23 INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 24

TRUSSES The term internal used in truss refers to the number and arrangement
 All members are connected only at their ends by frictionless hinges of members contained within the truss.
in plane trusses and by frictionless ball-and-socket joints in space
trusses. The instability due to insufficient external supports or due to
 All loads and support reactions are applied only at the joints. improper arrangement of external supports is referred to as external.

 The centroidal axis of each member coincides with the line The triangular truss is called the basic truss element.
connecting the centers of the adjacent joints.
 10/18/2023

INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 25 INTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 26

Where;
m = no. of members
j = no. of joints

INTERNALLY STABLE
NOTE: It is very important to realize that although the foregoing
criterion for internal stability is necessary, it is not sufficient to ensure
internal stability. Members must also be properly arranged to ensure
rigidity of the entire truss.
INTERNALLY UNSTABLE
If a truss contains a sufficient number of members, but they are not
properly arranged, the truss is said to have critical form.

EXTERNAL STABILITY (TRUSS) 27 DETERMINACY (TRUSS) 28

A structure (or truss) is externally unstable if all of its reactions are concurrent or
parallel.
Where;
r = no. of reactions
m = no. of members
j = no. of joints

For indeterminate structure, the degree of external indeterminacy can be

written as
 10/18/2023

EXAMPLE 29

INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY DETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY

(1) ANSWER LABORATORY

EXERCISE NO. 2
INTERNALLY STABLE
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE
EXTERNALLY AT 4TH DEG

(2)
 25/10/2023

ANALYSIS FOR EXTERNAL

REACTIONS AND INTERNAL
STRESS RESULTANTS EXTERNAL REACTIONS
OF STATICALLY DETERMINATE
STRUCTURES

EXTERNAL FORCES - REACTIONS EXAMPLE - BEAM

Procedures for determining the reactions of plane statically Determine the reactions on the beam.
determinate structures subjected to coplanar loads:
1. Free-Body Diagrams (FBD)
2. Static Determinacy
3. Equilibrium Equations and Conditions (if any)
4. Checking Computations
 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE - BEAM EXAMPLE - BEAM

Free-Body Diagram (FBD) Static Determinacy =1

=3 =0
+ =3
r fi nr 3nr
3 0 1 3
3 = 3
Therefore, the beam is
Internally Stable; Statically Determinate Externally

EXAMPLE - BEAM EXAMPLE - FRAME

Determine the reactions on the beam.
Free-Body Diagram (FBD)

Equations of Equilibrium Support Reactions

+→ Σ = 0; − 250 cos 60 = 0 #$ = %&'()
+↺ Σ = 0; −250 sin 60 3 + 250 cos 60 0.3 + 4.5 − 60 = 0 *+ = %,-. ..()

+↑ Σ = 0; −250 sin 60 + 149.33 + =0 #+ = /0. &()

 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE - FRAME EXAMPLE - FRAME

Equations of Equilibrium Support Reactions
Free-Body Diagram (FBD) Static Determinacy
+ =3 +→ Σ = 0; + 2 15 = 0 #$ = −.1() = .1() ←

r fi nr 3nr +↑ Σ =0
1
3 0 1 3 −2 9 − 3 9 =0 #+ = .%. '() ↑
2
3 = 3
+↺ Σ =0
Therefore, it is Statically Determinate Externally 15 9
− 2 15 − 32 9 4
2 2
1 2 5# = .60() − 7 ↺
− 3 9 9 =0
2 3

EXAMPLE - ARCH EXAMPLE - ARCH

Determine the reactions at the supports for the three-hinged Free-Body Diagram (FBD) Static Determinacy
arch.
Free-Body Diagram (FBD) + =3
2.5kN/m 2.5kN/m 2.5kN/m
r fi nr 3nr
4 2 2 6
6 = 6
B
1kN/m 1kN/m
1kN/m Therefore, it is Statically Determinate Externally
R = 30m R = 30m
R = 30m

A C

30m 30m 30m 30m 30m 30m

 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE - ARCH
Support Reactions
2.5kN/m +↺ Σ 8 =0
− 60 − 1 30 15 + 32.5 60 4 30 = 0
#+ = /0. '() ↑
1kN/m +↺ Σ 9 = 0; :;<
R = 30m − 30 − 67.5 30 + 1 30 15 + 2.5 30 15 = 0 INTERNAL STRESS RESULTANTS
#$ = %'() →

+→ Σ = 0; > + 15 + 1 30 = 0
30m ?$ = −,'() = ,'() ←
30m
+↑ Σ = 0
> + 67.5 − 2.5@60A = 0
?+ = 6&. '() ↑

PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES

The following procedure provides a means for applying the method
Two methods for analyzing a truss:
of sections to determine the internal normal force, shear force and
bending moment at a specific location in a structural member.
1. Method of Joints
1. Support Reactions In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members of a
2. Free-Body Diagrams (FBD) statically determinate truss are determined by considering the
3. Equations of Equilibrium equilibrium of its joints.
 25/10/2023

ANALYSIS OF PLANE TRUSSES EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS

Procedure for Analysis:
Two methods for analyzing a truss:
1. Calculate the reactions at supports.
2. Method of Sections 2. Determine the static determinacy of the structure.
The method of sections involves cutting the truss into two portions 3. Draw the free-body diagram of a joint having at least one known
by passing an imaginary section through the members whose force and at most two unknown forces.
forces are desired. The desired member forces are then 4. Apply the two force equilibrium equations and solve for the two
determined by considering the equilibrium of one of the two unknown member forces.
portions of the truss. 5. Continue to analyze each of the other joints where again it is
necessary to choose a joint having at most two unknowns and at
least one known force.

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS

Free – Body Diagram (FBD)
42kN 42kN 42kN

28kN
28kN 28kN
Determine the forces in each
20m members of the truss shown by 20m
method of joints.

20m 15m 20m 15m

 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS

Static Determinacy 42kN
Reactions
42kN 28kN +→ BC$ = 1; − 28 = 0
m r j 2j
5 3 4 8 #$ = &6() →
28kN
8 = 8

20m +↺ B5? = 1
− 35 + 28 20 + 42@15A = 0
#+ = .,() ↑

20m 15m Therefore, it is Statically Determinate Truss. +↑ BC+ = 1

> + 34 − 42 = 0
?+ = 6() ↑

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF JOINTS

1 3
+↑ Σ = 0 ; 34 + E =0
+→ Σ = 0; −6 + 98 =0 +→ Σ = 0; −6 + 8E =0
2 5 1 3
+→ Σ = 0; −28 + 48.08 − @10A = 0 OK
C#F = −,6. 16() = ,6. 16() @?A C*? = /() @GA C?F = %1() @?A 2 5
1 1
+→ Σ = 0; 28 − @48.08A + 9 =0 +↑ Σ = 0 ; 34 + E =0 1 4
2 2 +↑ Σ = 0; 48.08 − 42 + @10A = 0 OK
2 5
C#* = /() @GA C*F = 1
 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS

Procedure for Analysis: Procedure for Analysis:
1. Label each members in the truss. This will keep everything Every cut member exposes an unknown internal forces, so if you cut
organized and consistent. three members, you’ll expose three unknowns. Exposing more than
2. Verify the stability and determinacy of the structure. three members is not advised because you create more unknowns
than available equilibrium equations.
3. Determine the support reactions in the truss.
4. Make an imaginary cut through the structure. Do not cut thru 5. Select either part of the truss for the determination of member
more than three members. forces.
6. Apply the conditions of equilibrium to determine the axial forces.

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS

Static Determinacy
m r j 2j
25 3 14 28
Determine the forces members 28 = 28

FJ, HJ and HK of the truss shown

by method of sections.

Therefore, it is Statically Determinate Truss.

 25/10/2023

EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS EXAMPLE – METHOD OF SECTIONS

Section b - b Section a - a
+↺ B5H = 1 +↺ B5C = 1
3 4
−25 8 − IJ 12 = 0 −25 16 − 50 8 + 16.67 12 − IK 8 − IK @6A =0
5 5
IJ = −%/. /0() IK = −/&. '()
IJ = %/. /0() @?A IK = /&. '() @?A

ASSIGNMENT #1 – TRUSSES ANALYSIS OF CABLES AND ARCHES

Determine the force members in IH, ID and CD of the truss. State if
the members are in tension or compression. Assume all members CABLES
are pin connected.
Cables are often used in engineering structures for support and to
transmit loads from one member to another.

In the force analysis of such systems, the weight of the cable itself
may be neglected; however, when cables are used as guys for
radio antennas, electrical transmission lines and derricks, the
cable weight may become important and must be included in the
structural analysis.
 25/10/2023

ANALYSIS OF CABLES AND ARCHES EXAMPLE – CABLE

Determine the tension in each cable segment and the distance yD
CABLES M P
+→ Σ = 0; L98 −L 9 =0
NO QM
Two cases will be R N
+↑ Σ = 0; L − L98 −2= 0
considered in the sections 9 QM NO

that follow: Solving,

• a cable subjected to STU = &. --VW SUX = %. /1VW
concentrated loads M
+→ Σ = 0; L8E YZ[\ − 1.60@ A =0
• a cable subjected to a NO
N
distributed load. +↑ Σ = 0; L8E [] \ + 1.60
NO
−4= 0
Provided these loadings Solving,
are coplanar with the
SX^ = .. 0&VW; _ = //. '1°
cable.

EXAMPLE – CABLE ASSIGNMENT #2 – ARCH

Determine the tension in each cable segment and the distance yD The three – hinged spandrel arch is subjected to the loading
Solving, shown. Determine the internal moment in the arch at point D.
SX^ = .. 0&VW; _ = //. '1°

From the geometry,

aE + 3bc \ = 9
+F = &. %17
 25/10/2023

ASSIGNMENT #3– CABLE

Cable ABCD supports the loading shown. Determine the maximum
tension in the cable and the sag of point B.

THANK YOU !
 17/11/2023

SHEAR AND MOMENT

DIAGRAMS

Properties of Shear and Moment Diagrams

The following are some important properties of shear and moment diagrams:

1) The area of the shear diagram to the left or to the right of the section is equal to the
moment at that section.

2) The slope of the moment diagram at a given point is the shear at that point.

3) The slope of the shear diagram at a given point equals the load at that point.

4) The maximum moment occurs at the point of zero shears. This is in reference to
property number 2, that when the shear (also the slope of the moment diagram) is zero,
the tangent drawn to the moment diagram is horizontal.

5) When the shear diagram is increasing, the moment diagram is concave upward.

6) When the shear diagram is decreasing, the moment diagram is concave downward.
17/11/2023
 17/11/2023

BEAM
 17/11/2023

The beam shown in the photo is used to support a portion of

the overhang for the entranceway of the building. The
idealized model for the beam with the load acting on it is
s h o w n b e l o w. A s s u m e B i s a r o l l e r a n d C i s p i n n e d . D r a w t h e
shear and moment diagrams for the beam.

The beam shown in the photo is used to support a portion of

the overhang for the entranceway of the building. The
idealized model for the beam with the load acting on it is
s h o w n b e l o w. A s s u m e B i s a r o l l e r a n d C i s p i n n e d . D r a w t h e
shear and moment diagrams for the beam. Determine the
maximum shear and moment.

Σ 0 →;
Cx Σ 0 ↺
10
By Cy ∗1 ∗ 1.75 ∗ 0.875

. !
Σ 0 ↑
10
15.31 $ ∗ 1.75

%. & !
 17/11/2023

PLANE FRAME

Draw the shear and moment diagrams for the frame shown.
 17/11/2023

↺ ' ( 0
10 2.5 5 3 10 5 5 7
* + 10 0
, %. !
→ ' 0
4
*10 . 0
Dx 5
/0 1 !
Ay Dy
↑ ' 0
3
*12.5 * 5 * 10 * 5 * 10 . 0
5
/ . !

12.5 13.5
17/11/2023
 17/11/2023

Deflections of structures can occur from various sources, such as loads,

temperature, fabrication errors, or settlement. In design, deflections must
be limited in order to provide integrity and stability of roofs, and prevent
cracking of attached brittle materials such as concrete, plaster or glass.
Furthermore, a structure must not vibrate or deflect severely in order to
“appear” safe for its occupants. More important, though, deflections at
specified points in a structure must be determined if one is to analyze
statically indeterminate structures.
 17/11/2023

The deflection of a structure is caused by its internal loadings such as

normal force, shear force, or bending moment. For beams and frames,
however, the greatest deflections are most often caused by internal
bending, whereas internal axial forces cause the deflections of a truss.

Deflection diagram represents the elastic curve or locus of points which

defines the displaced position of the centroid of the cross section along the
members.

The supports that resist a force, such as a pin, restrict displacement; and
those that resist moment, such as a fixed wall, restrict rotation.
 17/11/2023

The deflection of frame If a pin connection is used at the

members that are fixed joint, the members will each
connected causes the joint to have a different slope or rotation
rotate the connected members at the pin, since the pin cannot
by the same amount . support a moment.
17/11/2023
 17/11/2023

Theorem I

The change in slope between the tangents drawn to the elastic curve at any
two points A and B is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the area of
the moment diagram between these two points.

Theorem II

The deviation of any point B relative to the tangent drawn to the elastic
curve at any other point A, in a direction perpendicular to the original
position of the beam, is equal to the product of 1/EI multiplied by the
moment of an area about B of that part of the moment diagram between
points A and B.
 17/11/2023

Rule of Sign
• The deviation at any point is
positive if the point lies above
the tangent, negative if the
point is below the tangent.

• Measured from left tangent, if

θ is counterclockwise, the
change of slope is positive,
negative if θ is clockwise.

Procedure for Analysis

• M/EI diagram
Determine support reactions.
Draw the shear and moment diagrams.

• Elastic Curve
Draw an exaggerated view of the beam’s elastic curve.
Show the displacement and slope to be determined on the curve.

• Moment Area Theorems

Apply Theorems I and II.
 17/11/2023

Problem: Find the maximum deflection for the cantilever beam

loaded as shown below, if the cross section is 50mm wide by 150mm
high. Use E = 69GPa.

MA
A B
Ax

Ay
0 →;

4
0 ↑; ∗1
4
0 ↺; ∗1 ∗ 2.5 ·!

A B

"#/ ∗ '() #
+#
∗*
%&
1 1 1
,-/ ∗ 3 12 1 4 3 10 1.5 4 1 2 0.25 510006 7
50 1501 2 3
69 0000 12 2
:; :; < >
"#/ 89!! + : :
< > < 8
= 2
 17/11/2023

Problem: Determine the slope at point C of the beam. Use E =

200GPa, I = 360 x 106 mm4.

Problem: Determine the slope at point C of the beam. Use E =

200GPa, I = 360 x 106 mm4.

0 →;
Ax
- 0 ↺
? ∗8 40 ∗2
Ay By

0 ↑
10
10 A 40
V (0)
# >
- 30
 17/11/2023

Problem: Determine the slope at point C of the beam. Use E =

200GPa, I = 360 x 106 mm4.

10
V (0)
A C - 30 B

60

20

M (0)

2m 4m 2m

BC D 4 BC

,-/
D
8

,-/
BC 4 BC/
8
?GGHIJ=K LℎNOPN F

1 20 ·
BC/ ∗2 ∗
2 EF

EHST,JU VWPXN 8 · !8
QR/
%&
 17/11/2023

?GGHIJ=K LℎNOPN FF

,-/
1 60kN · 1
6m 2 6
2 EI 3
1 60 · 2
2 ∗ 52 7
2 EF 3

9 · !>
"#/
%&

EHST,JU VWPXN

"#/
QR 4 QR/
9
800 · 1
,-/
EF
20 · ^
BC/
EF
1 ^
800 · 20 ·
BC 4
8 EF EF
80_101 · ^
BC
200_10`
^ 360_10a ∗ 10bc^ 6

QR . ')d