RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION

• Most methods of data collection can be used in both qualitative and quantitative research.
• The distinction is mainly due to the restrictions imposed on flexibility, structure, sequential
order, depth and freedom that a researcher has in their use during the research process.
• Quantitative methods favour these restrictions whereas qualitative ones, advocate against
them.
• If an observation is recorded in a narrative or descriptive format, it becomes qualitative
information, but if it is recorded in categorical form or on a scale, it will be classified as
quantitative information.
• An unstructured interview, recorded in a descriptive or narrative form, becomes a
qualitative method, but in a structured interview, if the information is recorded in response
categories or if the categories are developed and quantified out of descriptive responses, it
is a quantitative method.
• Descriptive responses obtained in reply to open-ended questions are all qualitative but if
the responses are in numerals, they will be considered quantitative.
• If you develop categories and quantify the categorisation as a part of the analysis of
descriptive responses to an open-ended question, it becomes a quantitative analysis.
• Data generated by focus groups, oral histories, narratives, group interviews is always
qualitative in nature.
• There are 2 major approaches to gathering information about a situation, person, problem or
phenomenon. Information, especially facts or numbers collected to be examined and considered
and used to help with making decisions is called data.
• The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out.
• In a research study, mostly you need to collect the required information; but sometimes the
information required is already available and need only be extracted.
• Based on this data can be categorised as: primary data; secondary data. Information gathered
using the first approach is said to be collected from primary sources, whereas the sources used
in the second approach are called secondary sources.
• Examples of primary sources include finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards
health services, ascertaining the health needs/status of a community, evaluating a social/health
programme, etc.
• The use of census data to obtain information on the age–sex structure of a population, the use of
hospital records to find out the morbidity and mortality patterns of a community, and the
collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines, books and periodicals to
obtain historical and other types of information, are all classified as secondary sources.
• Thus, primary sources provide first-hand information and secondary sources provide second-
hand data.
Collecting data using primary sources
• Several methods can be used to collect primary data. The choice of a method depends upon the
purpose of the study, the resources available and the skills of the researcher.
• There are times when the method most appropriate to achieve the objectives of a study cannot
be used because of constraints such as a lack of resources and/or required skills. In such
situations you should be aware of the problems that these limitations impose on the quality of
the data.
• In selecting a method of data collection, the socioeconomic–demographic characteristics of the
study population play an important role: one should know as much as possible about
characteristics such as educational level, age structure, socioeconomic status and ethnic
background. It is helpful to know the study population’s interest in, and attitude towards,
participation in the study.
• Some populations, may not feel either at ease with a particular method of data collection (such as
being interviewed) or comfortable with expressing opinions in a questionnaire. Furthermore,
people with little education may respond differently to certain methods of data collection
compared with people with more education.
• Another important determinant of the quality of your data is the way the purpose and relevance
of the study are explained to potential respondents.
• Make sure that respondents clearly understand the purpose and relevance of the study. This is
especially important when you use a questionnaire to collect data, because in an interview
situation you can answer a respondent’s questions but in a questionnaire, you will not have this
opportunity.
Experiments and Surveys

• Primary data can be collected by doing experiments in experimental research.

• An experiment refers to an investigation in which a factor or variable under test is
isolated and its effects measured. Here the investigator measures the effects of an
experiment which he conducts intentionally.
• For descriptive type research and surveys (sample surveys or census surveys), primary
data is obtained through observation or through direct communication with respondents
in one or the other form or through personal interviews.
• Surveys refer to method of securing information concerning a phenomena under study
from all or a selected number of respondents of the concerned universe.
• In a survey, the investigator examines the phenomena which exist in the universe
independent of his action.
Difference between surveys and experiments
1. Surveys are conducted in descriptive research studies while experiments are part of
experimental research studies.
2. Survey method gathers data from relatively larger number of cases at a particular time as there
may be 20-30% of non-response; it is essentially cross-sectional. Experimental studies need
smaller samples.
3. Surveys are concerned with conditions or relationships that exist, opinions that are held,
processes that are going on, effects that are evident or trends that are developing. They are
concerned with present but at times do consider past events and influences as they relate to
current conditions. In surveys, variables that exist or have already occurred are selected and
observed. Experimental research provides a systematic and logical method for answering the
question – What will happen if this is done when certain variables are carefully controlled or
manipulated? Deliberate manipulation is part of experimental method. Here researcher
measures the effects of experiment which he conducts intentionally.
4. Surveys are more in social and behavioral sciences as many types of behavior that interest the
researcher cannot be arranged in a realistic setting whereas experiments are mostly an
essential feature of physical and natural sciences.
5. Surveys are example of field research while experiments are from laboratory research.
6. Surveys are concerned with hypothesis formulation and testing the analysis of the relationship
between non-manipulated variables. Experimentation provides a method of hypothesis testing. After
they define a problem, a hypothesis is proposed. It is tested and confirmed or disconfirmed in light of
controlled variable relationship that they have observed. Confirmation or rejection is stated in terms
of probability rather than certainty. Experimentation is as such more sophisticated exacting and
powerful method for discovering and developing an organized body of knowledge.
7. Surveys may be census or sample; social, economic or public opinion surveys. Method of data
collection in either is either observation, interview or questionnaire/opinionnaire or some projective
technique. Case study can also be used. In experiments, data are collected from several readings of
the experiment.
8. In surveys, research design must be rigid, must make provision against bias and maximise reliability
to obtain complete and accurate information. In experimental studies, beside reducing bias and
ensuring reliability, must permit drawing inferences about causality.
9. Possible relationships between data and unknown in the universe can be studied through surveys
whereas experiments are meant to determine such relationships.
10. Causal relationship is considered more important in experiments whereas in social and business
surveys interest is in understanding and controlling relationships between variables and as such
correlation analysis is more important in surveys.
OBSERVATION
• We all observe things around us, but Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher when it serves a formulated research
purpose, is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls
on validity and reliability.
• Observation is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and listening to an
interaction or phenomenon as it takes place.
• Situations in which observation is used is when you want to learn about the interaction
in a group, study the dietary patterns of a population, ascertain the functions performed
by a worker, or study the behaviour or personality traits of an individual.
• It is also appropriate in situations where full and/or accurate information cannot be
elicited by questioning, because respondents either are not co-operative or are unaware
of the answers because it is difficult for them to detach themselves from the interaction.
• So when you are more interested in the behaviour than in the perceptions of individuals,
or when subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide
objective information about it, observation is the best approach to collect the required
information.
• Types of observation-
• Participant observation is when you, as a researcher, participate in the activities
of the group being observed in the same manner as its members, with or without
their knowing that they are being observed. Eg Live in a society and be a part of
all its activities.
• Non-participant observation, on the other hand, is when you, as a researcher, do
not get involved in the activities of the group but remain a passive observer,
watching and listening to its activities and drawing conclusions from this.
• For example, you might want to study the functions carried out by nurses in a
hospital. As an observer, you watch, follow and record the activities as they are
performed and on the basis of those observations, conclusions could be drawn
about the functions nurses carry out in the hospital. Any occupational group in
any setting can be observed in the same manner.
• When a person is observing in such a manner that his presence may be unknown
to the people he is observing, then it is disguised observation.
• Observation can be structured or unstructured.
• If the observation is characterized by careful definition of the units to be
observed, style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of
observation and election of the pertinent data of observation, then it is
structured observation.
• When the observation takes place without the above characteristics being
thought of in advance, it is unstructured observation.
• Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies whereas
in exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively
unstructured. (Exploratory are mainly qualitative studies)
• Observations can be made under two conditions: 1. natural (uncontrolled) 2. controlled.
• If observation takes place in natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation. Here
no attempt is made to use precision instruments.
• Observing a group in its natural operation rather than intervening in its activities is classified as
observation under natural conditions.
• Aim is to get a spontaneous picture of life and persons. It has tendency to supply naturalness and
completeness of behaviour, allowing sufficient time for observing it.
• Main pitfall of non-controlled observation is that of subjective interpretation. There is danger of
feeling that we know more about observed phenomena than we actually do.
• When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedure, the same is termed as controlled observation.
• Introducing a stimulus to the group for it to react to and observing the reaction is called
controlled observation.
• Here we use mechanical or precision instruments as aids to accuracy and standardisation. Such
observation has the tendency to supply formalised data upon which generalisations can be built
with some degree of assurance.
• Generally controlled observations take place in various experiments that are carried out in a
laboratory or under controlled conditions whereas uncontrolled observation is in case of
exploratory researches.
• Merits- i) The researcher is enabled to record the natural behavior of the group.
• ii) Researcher can even gather the information which could not easily be obtained if he
observes in a disinterested fashion.
• iii) Researcher can verify the truth of statements made by the informants in the context of
a questionnaire or a schedule.
• Limitations- i) When individuals or groups become aware that they are being observed,
they may change their behaviour, it may be positive or negative; may increase or
decrease, eg, their productivity and may occur for a number of reasons.
• ii) When a change in the behaviour of persons or groups is attributed to their being
observed it is known as the Hawthorne effect. The use of observation in such a situation
may introduce distortion: what is observed may not represent their normal behaviour.
• iii) There is always the possibility of observer bias. If an observer is not impartial, he can
easily introduce bias and there is no easy way to verify the observations and the
inferences drawn from them.
• iv) The interpretations drawn from observations may vary from observer to observer.
• v) There is the possibility of incomplete observation and/or recording, which varies with
the method of recording. An observer may watch keenly but at the expense of detailed
recording. The opposite problem may occur when the observer takes detailed notes but in
doing so misses some of the interaction.
Recording observations-
• The selection of a method of recording depends upon the purpose of the observation, the complexity of
the interaction and the type of population being observed.
• The way an observation is recorded also determines whether it is a quantitative or qualitative study.
• Narrative and descriptive recording is mainly used in qualitative research but for a quantitative study,
observation is in categorical form or on a numerical scale.
• Narrative recording – In this form of recording, the researcher records a description of the interaction in
his/her own words (in qualitative research).
• Researcher makes brief notes while observing the interaction and then soon after completing the
observation makes detailed notes in narrative form. Some researchers may interpret the interaction and
draw conclusions from it.
• The biggest advantage of narrative recording is that it provides a deeper insight into the interaction.
• Disadvantage is that an observer may be biased in his/her observation and, therefore, the
interpretations and conclusions drawn from the observation may also be biased. Also, interpretations
and conclusions drawn are bound to be subjective reflecting the researcher’s perspectives.
• If a researcher’s attention is on observing, he might forget to record an important piece of interaction
and, in the process of recording, part of the interaction may be missed. So, there is always the possibility
of incomplete recording and/or observation.
• When there are different observers the comparability of narrative recording can be a problem.
• Using scales – Some observers prefer to develop a scale to rate various aspects of the interaction
or phenomenon.
• The recording is done on a scale developed by the observer/researcher. A scale may be one-, two-
or three-directional, (eg positive, negative and neutral).
• Advantage- Don’t need to spend time on taking detailed notes and can thus concentrate on
observation; Problem-does not provide specific and in-depth information about the interaction.
• Errors related to this-
• i) Error of central tendency- The observer normally tends to avoid the extreme positions of the
scale, using mostly the central part. This leads to error of central tendency.
• ii) Elevation effect- When observers have a tendency to use a particular part of the scale in
recording an interaction, this phenomenon is known as the elevation effect. (eg strict teachers)
• iii) Halo effect – This error may be introduced when the way an observer rates an individual on
one aspect of the interaction influences the way he rates that individual on another aspect of the
interaction.
• Categorical recording – The type and number of categories depend upon the type of
interaction and the observer’s choice about how to classify the observation.
• For example, passive/active (two categories); introvert/extrovert (two categories);
always/sometimes/never (three categories); strongly
agree/agree/uncertain/disagree/strongly disagree (five categories).
• The use of categories to record an observation may suffer from the same problems as
those associated with scales.
• Recording on electronic devices – Observation can also be recorded on videotape or
other electronic devices and then analysed.
• The advantage of recording an interaction in this way is that the observer can see it a
number of times before interpreting an interaction or drawing any conclusions from it
and can also invite other professionals to view the interaction in order to arrive at more
objective conclusions.
• Disadvantage is that some people may feel uncomfortable or may behave differently
before a camera. So the interaction may not be a true reflection of the situation.
INTERVIEW METHOD
• The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses.
• Any person-to-person interaction, either face to face or otherwise, between two or more
individuals with a specific purpose in mind is called an interview.
• This may be in form of direct personal investigation where the interviewer collects information
personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and meet people from whom
data has to be collected. This is suitable for intensive interrogations.
• It can also be indirect oral investigation. In certain cases, it may not be possible to contact directly
the persons concerned or on account of extensive scope of enquiry, direct personal investigation
may not be used.
• So indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer cross examines other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem being investigated and the
information obtained is recorded.
• Collection of data can either be in a structured or an unstructured way.
• Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording. The interviewer follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking
questions in a form and order prescribed.
• An interview schedule is a written list of questions, open ended or closed, prepared for use by an
interviewer in a person-to-person interaction (this may be face to face, by telephone or by other
electronic media).
• An interview schedule is a research tool/instrument for collecting data, whereas interviewing is a
method of data collection.
• One of the main advantages of the structured interview is that it provides uniform information,
which assures the comparability of data.
• Structured interviewing requires fewer interviewing skills than does unstructured interviewing.
• In case of descriptive studies, structured technique is used as it is more economical, providing
safe basis for generalisation and requiring lesser skills.
• Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning. There is no
system of pre-determined questions and standardized techniques of recording information.
• Interviewer has greater freedom to ask, add supplementary questions if needed, omit questions if
not required in that situation or change the sequence of the questions.
• He has relatively greater freedom while recording responses to include some aspects and exclude
others.
• Flexibility in unstructured format results in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and analysis of such responses becomes more difficult and time consuming.
• Unstructured interviews demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of
interviewer.
• But these are the central technique of collecting data in case of exploratory or
formulative research studies.
• Unstructured interviews are prevalent in both quantitative and qualitative research. The
difference is in how information obtained through them in response to your questions is
likely to be used.
• In quantitative research you develop response categorisations from responses which are
then coded and quantified.
• In qualitative research the responses are used as descriptors, often in verbatim form, and
can be integrated with your arguments, flow of writing and sequence of logic.
• Focussed interviews: These focus attention on the given experience of the respondent and its
effects.
• Here interviewer has the freedom to decide the manner and sequence in which the questions
would be asked and has the freedom to explore reasons and motives.
• Main task is to confine the respondent to a discussion of issues with which he seeks conversance.
Such interviews are used generally in the development of hypotheses and constitute a major type
of unstructured interviews.
• Clinical interview: These are concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the
course of individual’s life experience.
• The method of eliciting information under it is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.
• Non-directive interview: The interviewer’s function is simply to encourage the respondent to talk
about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct questioning.
• Interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive expression of the respondents’ feelings
and beliefs and of the frame of reference within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal
significance.
• Merits of Interview method: i) More information in great depth is obtained.
• ii) By interviewer’s skills, any resistance can be overcome; it may yield an almost perfect sample
of the general population.
• iii) Greater flexibility as can restructure questions especially in unstructured interviews.
• iv) Can be applied to recording verbal answers to various questions.
• v) Personal information can be well obtained.
• vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing returns;
non-response is generally low.
• vii) Interviewer can usually control which person will answer the questions. If so desired, group
discussions may also be held.
• viii) Interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure most spontaneous
reactions.
• ix) Language of the interview can be adopted to the ability, age or educational level of the person
interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.
• x) Interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s personal
characteristics and environment which is often of great value in interpreting results.
• Weaknesses of interview method- i) Very expensive, especially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.
• ii) Remains the possibility of bias of the interviewer as well as the respondent ; there has to be
supervision and control of the interviewers.
• iii) Certain type of individuals such as important officials or people in high income groups may
not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent data may prove inadequate.
• iv) Relatively more time consuming, specially when sample is large and recalls upon the
respondents are necessary.
• v) Presence of the interviewer on the spot may overstimulate the respondent, sometimes he
may give imaginary information just to make the interview interesting.
• vii) Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
• viii) Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would facilitate free
and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.
Pre-requisites and basic tenets of interviewing
• For successful implementation of the interview, interviewers should be carefully selected, trained
and briefed.
• They should be honest, sincere, hardworking, impartial and must possess the technical
competence and necessary practical experience.
• Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that interviewers are neither cheating, nor
deviating from instructions given to them for performing their job efficiently.
• Some provision should be made in advance so appropriate action can be taken if some of the
selected respondents refuse to cooperate or are not available when an interview calls upon them.
• Interviewing is an art governed by certain scientific principles. Effort should be made to create
friendly atmosphere of trust and confidence so that respondents may feel at ease while talking
and discussing with the interviewer.
• Interviewer must ask questions properly and intelligently and must record the responses
accurately and completely.
• Also, interviewer must answer legitimate questions, if any, asked by the respondent and must clear
any doubts that the respondent has.
• Interviewer’s approach must be friendly, courteous, conversational and unbiased. The interviewer
should not show surprise or disapproval of a respondent’s answer, but he must keep the direction
of the interview in his own hand, discouraging irrelevant conversation and try to keep the
respondent on track.
• Telephonic interviews
• Collecting information by contacting respondents on telephone itself.
• Merits- i) It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
• ii) It is faster than other methods.
• iii) It is cheaper than personal interviewing method, here the cost per response is relatively low.
• iv) Recall is easy, callbacks are simple and economical.
• v) There is higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; non-response is
generally low.
• vi) Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents.
• vii) Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
• viii) Access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be contacted for some reason.
• ix) No field staff is required.
• x) Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.
• Demerits:
• i) Little time is given to the respondents for considered answers; interview
period is not likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
• ii) Surveys are restricted to those respondents who have phone facilities.
• iii) Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations. *
• iv) It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are
required to various questions.
• v) Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
• vi) Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle.
• Points to be kept in mind while interviewing: i) Plan in advance; should know the problem under
consideration fully; must choose suitable time and place so that interviewee may be at ease. So
some knowledge of daily routine of the interviewee is essential.
• ii) Approach must be friendly and informal. Greet friendly, according to cultural pattern of
interviewee and explain purpose of interview.
• iii) Good rapport must be established.
• iv) Interviewer must have ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity which is the
gateway to communication and should act accordingly. Interviewer must be intelligent, person
with self-restraint and self-discipline.
• v) It should be free flowing interview and questions well-phrased to have full co-operation of
interviewee. But interviewer should control course of interview in accordance with objective of
the study.
• vi) In case of big enquiries, where several interviews are required for data collection, there should
be an interview guide to be observed by all so as to ensure reasonable uniformity in respect to all
salient points in the study.
• Recent additions
• Video calls as on Zoom, Whatsapp, Google meet, Microsoft Teams, Cisco etc are the new norm
these days to conduct personal interviews online.
• Merits- i) Accessibility to people in all conditions eg. in pandemic, curfew etc.
• ii) Larger area can be covered.
• iii) You get to see people and can explain things more conveniently; more personal touch.
• iv) Larger number of people can be covered. Travelling time reduced.
• Demerits- i) Connectivity issues
• ii) Only those people and areas can be covered who have access to technology.
• iii) Not all aspects can be covered as in face-to-face interview.
• iv) Distractions may be there.
Schedule

• Schedule is the tool for data collection when the method is of interview.
• It is the proforma containing a set of questions which is filled by enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose.
• The enumerators/interviewers go to the respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for for
the same in the proforma.
• Enumerators/Interviewers explain the aims and objectives of the investigation and remove the
difficulties which any respondent may feel in understanding the implications of a particular
question or the definition or concept of difficult terms.
• Enumerators/interviewers have to be trained to perform their job well and should be intelligent
and possess the capacity of cross-examination in order to find the truth.
• They should be honest, sincere, hard working, with patience and perseverance.
• This method is very useful in extensive inquiries and can lead to fairly reliable results but is
expensive.
QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a written list of questions, the answers to which are recorded by
respondents.
• In a questionnaire respondents read the questions, interpret what is expected and then write
down the answers.
• The only difference between an interview schedule and a questionnaire is that in the former
it is the interviewer who asks the questions (and if necessary, explains them) and records the
respondent’s replies on an interview schedule, and in the latter replies are recorded by the
respondents themselves.
• In questionnaire, there is no one to explain the meaning of questions to respondents, so it is
important that the questions are clear and easy to understand.
• The layout of a questionnaire should be such that it is easy to read and pleasant to the eye,
and the sequence of questions should be easy to follow.
• A questionnaire should be developed in an interactive style; respondents should feel as if
someone is talking to them.
• A sensitive question or a question that respondents may feel hesitant about answering
should be prefaced by an interactive statement explaining the relevance of the question.
Different font for these statements can be used to distinguish them from the actual
questions.
 Ways of administering
• The mailed questionnaire – Most common approach; send the questionnaire to prospective
respondents by mail when have access to their addresses.
• One should send a prepaid, self-addressed envelope with the questionnaire as this might increase
the response rate. A mailed questionnaire must be accompanied by a covering letter.
• One of the major problems with this method is the low response rate. In the case of an extremely
low response rate, the findings have very limited applicability to the population studied.
• Nowadays, these are sent by emails, whatsapp links etc.
• Collective administration – One of the best ways of administering a questionnaire is to obtain a
captive audience such as students in a classroom, people attending a function, participants in a
programme or people assembled in one place.
• This ensures a very high response rate as you will find few people refuse to participate in your
study. Also, as you have personal contact with the study population, you can explain the purpose,
relevance and importance of the study and can clarify any questions that respondents may have.
• It is the quickest way of collecting data, ensures a very high response rate and saves you money
on postage.
• Administration in a public place – Sometimes you can administer a questionnaire in a public
place such as a shopping centre, health centre, hospital, school or pub depending upon the type
of study population you are looking for and where it is likely to be found.
• Purpose of the study is explained to potential respondents as they approach and their
participation in the study is requested. Apart from being slightly more time consuming, this
method has all the advantages of administering a questionnaire collectively.
Choosing between an interview and a questionnaire

• The nature of the investigation – If the study is about issues that respondents may feel
reluctant to discuss with an investigator, a questionnaire may be the better choice as it
ensures anonymity.
• This may be the case with studies on drug use, sexuality, indulgence in criminal activities and
personal finances.
• However, there are situations where better information about sensitive issues can be obtained
by interviewing respondents. It depends on the type of study population and the skills of the
interviewer.
• The geographical distribution of the study population – If potential respondents are scattered
over a wide geographical area, you have no choice but to use a questionnaire, as interviewing
in these circumstances would be extremely expensive.
• The type of study population – If the study population is illiterate, very young or very old, or
handicapped, there may be no option but to interview respondents.
Merits-

• It is less expensive. As you do not interview respondents, you save time, and human and financial
resources.
• The use of a questionnaire, therefore, is comparatively convenient and inexpensive. Particularly
when it is administered collectively to a study population, it is an extremely inexpensive method
of data collection.
• It offers greater anonymity. As there is no face-to-face interaction between respondents and
interviewer, this method provides greater anonymity. In some situations where sensitive
questions are asked it helps to increase the likelihood of obtaining accurate information.
• It is free from bias of interviewer; answers are in respondent’s words.
• Respondents have adequate time to give well thought answers.
• Respondents who are not easily approachable; can be reached conveniently.
• Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
Demerits-
• Application is limited to a study population that can read and write. It cannot be used on a
population that is illiterate, very young, very old or handicapped.
• Response rate may be only 20-50% and depends upon a number of factors: the interest of the
sample in the topic of the study; the layout and length of the questionnaire; the quality of the
letter explaining the purpose and relevance of the study; and the methodology used to deliver
the questionnaire; slowest method.
• Not everyone who receives a questionnaire returns it, so there is a self-selecting bias. Those who
return their questionnaire may have attitudes, attributes or motivations that are different from
those who do not. Hence, the findings may not be representative of the total study population.
• In case of any doubt, there is almost no opportunity for respondents to have the meaning
clarified. If different respondents interpret questions differently, this will affect the quality of the
information provided; there may be ambiguous replies.
• Spontaneous responses are not allowed for, respondents get time to think.
• The response to a question may be influenced by the response to other questions. As
respondents can read all the questions before answering (which usually happens), the way they
answer a particular question may be affected by their knowledge of other questions.
• With mailed questionnaires respondents may consult other people.
• When an investigator wants to find out only the study population’s opinions, this method may be
inappropriate, though requesting respondents to express their own opinion may help.
• An interview can sometimes be supplemented with information from other methods of data
collection such as observation, but a questionnaire lacks this advantage.
• Contents of the covering letter
• It is essential that you write a covering letter with your mailed questionnaire. It should
very briefly:
• introduce you and the institution you are representing;
• describe in two or three sentences the main objectives of the study;
• explain the relevance of the study;
• convey any general instructions;
• indicate that participation in the study is voluntary – if recipients do not want to respond
to the questionnaire, they have the right not to;
• assure respondents of the anonymity of the information provided by them;
• provide a contact number in case they have any questions;
• give a return address for the questionnaire and a deadline for its return;
• thank them for their participation in the study.
 Form of questions
• The form and wording of questions used in an interview or a questionnaire are extremely
important in a research instrument as they have an effect on the type and quality of information
obtained from a respondent.
• The wording and structure of questions should therefore be appropriate and relevant.
• In an open-ended question the possible responses are not given. In the case of a questionnaire,
the respondent writes down the answers in his/her words, but in the case of an interview
schedule the investigator records the answers either verbatim or in a summary.
• In a closed question the possible answers are set out in the questionnaire or schedule and the
respondent or the investigator ticks the category that best describes the respondent’s answer. It is
usually wise to provide a category ‘Other/please explain’ to accommodate any response not
listed.
• When deciding whether to use open-ended or closed questions to obtain information about a
variable, one should be clear how to use the information generated.
• The way one frames the questions determines the unit of measurement which could be used to
classify the responses. The unit of measurement in turn dictates what statistical procedures can
be applied to the data and the way the information can be analysed and displayed. Eg income.
• In closed questions, having developed categories, you cannot change them; If you ask an open-
ended question, you can develop any number of categories at the time of analysis.
• Both open-ended and closed questions have their advantages and
disadvantages in different situations; these depend upon whether they are
being used in an interview or in a questionnaire and on whether they are
being used to seek information about facts or opinions.
• As a rule, closed questions are extremely useful for eliciting factual
information and open-ended questions for seeking opinions, attitudes and
perceptions.
• The choice of open-ended or closed questions should be made according to
the purpose for which a piece of information is to be used, the type of study
population from which information is going to be obtained, the proposed
format for communicating the findings and the socioeconomic background of
the readership.
• Advantages and disadvantages of open-ended questions-
• Open-ended questions provide in-depth information if used in an interview by an
experienced interviewer.
• In a questionnaire, open-ended questions can provide a wealth of information provided
respondents feel comfortable about expressing their opinions and are fluent in the
language used. On the other hand, analysis of open-ended questions is more difficult.
The researcher usually needs to go through another process – content analysis – in order
to classify the data.
• In a questionnaire, open-ended questions provide respondents with the opportunity to
express themselves freely, resulting in a greater variety of information. Thus respondents
are not ‘conditioned’ by having to select answers from a list. The disadvantage of free
choice is that, in a questionnaire, some respondents may not be able to express
themselves, and so information can be lost.
• As open-ended questions allow respondents to express themselves freely, they virtually
eliminate the possibility of investigator bias (investigator bias is introduced through the
response pattern presented to respondents). On the other hand, there is a greater
chance of interviewer bias in open- ended questions.
• Advantages and disadvantages of closed questions-
• One of the main disadvantages of closed questions is that the information obtained
through them lacks depth and variety.
• There is a greater possibility of investigator bias because the researcher may list only the
response patterns that he is interested in or those that come to mind. Even if the
category of ‘other’ is offered, most people will usually select from the given responses,
and so the findings may still reflect researcher bias.
• In a questionnaire, the given response pattern for a question could condition the thinking
of respondents, and so the answers provided may not truly reflect respondents’
opinions. Rather, they may reflect the extent of agreement or disagreement with the
researcher’s opinion or analysis of a situation.
• The ease of answering a ready-made list of responses may create a tendency among
some respondents and interviewers to tick a category or categories without thinking
through the issue. Closed questions, because they provide ‘ready-made’ categories
within which respondents reply to the questions asked by the researcher, help to ensure
that the information needed by the researcher is obtained and the responses are also
easier to analyse.
• Formulating effective questions
• The wording and tone of your questions are important because the information and its quality
largely depend upon these factors.
• Always use simple and everyday language- Respondents may not be highly educated and may
not know some of the ‘simple’ technical jargon that you are used to. Particularly in a
questionnaire, you will have no opportunity to explain questions to them. A pre-test should
show you what is and what is not understood by your respondents.
• Do not use ambiguous questions, the one that contains more than one meaning and that can be
interpreted differently by different respondents. This will result in different answers, making it
difficult to draw any valid conclusions from the information.
• Do not ask double-barrelled questions i.e., a question within a question. In this one does not
know which particular question a respondent has answered. Some respondents may answer
both parts of the question and others may answer only one of them.
• Do not ask leading questions, one which, by its contents, structure or wording, leads a
respondent to answer in a certain direction. Such questions are judgemental and lead
respondents to answer either positively or negatively.
• Do not ask questions that are based on presumptions. In such questions the researcher assumes
that respondents fit into a particular category and seeks information based upon that
assumption.
• Essentials of good questionnaire-
• Short and simple;
• Questions in logical sequence from easy to more difficult;
• Personal and intimate questions in the end;
• Technical terms and vague expressions capable of different interpretations to be avoided;
• Questions can be dichotomous, multiple choice or open ended; open ended more difficult to analyse
and should be avoided;
• There should be some control questions which indicate reliability of respondent eg consumption of
particular material can be asked first in terms of weight and then financial; these are a cross-check to
see that information filled is correct;
• Questions regarding sentiments of respondents should be avoided;
• Adequate space for answers should be provided;
• There should be a provision of do not know/not applicable/no preference etc. ;
• Brief directions regarding filling of questionnaire should be provided;
• Physical appearance of questionnaire should be good, in case of paper questionnaire quality of paper
should be attractive, should attract respondent;
• Nowadays online surveys by email, some surveys are also paid surveys.
Difference between questionnaire and schedule
1. Questionnaire generally sent through mails along with a covering letter without any further
assistance from sender. Schedule is generally filled out by the research worker or the enumerator
who can interpret questions when necessary.
2. Data collection through questionnaire is relatively cheap, no field staff is required. Only cost of
preparing questionnaires and mailing is involved.
3. Non-response is higher in questionnaires. Schedules are filled by the enumerators so non-response
is low but chance of bias and cheating may be there.
4. In questionnaire, not sure who replied but in schedule identity of respondent is known.
5. Questionnaire speed slow, people have to be reminded but schedules on time.
6. Personal contact not possible in questionnaires.
7. Questionnaires only for literate and cooperative respondents.
8. Wider and more representative distribution of sample possible in questionnaire.
9. Risk of collecting incomplete and wrong information more in Questionnaire whereas more accurate
in schedules.
10. Success of questionnaire is on its quality and for schedule on honesty and competence of
interviewer.
11. Questionnaires must be attractive to attract people, not required for schedules.
12. In Schedules, observation method can also be used, not possible in questionnaires.
Constructing a research instrument in quantitative research
• The construction of a research instrument or tool is an extremely important aspect of a
research project because anything that is said by way of findings or conclusions is based upon
the type of information collected, and the data collected is entirely dependent upon the
questions asked from the respondents.
• The research tool provides the input to a study and therefore the quality and validity of the
output, the findings, are solely dependent upon it.
• Clearly defined objectives play an extremely important role as each question in the
instrument must stem from the objectives, research questions and/or hypotheses of the
study.
• It is suggested that a beginner should adopt the following procedure:
• Step I Clearly define and individually list all the specific objectives, research questions or
hypotheses, if any, to be tested.
• Step II For each objective, research question or hypothesis, list all the associated questions to
be answered through the study.
• Step III For each question identified in Step II, to list the information required to answer it
• Step IV Formulate questions to be asked from respondents to obtain the required information.
• In the above process, same piece of information may be required for a number of questions.
In such a situation the question should be asked once only.
• Asking personal and sensitive questions
• In the social sciences, sometimes one needs to ask questions that are of a personal
nature. Some respondents may find this offensive. This may affect the quality of
information or even result in an interview being terminated or questionnaires not being
returned.
• For asking sensitive or threatening questions, there are two ways in which the question
is asked: 1. a direct manner; 2. an indirect manner.
• With the first approach there is surity that an affirmative answer is accurate.
• In second approach it is believed that direct questioning is likely to offend respondents
and hence they are unlikely to answer even the non-sensitive questions.
• Some ways of asking personal questions in an indirect manner are as follows: by
showing drawings or cartoons; by asking a respondent to complete a sentence; by
asking a respondent to sort cards containing statements; by using random devices.
• The order of questions
• The order of questions in a questionnaire or in an interview schedule is important as it
affects the quality of information, and the interest and even willingness of a respondent
to participate in a study.
• There can be two ways to order questions, either to ask in a random order or to follow a
logical progression based upon the objectives of the study.
• Logical progression is better as it gradually leads respondents into the themes of the
study, starting with simple themes and progressing to complex ones. This approach
sustains the interest of respondents and gradually stimulates them to answer the
questions.
• However, the random approach is useful in situations where a researcher wants
respondents to express their agreement or disagreement with different aspects of an
issue. In this case a logical listing of statements or questions may ‘condition’ a
respondent to the opinions expressed by the researcher through the statements.
• Pre-testing a research instrument
• Having constructed your research instrument, whether an interview schedule or a
questionnaire, it is important to test it out before using it for actual data collection.
• Pre-testing a research instrument entails a critical examination of the understanding of
each question and its meaning as understood by a respondent.
• A pre-test (Pilot study) should be carried out under actual field conditions on a group of
people similar to the study population.
• The purpose is not to collect data but to identify problems that the potential
respondents might have in either understanding or interpreting a question.
• Aim is to identify if there are problems in understanding the way a question has been
worded, the appropriateness of the meaning it communicates, whether different
respondents interpret a question differently, and to establish whether their
interpretation is different to what you were trying to convey.
• If there are problems, there may be need to re-examine the wording to make it clearer
and unambiguous.
• Prerequisites for data collection
• Before starting to obtain information from potential respondents it is imperative
to make sure of their:
• motivation to share the required information – It is essential for respondents to
be willing to share information. Every effort should be made to motivate them
by explaining clearly and in simple terms the objectives and relevance of the
study, either at the time of the interview or in the covering letter accompanying
the questionnaire and/or through interactive statements in the questionnaire.
• clear understanding of the questions – Respondents must understand what is
expected of them in the questions. If respondents do not understand a question
clearly, the response given may be either wrong or irrelevant, or make no sense.
• possession of the required information – The third prerequisite is that
respondents must have the information sought. This is of particular importance
when seeking factual or technical information. If respondents do not have the
required information, they cannot provide it.
METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN QUALITATIVE RESEASRCH
• A clear distinction between quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection is both
difficult and inappropriate because of the overlap between them.
• The difference between them is in the manner in which a method is applied in an actual data
collection situation.
• Use of these methods in quantitative research demands standardisation of questions to be
asked of the respondents, a rigid adherence to their structure and order, an adoption of a
process that is tested and predetermined and making sure of the validity and reliability of the
process as well as the questions.
• However, the methods of data collection in qualitative research follow a convention which is
almost opposite to quantitative research. The wording, order and format of these questions are
neither predetermined nor standardised. Qualitative methods are characterised by flexibility
and freedom in terms of structure and order given to the researcher.
• Most qualitative study designs are method based with the method of data collection
determining the design. Sometimes it maybe difficult to separate a study design from the
method of data collection. eg, in-depth interviewing, narratives and oral history are both
designs and methods of data collection.
• 3 main methods of data collection in qualitative research- unstructured interviews, participant
observation, secondary sources.
• Flexibility, freedom and spontaneity in contents and structure underpin an interaction in all types
of unstructured interview.
• This interaction can be at a one-to-one (researcher and a respondent) or a group (researcher and
a group of respondents) level.
• There are several types of unstructured interview that are prevalent in qualitative research, for
example in-depth interviewing, focus group interviewing, narratives and oral histories.
• The theoretical roots of in-depth interviewing are in what is known as the interpretive tradition.
• According to Taylor and Bogdan, in-depth interviewing is ‘repeated face-to-face encounters
between the researcher and informants directed towards understanding informants’ perspectives
on their lives, experiences, or situations as expressed in their own words’.
• Researcher spends an extended length of time with an informant, so the rapport between them
gets enhanced, and the corresponding understanding and confidence between the two leads to
in-depth and accurate information.
• The difference between a focus group interview and an in-depth interview is that FGI is
undertaken with a group and the in-depth interview with an individual.
• In a focus group interview, you explore the perceptions, experiences and understandings of a
group of people who have some experience in common with regard to a situation or event.
• Broad discussion topics are developed beforehand, either by the researcher or by the group.
These provide a broad frame for discussions which follow.
• The specific discussion points emerge as a part of the discussion. Members of a focus group
express their opinions while discussing these issues.
• Researcher needs to ensure that whatever is expressed or discussed is recorded accurately by the
method most suitable to him.
• He may audiotape discussions, employ someone else to record them or record them himself
immediately after each session.
• If taking his own notes during discussions, he has to be careful not to lose something of
importance because of involvement in discussions. He should take the write-up on discussions
back to the focus group for correction, verification and confirmation.
• The narrative technique of gathering information has even less structure than the focus group.
• Narratives have almost no predetermined contents except that the researcher seeks to hear a
person’s retelling of an incident or happening in his/her life.
• The person tells his/her story about an incident or situation and the researcher listens
passively. The researcher lets the person talk freely and without interrupting, encouraging him
with only appropriate words like ‘right’, ‘yeah’ or nodding which shows that he is actively
listening.
• Narratives are a very powerful method of data collection for situations which are sensitive in
nature.
• Researcher asks these people to narrate their experiences and how they have been affected.
Narratives may also have a therapeutic impact.
• Researcher needs to choose the recording system that suits him the best. Having completed
narrative sessions, he needs to write detailed notes and give them back to the respondent to
check for accuracy.
• Oral histories involve the use of both passive and active listening. These are more commonly used
for learning about a historical event or episode that took place in the past or for gaining
information about a cultural, custom or story that has been passed from generation to generation.
• Narratives are more about a person’s personal experiences whereas historical, social or cultural
events are the subjects of oral histories.

• Unstructured interviewing is extremely useful in situations where either in-depth information is

needed, or little is known about the area. The flexibility allows the interviewer to get extremely
rich information. As it provides in-depth information, this technique is used by many researchers
for constructing a structured research instrument.
• But as an unstructured interview does not list specific questions to be asked of respondents, the
comparability of questions asked, and responses obtained may become a problem.
• The type of information obtained from those who are interviewed at the beginning may be
markedly different from those interviewed towards the end because of increasing experience of
interviewer. Also, it can introduce investigator bias into the study.
• Using an interview guide as a means of data collection requires much more skill on the part of the
researcher than does using a structured interview.
Constructing a research instrument in qualitative research

• Data in qualitative research are not collected through a set of predetermined

questions but by raising issues around different areas of enquiry.
• There are no predetermined research tools, as such, in qualitative research.
• Many people develop a loose list of issues that they want to discuss with respondents
or to have ready in case what they want to discuss does not surface during the
discussions. This loosely developed list of issues is called an interview guide.
• It is important to develop an interview guide to ensure desired coverage of the areas
of enquiry and comparability of information across respondents.
• In-depth interviewing is both a method of data collection and a study design in
qualitative research and the interview guide is a research tool that is used to collect
data in this design.
COLLECTING DATA USING SECONDARY SOURCES
• Both qualitative and quantitative research studies use secondary sources as a method of data
collection.
• In qualitative research you usually extract descriptive (historical and current) and narrative
information and in quantitative research the information extracted is categorical or numerical.
• Categories of these sources are-
• Government or semi-government publications – There are many government and semi-
government organisations that collect data on a regular basis in a variety of areas and publish it
for use by members of the public and interest groups. Some common examples are the census,
vital statistics registration, labour force surveys, health reports, economic forecasts and
demographic information.
Earlier research – For some topics, an enormous number of research studies that have already
been done by others can provide you with the required information.
Personal records – Some people write historical and personal records (e.g. diaries) that may
provide the information you need.
Mass media – Reports published in newspapers, in magazines, on the Internet, and so on, may
be another good source of data.
• Problems with using data from secondary sources
• Validity and reliability – The validity of information may vary markedly from source to source. For
example, information obtained from a census is likely to be more valid and reliable than that
obtained from most personal diaries.
• Personal bias – The use of information from personal diaries, newspapers and magazines may
have the problem of personal bias as these writers are likely to exhibit less rigorousness and
objectivity than one would expect in research reports.
• Availability of data – It is common for beginning researchers to assume that the required data will
be available, but this assumption may not be correct. It is important to make sure that the
required data is available before you proceed further with your study.
• Format – Before deciding to use data from secondary sources it is equally important to ascertain
that the data is available in the required format. Eg. Researcher may need to analyse age in the
categories 23–33, 34–48, and so on, but, in the source, age may be categorised as 21–24, 25–29,
and so on.
REFERENCES

1. Research Methodology by Ranjit Kumar, 3rd Edition.

2. Research Methodology- Methods and Techniques by CR Kothari and
Gaurav Garg.