1.1 ETHICS AND THE HUMAN PERSON: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS ➢ Ethics is also concerned with character.

➢ In fact, the word “ethics is derived from the Greek word

In this packet, you will learn at least 5 important ethos, which means ‘character” or in plural, ‘manners’.
presupposition Taking its meaning from the word itself, we can say that
Ethics has something to do with our actions which develop
RULES into custom or habit.
➢ are "accepted principles or instruction that state the way
things are should be done, and tells you what you are Some other questions that are ethical in nature:
allowed or are not allowed to do" (Cambridge, 2020) ● What is good?
● Who is a moral person?
LAW ● What are the virtues of a human being?
➢ according to Thomas Aquinas, is "an ordinance of reason ● What makes an act right?
for the common good of a (complete) community, ● What duties do we have to each other?
promulgated by the person or body responsible for looking
after the community" (Stanford, 2020) 3 SUB-PARTS OF ETHICS
1. META ETHICS
Both terms are commonly used interchangeably as long as ➢ is concerned with the nature of ethics or morality itself. It
we are talking about order and organization and the common good. deals with the questions such as “Is morality objective or
But in terms of its consequences, laws carry much more weight. subjective?” and/or “Is there an absolute, objective, and
For Aquinas, as far as human laws are concerned, they are universal morality?”
all reasonably created, written, and promulgated by a leader of
readers of a particular community. Violating laws would mean 2. NORMATIVE ETHICS
punishment and restitution according to the nature of the violation ➢ deals with what one should act morally. The term “should”
committed. Bottom line, any society or community needs rules and imply its prescriptive nature. This includes regulating our
laws as a guide to conduct, preservation, and survival, peace and behaviors depending on the habits we develop, the duties
order, promotion of common good, and flourishing of human values that we follow, and weighing the foreseeable
and rights. consequences of our actions.

THE IMPORTANCE OF RULES TO SOCIAL BEINGS 3. APPLIED ETHICS

➢ deals with the application of ethical standards in analyzing
Rules benefit social beings in various ways: and solving moral issues from different disciplines and
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior institutions such as or related to medicine, environment,
2. Rules help guarantee each person certain rights and society, technology, etc. (IEP, 2020).
freedom
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings What you have to remember for now is the idea that Ethics
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic system is a discipline that studies not only the rightness or wrongness of our
actions but also how and why they are right or wrong.
Both rules and laws are generated by our reason by which, Morality or Ethics is the basis of all laws and rules. It is the
upon knowing it is good, we either follow or violate them. But there guiding principle behind every creation and promulgation of laws.
are times, laws are created but one could not follow because our Thus, there must be what the moral philosophers called “Moral
consciences dictate that it is wrong. Standards” or “Moral Laws” which nobody had written but
For instance, why are the death penalty, abortion, and everyone, every society, and culture seems to follow.
divorce are not allowed here in the Philippines while other countries Commonly to us Filipinos, we have a grasp of Moral Laws
implement them? Is it because we know better than them? If we do, through our Christian orientation. Most familiar to us are the
how do we know if rules are geared towards good and avoid what is injunctions “Thou shall not kill”, “Thou shall not lie”, “Thou shall not
wrong? Perhaps, a more pressing question would be “How do we steal”, and “Thou shall not commit adultery” that are commonly
know what is right?”, “Is there a universal standard by which all rules known to us as part of the Ten Commandments.
and laws are generated? But assuming that we did not become a Christian nation or
These are just some of the many questions that Ethics, a perhaps, without the Bible or religion, is morality still possible? What
branch of Philosophy that deals with the rightness and wrongness of do you think?
human actions, is trying to answer. For Immanuel Kant, practical reason is the foundation of
Moral Philosophy (Garath, Stanford 2020). We can think and reason
ETHICS out that we can evaluate what is right from what is wrong. Consider
➢ is a major branch of Philosophy that studies morality or the this thought experiment for instance; What will happen if killing one
rightness or wrongness of human conduct. another becomes a law and allowable and required for us to follow?
➢ Morality speaks of a code or system of behavior in regards What If all of us are required to lie? What if stealing becomes
to standards of right or wrong behavior. naturally allowable for all of us? What if adultery becomes morally
➢ Moral Philosophy is “concerned with questions of how permissible? What will happen to us?
people ought to act, and the search for a definition of right If all of these are allowed and become our rule of life, then
conduct (identified as the one causing the greatest good) there will be chaos. Humanity might become extinct. Ownership and
and the good life (in the sense of a life worth living or a life security are impossible. Words will be meaningless and the
that is satisfying or happy)”. (Philosophy Basics, 2020). exclusivity of marriage and family life will be different from what we
➢ The terms morality/moral and ethics/ethical can be think of them now. Can you imagine sharing your husband or wife
interchanged for they often refer to the same meaning. with someone and it is totally fine to you?
➢ Ethics stands to queries about what there is a reason to do.
 Aside from reasoning, our natural inclination to desire the RECAPITULATION
welfare of the other leads us to do good, thus, we are naturally
sympathetic beings (Thilly,1900). From a Christian perspective, we ➢ First, when we talk about ethics or morality, we are talking
call it to love in its ultimate sense. But then, even if we do not call it about the rightness and wrongness of human conduct.
love, it is in our system that we want what is good for others and ➢ Second, Moral Standards or Moral Laws are guiding
therefore, we could not help but do good for others. Any action that principles of human conduct proper to the survival,
intends and causes ill-effects to others is wrong. Notice that in preservation, and progress of our humanity. These are not
morality then, we behave morally by avoiding first what is dangerous promulgated or written by any men and can be considered
for others. Then, we tend to do what is good not only for our survival as “unwritten laws” (Chen, 2018).
but also for our human flourishing and social advancements (p.226). ➢ Thirdly, even in the absence of religion, it is natural for us
to use our reason and affection to do good and avoid evil.
MORAL STANDARDS VS. NON MORAL STANDARDS Morality is natural to us.
MORAL STANDARDS ➢ Fourthly, we realized that “not all rules are moral rules”
➢ Moral standards involve the rules people have about the but every set of rules and laws can be derived from a
kinds of actions they believe are morally right and wrong, system of moral standards.
as well as the values they place on the kinds of objects ➢ Lastly, we must remember that “not all legal is considered
they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some moral.” Consider for instance “abortion” which is legal and
ethicists equate moral standards with moral values and lawfully permitted in other countries. It may be legal but it
moral principles. is not moral because it does not respect and do harm to
human life.
NON-MORAL STANDARDS
➢ Non-moral standards refer to rules that are related to Most importantly, this course packet brings us back to the idea that
moral or ethical considerations. Either these standards are as humans are subject to laws of nature and created rules, our
not necessarily linked to morality or by nature lack ethical nature as moral beings makes us follow naturally if not religiously
sense. inclined, these so-called moral rules or standards. That, unlike other
The following characteristics of moral standards further animals who follow their instinct to eat, to kill, to prey among
differentiate them from non-moral standards: others, we humans are capable of thinking and rethinking our
actions and therefore, responsible for our misconduct. And no
1. Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant matter how we hate to follow rules, we are always subject to follow
benefits the dictates of our reason and affection more specifically if it
2. Moral Standards ought to be preferred to other values. pertains to our morality. Because like it or not, we humans as
3. Moral Standards are not established by Authority figures. persons are Moral Beings.
4. Moral standards have the trait of universalizability.
5. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. 1.3 ETHICS AND THE HUMAN PERSON:
6. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and FILIPINO CULTURE AND MORALITY
vocabulary.
The world is lived through the culture as the lifeworld of
Another basic tenet in Ethics is that only human beings can the Human Person. It is the primary environment and influence that
be truly ethical. shapes and forms humans to become persons. This is also where
1. Only human beings are rational, autonomous, and ethics and morality is primarily exercise. It is the community where
self-conscious. the persons exude and express themselves ethically or unethically in
2. Only human beings can act morally or immorally. the continuous process of personhood. Thus, we will be discussing
3. Only human beings are part of a moral community the role of culture in the moral development of the human person.
To put things in perspective, we will be exploring Filipino Cultural
MINIMUM REQUIREMENTS FOR MORALITY terms and values that influence notion of morality of the Filipino
1. Reason is a requirement for morality entails that human persons. With a limited time and space, we will only discuss the
feelings may be important in ethical decisions, but they ought to be terms “loob”, “hiya”, “daya” and “kapuwa” and how are they
guided by reason. Sound reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our interrelated and interconnected to Filipino Ethics.
feelings and intuitions about moral cases are correct and defensible.
THE ROLE OF CULTURE IN MORALITY
2. Impartiality is a principle of justice holding that
decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the We concluded in the last course packet that the human
basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person over person is a situated relational being. Our existence as human
another for improper reasons. persons is shaped by the world around us. Martin Heidegger calls
the human person as the “being-in-the-world”, much less, as
Our human faculties, especially intellect and reasoning “being-thrown- into- the-world” where humanity, who had no choice
make us capable of thinking, reflecting, and contemplating our when s/he was born, is left with the world to where he/she could
actions. If we are to agree with science that we are animals in the depend on his/her existence and exercise his/her freedom.
highest form, it is our ability to use our consciousness that makes us In this world, as human persons, we interpret our reality
apart from other animals. Thus, with all of the things that we discuss and create, in the words of contemporary philosopher Jurgen
so far, and the succeeding learnings on this course, we will be Habermas, our “lifeworld”, the environment where we create
touching the Moral Dimension of our humanity. This course will meanings from our daily experience (Bohman & Rehg, 2014). Part of
remind us and deepen your understanding of how and why man is the lifeworld that contextualizes a person is a culture where he/she
naturally a moral being. was born and raised.
 Culture “is that complex whole which includes knowledge, The loob or the interiority is expressed by the outer self,
belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits the physical self, or pangangatawan. The body is not like a machine
acquired by man as a member of society.” (Tylor 1958). It is the that the inner self can control but rather, it is the “self” itself. Thus,
instrument societies use to adapt to their environment. the human person in this kind of philosophy is rightfully called
It is “... a historically transmitted pattern of meanings “embodied spirit” or beautifully said in Filipino
embodied in symbols, a system of inherited conceptions expressed “sumasakatawang-diwa”, implying that whatever the conditions of
in symbolic forms through which men communicate, perpetuate, the inner self are what the body, the outer self would show. There is
and develop their knowledge about and attitudes toward life” no duality nor a separation of the body(soul) and spirit but only
(Geertz 1973: 89). To put it more simply, it is the way of life where a unity.
community is conditioned and accustomed to living. Now, ethically speaking, the Filipino Aesthetics (philosophy
Culture shapes and forms the person more particularly in of beauty) contributes to the philosophy of “loob” when we talk
terms of moral development. Along with personal identity, the about “beauty”. “Ganda” or “Kagandahan” or “maganda” is the
human person also develops moral identity which can be defined as Filipino concept of beauty where in ethical sense it speaks of
“the degree to which being a moral person is important to an “goodness, order, and truth and guilelessness” or “mabuti, maayos,
individual” (Hardy & Carlo, 2005)”. totoo at walang daya”(De Mesa & Cacho, 2012).
If the person values respect, honesty, being good to So that when one says “maganda ang ating ginagawa” this
neighbors, and stands for justice and rights, most likely, the person means we are doing good, “magandang samahan” means good
may develop a moral identity. This is being developed not without in relationship, and “gandang tunay at walang daya” is genuinely and
cultural context. For instance, studies have shown that while winsomely beautiful without guile or hypocrisy.
Western cultures tend to be individualistic, Asians are inclined to be When we speak of ethical and moral good acts in Filipino,
collectivist. we think of actions that spring from “kagandahang-loob” or beauty
Moreover, due to cultural differences and environmental from within which is physically expressed by our outer self, our
factors, we might find other cultures as somewhat immoral and bodies or we can say “pinangangatawanan”. Since we speak of
against our moral standards. For instance, Eskimos are practicing “loob-labas” connection, every action that we do be it freely and
wife swapping and offer sex as hospitality (Rubel 1961) while some joyfully done or otherwise (bukal sa kalooban vs. labag sa kalooban),
parts of Fiji and Papua New Guinea are still practicing cannibalism. it will flow from within and will be felt by those who receive the
Needless to say, the practices of abortion, divorce, and the death gesture. Thus, those who have “magandang-loob” is an ethically
penalty are tolerated in other countries but contradicted here in the upright person while those who are called “masama, magulo at
Philippines. madaya” are unethical, immoral, or worst be called “evil”.
The differences in culture lead to conflicting notions of
morality to the point that some adhere to the idea that right and DAYA
wrong depends on one’s perception of culture. Thus, being situated “Daya” or fake, treachery, or deception is proposed by
is to be culturally conditioned. In the study of Ethics, the influences Filipino theologians Jose De Mesa and Rebecca Cacho as the rightful
of culture matter especially in the ethical decision-making of the translation of sin, the theological equivalent of unethical and
human person. This will be expounded further in the next course immoral actions. While we have “mali” o “pagkakamali” and
packet. In the next section, we will be talking about some cultural “kasalanan” as the opposite of “tama” or “right”, both of these
concepts that define us as Filipinos. We will also connect these terms terms can be reduced as “mistake” or “missing the point” which on
to the concept of Filipino Ethics. some occasions, unintentional.
Daya or pandaraya is never unintentional. No one will say
THE FILIPINO CULTURE: LOOB, HIYA, KAPWA, AT PANDARAYA “Pare sorry hindi ko alam na nandadaya ako” in a game. Nobody
cheats on exams and if caught would say “Sorry, I do not know that I
Local philosophers, anthropologists, sociologists, and even am cheating.
theologians have contributed their reflections on the search for a “Daya” could also mean bad intentions disguised through
truly Filipino Philosophy. Four of the many concepts they have good deeds. We usually experience these through “user- friendly”
explored are “loob”, “hiya”, “kapuwa” and, recently, theologians friends who are present when they are in need from you, politicians
included “daya” in moral theology. Here we shall define and discuss who help the poor only when elections come, “lovers” with flowers
first each term and eventually use them all together to come up with to cover up their affairs, students who pretend to be good at their
Filipino Ethics. teachers, etc. In other words “fake people with bad intentions”.
What makes pandaraya greater than kamalian and
LOOB kasalanan? It is the nature of awareness and intention that makes
Loob is a Filipino philosophical concept of the inner self. “daya” unethical and immoral in the fullest sense because of the
However, unlike the Western orientation of compartmentalizing the three integral parts of the moral act that we discussed in the
will, reason, and emotions, the concept of loob shows “the previous lesson (De Mesa & Cacho, pp.22-30)
connectedness of intellectual, volitional and emotional and ethical”
faculties of the human person (Mercado, 1972). HIYA
You might hear someone who says “Do not let your reason Be it in the local movies or real life, what do we usually
rule over your emotion” or might have heard in philosophy classes hear when someone has wronged the other? It is either “hayop ka!”
the comparison that emotion and reason as two horses in a chariot. or “walanghiya ka!” The first one connotes the degradation of
This and other rational and segmental explanations of human humanity into an animal (hayop in Filipino) stature every time an
faculties are Western-oriented. But being an Oriental nation, the immoral act is committed against the other. Although the first
Philippines shares this tradition of unity of human faculties and the expression is indeed an insult to animals who are naturally not
concept of interiority with other Asian nations. rational, it means that the person lost the reasoning to act properly
and therefore be likened to a beast usually a swine.
 The second expression is the loss of honor, dignity. “Hiya”
is usually translated as “shame” in English and it could be in the
Filipino context a feeling of embarrassment in a negative sense and a
notion of honor and pride in a positive sense. This trait springs from
the collectivist perspective where Filipinos are so conscious of what
other people might say against or in favor of their name. “Ayaw natin
ng napapahiya tayo”.
“Hiya” is linked to our face or “mukha”. Although the
whole body is the physical manifestation of the self, “Mukha” is
where our identity lies. We flaunt our face when we know it is
presentable and on an honorable occasion but we cover it when we
are disgraced just like those who are publicly arrested because of a
crime or defeated athletes after bragging and thrash talking to
discredit the opponents.
But after being caught in the act of crimes, or being
discovered a fraud, corrupt, dishonest, and “mandaraya” yet still
have the face to show others as if nothing wrong happened and
continuously doing shameful acts, these people are called “makapal
ang mukha” or “matigas ang mukha”, a version of “walang hiya” for
those who are already indifferent to shame and unmindful of honor.

KAPUWA
The culture of loob, hiya and daya is always geared
towards others or “kapuwa”. Derived from the Spanish term
“capoua” which means “equal” and “both” usually used for humans
(Reyes, 2013).
We usually translate it in English as “others” but it is utterly
insufficient. “Kapuwa” is a “recognition of shared identity, an inner
self shared with others” while “other” is an individuated self who is
different from the “self”.
Thus, kapuwa is “another self” (p.97) or the “shared self”
(p.98). Now since “loob” equals “self”, kapuwa, therefore, is
“another loob”. Potentially, everyone is kapuwa as we are
interconnected by our humanity, particularly as Filipinos.
But the genuine actualization of relationship with kapuwa
or “another loob” is when the kagandahang loob is reciprocated by
“utang na loob” or “depth of gratitude” or “indebtedness” (p.100).
The reciprocal relationship of kagandahang-loob and utang na loob
constitutes a dynamic relationship of the self and the “another self”
which is expressed in ethical and moral ways. If every Filipino
possesses kagandahang- loob, then, s/he will be ashamed of
deceiving his/her “kapuwa”. And as a kapuwa who is at the receiving
end of kagandahang-loob we should be ashamed of “pandaraya” or
else, we will be marked as “walang utang na loob”, another way of
saying walang hiya ka! So it is implied that both kagandahang-loob
and utang na loob should be possessed by every honorable and
dignified (may kahihiyan) Filipino to be truly ethical without any
“daya”.
But no matter how beautiful our culture is, there is a
danger when we make it the ultimate standard of morality as it could
go either in the right direction or otherwise. Hiya and utang na loob
are the two of the most compelling Filipino cultural concepts that
could make or break the ethical Pinoy. As such, the need for a more
solid grounding of ethical theories and principles could complement
and supplement these cultural values to attain what is truly ethical
and be aware of what is truly unethical. This will be our task on our
next course packet.