Power system Operations and Control (18EE81)

Module-2 Automatic Generation Control

Introduction
The main objective of power system operation and control is to maintain continuous supply of power
with an acceptable quality, to all the consumers in the system. The system will be in equilibrium, when there
is a balance between the power demand and the power generated. As the power in AC form has real and
reactive components: the real power balance; as well as the reactive power balance is to be achieved. There
are two basic control mechanisms used to achieve reactive power balance (acceptable voltage profile) and real
power balance (acceptable frequency values). The former is called the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and
the latter is called the automatic load frequency control (ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC).
Generator Voltage Control System
The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of the generator. The
speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage. Therefore, the voltage control system is also
called as excitation control system or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
For the alternators, the excitation is provided by a device (another machine or a static device) called exciter.
For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a field current of as large as 6500A at 500V and
hence the exciter is a fairly large machine. Depending on the way the dc supply is given to the field winding of
the alternator (which is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters; and
iii) Static Exciters. Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the IEEE working group to
represent the excitation system. A

Fig2.1: A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System

A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is shown in Fig2.2. The generator

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terminal voltage Vt is compared with a voltage reference Vref to obtain a voltage error signal ∆V.

This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer function KA/(1+TAs). The output
of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of transfer function Ke/(1+Tes). The output of
the exciter Efd is then applied to the field winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator
field can be represented by a block with a transfer function KF/(1+sTF). The stabilizing compensator shown in
the diagram is used to improve the dynamic response of the exciter.

Fig2.2: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (Excitation) Control System.

Performance of AVR Loop

The purpose of the AVR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with in acceptable values. A static
accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so that the terminal voltage is maintained within that
value. For example, if the accuracy limit is 4%, then the terminal voltage must be maintained with in 4% of
the base voltage.The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal voltage
of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed of response. Suppose the
static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in percentage with reference to the nominal value. The error voltage is to
be less than (Ac/100)∆|V|ref. From the block diagram, for a steady state error voltage.

Automatic Load Frequency Control

ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in the system. The main
functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii) control the tie-line flows; and iii)
distribute the load among the participating generating units. The control (input) signals are the tie-line
deviation ∆Ptie (measured from the tie- line flows), and the frequency deviation ∆f (obtained by measuring the
angle deviation∆δ). These error signals ∆f and ∆Ptie are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real power
signal, which then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover)
changes its output power to establish the real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig

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Fig2.3: The Schematic representation of ALFC system

For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Figare required. The generator and the electrical load
constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic amplifier represent the speed governing system.
Using the swing equation, the generator can be modeled by load on the system is composite consisting of a
frequency independent component and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as ∆Pe =
∆P0 + ∆Pf where, ∆Pe is the change in the load; ∆P0 is the frequency independent load component; ∆Pf is the
frequency dependent load component. ∆Pf = D∆ω where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load (also
called as damping constant) expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in frequency. If D=1.5%, then
a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5% change in load. The combined generator and the load (constituting the
power system) can then be represented as shown in Fig2.5

Fig2.4. The block diagram representation of the Generator

Fig2.5. The block diagram representation of the Generator and load

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The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig2.6

Fig2.6. The turbine model.

Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; ∆PV(s) is the change in valve output (due to action). ∆Pm(s) is the change in
the turbine output The governor can similarly modeled as shown in Fig2.7. The output of the governor is
by where ∆P is the reference set power, and ∆ω/R is the power given by governor speed characteristic. The
hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal ∆Pg into valve/gate position corresponding to a power ∆PV. Thus
∆PV(s) = ( Kg/(1+sTg))∆Pg(s).

Fig2.7: The block diagram representation of the Governor

All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as shown in Fig2.8

Fig2.8: The block diagram representation of the ALFC

Steady State Performance of the ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in ‘open’ state, and the output is obtained by substituting s→0 in the TF.
With s→0, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then, (note that ∆Pm =∆PT = ∆PG = ∆Pe = ∆PD ; That is turbine
output = generator/electrical output = load demand) ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆ω or ∆Pm = ∆Pref – (1/R)∆f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (∆f = 0, and ∆V = 0), then ∆Pm = ∆Pref . If the network is
finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (∆Pref = 0), then
If the frequency dependent load is present, then
The quantityβ = (D + 1/Req) is called the area frequency (bias) characteristic (response) or simply the
stiffness of the system.

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Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
The ALFC loop shown in Fig2.8, is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the primary goal of real power
balance by adjusting the turbine output ∆Pm to match the change in load demand ∆PD. All the participating
generating units contribute to the change in generation. But a change in load results in a steady state frequency
deviation
∆f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional control loop called the
supplementary loop. This objective is met by using integral controller which makes the frequency deviation
zero. The ALFC with the supplementary loop is generally called the AGC. The block diagram of an AGC is
shown in Fig2.9. The main objectives of AGC are i) to regulate the frequency (using both primary and
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A secondary objective of the AGC is
to distribute the required change in generation among the connected generating units economically (to obtain
least operating costs).

Fig2.9: The block diagram representation of the AGC

AGC in a Single Area System
In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the function of the AGC is
only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will be achieved using the supplementary loop (as
shown in Fig.2.9) which uses the integral controller to change the reference power setting so as to change the
speed set point. The integral controller gain KI needs to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms of
overshoot, settling time) of the system. Although each generator will be having a separate speed governor, all
the generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent generator, and the ALFC for the area
corresponds to this equivalent generator.

AGC in a Multi Area System

In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control area (located at
the ECC of that area). They are combined as shown in Fig2.10 for the interconnected system operation. For a
total change in load of ∆PD, the steady state

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Fig.2.10. AGC for a multi-area operation.

Expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system Consider a change in load ∆PD1 in
area1. The steady state frequency deviation ∆f is the same for both the areas. That is ∆f = ∆f1 = ∆f2.
Thus, for area1, we have
∆Pm1 - ∆PD1 - ∆P12 = D1∆f
where, ∆P12 is the tie line power flow from Area1to Area 2; and for Area 2
∆Pm2 + ∆P12 = D2∆f
Net interchange power (tie line flow) with neighboring areas at the scheduled values
The supplementary control should ideally correct only for changes in that area. In other words, if there
is a change in Area1 load, there should be supplementary control only in Area1 and not in Area 2. For
this purpose the area control error (ACE) is used (Fig2.9). The ACE of the two areas are given by
For area 1:ACE1 = ∆P12 + β1∆f For
area 2:ACE2 = ∆P21 + β2∆f
Economic Allocation of Generation
An important secondary function of the AGC is to allocate generation so that each generating unit is
loaded economically. That is, each generating unit is to generate that amount to meet the present
demand in such a way that the operating cost is the minimum. This function is called Economic Load
Dispatch (ELD).

Systems with more that two areas

The method described for the frequency bias control for two area system is applicable to multiarea
system also.

Examples:
Ex 1. A 500 MVA, 50 Hz, generating unit has a regulation constant R of 0.05 p.u. on its own

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rating. If the frequency of the system increases by 0.01 Hz in the steady state, what is the decrease
in the turbine output? Assume fixed reference power setting.
Solution: In p.u. ∆f = 0.01/50 = 0.0002 p.u.
With ∆pref = 0, ∆pm = -1/R(∆f) = - 0.004 p.u.
Hence, ∆pm = -0.004 Sbase = - 2 MW.
Ex. 2. An interconnected 60 Hz power system consists of one area with three generating units rated
500, 750, and 1000 MVA respectively. The regulation constant of each unit is R= 0.05 per unit on
its own rating. Each unit is initially operating at one half of its rating, when the system load
suddenly increases by 200MW. Determine (i) the area frequency response characteristic on a 1000
MVA system base, (ii) the steady state frequency deviation of the area, and (iii) the increase in
turbine power output.
Regulation constants on common system base are (Rpu new = R pu old ( Sbase new/Sbase old): R1 = 0.1;
R2 = 0.0667; and R3 = 0.05.
Hence β = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) = 45 per unit.
Neglecting losses and frequency dependence of the load, the steady state frequency
deviation is ∆f = (-1/β)∆pm = -4.444 x10 -3 per unit = (-4.444 x10 -3 )60 = - 0.2667 Hz.

∆pm1 = (-1/R1)(∆f) = 0.04444 per unit = 44.44 MW

∆pm2 = (-1/R2)(∆f) = 0.06666 per unit = 66.66 MW
∆pm3 = (-1/R3)(∆f) = 0.08888 per unit = 88.88 MW

Ex.3. A 60 Hz, interconnected power system has two areas. Area1 has 2000 MW generation and
area frequency response of 700 MW/Hz. Area 2 has 4000 MW generation and area frequency
response of 1400 MW/Hz. Each area is initially generating half of its rated generation, and the
tie-line deviation is zero at 60 Hz when load in Area1 is suddenly increases by 100 MW. Find the
steady state frequency error and tie line error of the two areas. What is the effect of using AGC in
this system?

In the steady state, ∆f = (-1/β) ∆pm = {∆pm / -(β1 + β2)} = ( -100/2100) = - 0.0476 Hz.

Assuming ∆pref = 0, ∆pm1 = -β1 ∆f = 33.33 MW; and ∆pm2 = -β2 ∆f = 66.67 MW. Thus in response to 100 MW
change in Area1, both areas will change their generation. The increase in Area 2 generation will now flow through
tie line to Area1. Hence ∆p tie1 = - 66.67 MW; and ∆p tie2 = + 66.67 MW.

With AGC, the Area control error is determined as follows.

ACE = ∆p tie1 + B1 ∆f where B1 is the frequency bias
constant.
ACE 2 = ∆p tie2 ( = - ∆p tie1) + B2 ∆f where B2 is the frequency bias constant.
The control will actuate such that in the steady state the frequency and tie line deviations are zero.
Thus till ACE1= ACE2 = 0, t

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HYDROTHERMAL SCHEDULING

OPTIMAL SCHEDULING OF HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEM

• No state or country is endowed with plenty of water sources or abundant coal or nuclear fuel. In states,
which have adequate hydro as well as thermal power generation capacities, proper co-ordination to
obtain a most economical operating state is essential
• Maximum advantage is to use hydro power so that the coal reserves can be conserved and
environmental pollution can be minimized.
• However in many hydro systems, the generation of power is an adjunct to control of flood water or the
regular scheduled release of water for irrigation. Recreations centers may have developed along the
shores of large reservoir so that only small surface water elevation changes are possible.
• The whole or a part of the base load can be supplied by the run-off river hydro plants, and the peak
orthe remaining load is then met by a proper mix of reservoir type hydro plants and thermal plants.
Determination of this by a proper mix is the determination of the most economical operating state of a
hydro-thermal system. The hydro-thermal coordination is classified into long term co-ordination and
short term coordination.

The previous sections have dealt with the problem of optimal scheduling of a power system with
thermal plants only. Optimal operating policy in this case can be completely determined at any instant
without reference to operation at other times. This, indeed, is the static optimization problem.
Operation of a system having both hydro and thermal plants is, however, far more complex as hydro
plants have negligible operating cost, but are required to operate under constraints of water available
for hydro generation in a given period of time. The problem thus belongs to the realm of dynamic
optimization. The problem of minimizing the operating cost of a hydrothermal system can be viewed as
one of minimizing the fuel cost of thermal plants under the constraint of water availability (storage and
inflow) for hydro generation over a given period of operation.

Fig. 2.1 Fundamental hydrothermal system

For the sake of simplicity and understanding, the problem formulation and solution technique
are illustrated through a simplified hydrothermal system of Fig. 2.1. This system consists of

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one hydro and one thermal plant supplying power to a centralized load and is referred to as a
fundamental system. Optimization will be carried out with real power generation as control
variable, with transmission loss accounted for by the loss formula.

Mathematical Formulation

For a certain period of operation T (one year, one month or one day, depending upon the
requirement), it is assumed that (i) storage of hydro reservoir at the beginning and the end of
the period are specified, and (ii) water inflow to reservoir (after accounting for irrigation use)
and load demand on the system are known as functions of time with complete certainty
(deterministic case). The problem is to determine q(t), the water discharge (rate) so as to
minimize the cost of thermal generation.

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