INTRODUCTION

SENSATION

AWARENESS

PERCEPTION

STIMULUS

RECEPTOR

CONDUCTION

TRANSLATION
INTRODUCTION
 INTRODUCTION
❖The special senses of hearing, sight, smell and taste have
specialized sensory receptors (nerve ending) outside the
brain.
❖These sensory receptors are found in the ears, eye, nose
and mouth.
❖The receptor receives a particular stimulus & initiates a
nerve impulse in the neuron, which carries the impulses
to the brain.
❖In the brain, the incoming nerve impulses undergo
complex processes of integration and coordination that
result in the perception of sensory information and
various responses inside and outside the body.
 INTRODUCTION
Stimulus

Receptor
Nerve
impulse

Integrati
on &
coordina
tion

Perception
 ANATOMY OF EYE
❖ The Eyes are the organ of sight. these are used of perception of
light & it is situated in the deep, protective bony cavities, called
orbits or eye sockets of the skull.
❖ Shape: spherical, Diameter:2.5 cm
❖ The space between the eye & the bony orbits is occupied by the
adipose tissue, connective tissue, ligaments and muscles.
❖ The bony walls of the orbit and the adipose tissue help to protect
the eye from injury.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

• The wall of the eyeball is composed of three layer of

tissue:
• The outer layer: sclera & cornea
• The middle layer: choroid, ciliary body & iris
• The inner layer: Retina
STRUCTURE OF THE EYE
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

The outer fibrous layer

It is thick, superficial layer of the eyeball that
consists of two regions: Anterior cornea &
posterior sclera.
Sclera & Cornea
❖ The outer most layer of sclera (white portion) 2/3rd part & it
is composed of a dense connective tissue.
❖ The sclera maintains the shape of eye, protects its inner
parts & gives attachment to the eye muscles.
❖ The anterior 1/3 rd part of the outer coat is called cornea i.e
transparent. It is the first part of eye through which light
enters.
❖ Cornea is nonvascular (no blood vessels) in nature. So it can
easily grafted.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Sclera & Cornea

❖ The cornea is convex (curved) and is involved in refracting
(bending) light rays that helps focus the light on the retina.
❖ At the junction of of cornea & sclera there is a small canal called
as Canal of schlemm, which permit the drainage of aqueous
humor.
❖ Cornea is covered & protected by a very thin membrane called
conjunctiva.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Middle layer (vascular coat)

❖It is the middle layer of the eye that is composed of
three regions: Choroid, Ciliary body and iris.
Choroid
❖ The middle Coat is called choroid. It is deep chocolate color.
❖ Choroid is highly pigmented layer & very rich blood supply.
❖ The pigment cell produce a melanin pigment.
❖ The melanin in the choroid is responsible for its dark brown
colour. Melanin absorbs stray light and darken the eyeball cavity,
which prevents internal reflection within the eyeball. As a result,
the image remains sharp and clear.
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Ciliary body
❖ It consist of ciliary muscles which gives attachment to
suspensory ligament.
❖ The process of contraction and relaxation of the ciliary muscle
changes the tightness of suspensory ligaments, which alters the
shape of the lens and the permits the adaptation for near or far
vision (accommodation)
❖ Ciliary body also helps in the secretion of aqueous humour.

Iris
❖ Iris is the coloured portion of the eyeball that extends interiorly
from the ciliary body and is suspended between the cornea and
the lens. It consist of melanocyte & circular and radial smooth
muscle.
❖ The centre of iris is called pupil
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Iris
❖ The principal function of the iris is to regulate the amount of
light entering the eyeball by varying the diameter of pupil. this
variation of pupil is regulated by sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerve.
In bright light: In dim light:
Parasympathetic fibres Sympathetic fibres

Contract circular muscles Contract Radial muscles

Constrict the pupil Dilate the pupil

Less light enters the eye More light is allowed to enter

Pupil Dilation and Constriction

Figure 15.9
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Inner layer: the retina

❖ It is the inner most layer, present just below the choroid.
❖ Retina is the light sensitive layer, containing specialized cells
rods & cones
❖ Rods & cones detects light & set impulse, these impulse are
transmitted to the brain through 2nd cranial nerve (optic nerve)
Structure of retina:
The retina is the light sensitive portion of the eye.
➢ From outside to inside:
(1) Pigment layer
(2) Photoreceptor cell layer
(3) Bipolar cell layer
(4) Ganglion cell layer
Structure of Retina
 Structure of Retina
Photoreceptor cell layer
❖Photoreceptors are the specialized cell present in the
retina that process light ray convert them to nerve
impulses.
❖There are two types of photoreceptor: rods & cones.
Each retina has about 6 million cones & 120 million
rods.
➢ The outer segment of rods are cylindrical and rods
shaped, hence the name rods. The rods cell is only for
dim light vision. The photo pigment present in the rods
is rhodopsin.
 Photoreceptor cell layer

➢ The cones cells are sensitive to bright light and produce

colour vision. The following three different types of cones
are present in the retina:
1. Blue cones, which are sensitive to blue light.
2. Green cones, which are sensitive to green light.
3. Red cones, which are sensitive to red light.
❖ The stimulation of various combination of the three
types of cones by light of different wavelengths results in
the perception of different colour.
❖ Lack of one or more types of cone cells cause colour
blindness
 Structure of Retina

•Receptor cells: rods and cones, sensitive to light

•bipolar cells: carry signals from receptors to ganglion cells
•Ganglion cells: axons of ganglion cells form the optic nerve
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RODS & CONES

❖Rod shaped ❖ Conical structure

❖Very high in numbers ❖Smaller in numbers
about 12o million in about 6 million in each
each eye. eye.
❖Contain Rhodopsin ❖Contain Idopsin
❖Dim light ❖Bright light
❖They do not detect ❖They detect colour
colour vision
 Function of retina
(Mechanism and chemistry of dim & bright light)

1. Dim light vision

• Rod contains a pigment called rhodopsin
• opsin (protein) + Retinene (Aldehyde) Rhodopsin
• Retinene occurs in 2 forms: cis-retinene & trans-retinene
• When the light strikes the rods the cis-retinene converts into
trans-retinene.
Bleaching
• Rhodopsin Trans-retinene +scotopsin + energy
• This reaction cause local electrical changes & gets
up an impulse which is transmitted to the optic nerve. impulse
In light: Rhodopsin trans-retinene+scotopsin+energy

In dark: trans-retinene+scotopsin+energy Rhodopsin

 Function of retina
(Mechanism and chemistry of dim& bright light)

1. Bright light vision

❖ The cones are sensitive to bright light and produce colour
vision.
❖ The pigment of cones is idopsin. It also consist of retinene &
opsin.
❖ The opsin of idopsin is called Photopsin.
❖ When light of high intensity strikes the similar changes occur
i.e. cis-retinene of idopsin splits into photopsin & trans retinene.

Idopsin photopsin+ trans-retinene+energy

Transmitted to optic nerve impulse

 Colour Vision
❖ According to trichromacy theory, cones are responsible for
colour vision.
❖ The cones cells are sensitive to bright light and produce
colour vision.
❖ The following three different types of cones are present in
the retina:
➢ Blue cones, which are sensitive to blue light.
➢ Green cones, which are sensitive to green light.
➢ Red cones, which are sensitive to red light.
❖ The stimulation of various combination of the three types
of cones by light of different wavelengths results in the
perception of different colour.
❖ Lack of one or more types of cone cells cause colour
blindness
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYE

Yellow spot or macula lutea

❖ A Small area of the retina present at the centre of its posterior
part is called the macula lutea or yellow spot here, only cones are
present.
❖ This region produces the sharpest vision.
Optic disc or blind spot
❖ The optic nerve leave the eyeball by piercing the eye coat at the
back.
❖ The point on the retina from where the optic nerve leaves the eye
is called the optic disc or blind spot.
❖ It is referred to as blind spot because its lacks the photoreceptor
cells rods and cones, therefore we cannot see an image that
strikes the blind spot.
 Lens
❖ The lens is an elastic transparent body present just behind the iris within
the eyeball cavity.
❖ It is attached with suspensory ligament & ciliary body.
❖ The light rays enter the eyes are reflected by the lens that helps focus
them on the retina to clear vision.

Interior of the eyeball

❖ The lens divides the eye ball cavity into two chamber:
➢ The anterior aqueous chamber: it is filled with clear, watery fluid i.e
aqueous humor & it is drained into canal of schlemm. it is responsible
for supply nutrition, remove waste products & maintains pressure in the
eyes.
➢ The posterior vitreous chamber : it lie between the lens and the retina
and consists of a thick, transparent jellylike substance, the vitreous
humor.
➢ The vitreous humor is secreted by the retina during development of eye
(embryonic stage)
➢ It too helps maintain the intraocular pressure and the shape of eyeball.
 OVERVIEW OF EYE

Sense organ

Eye

Middle Vascular Inner Outer layer

layer: choroid, nervous Lens
ciliary body, iris layer: retina (Scelera &
Cornea )

Contain
Photoreceptor cells Refract bend
rods and cones the light rays

Convert light rays into nerve

impulses and send them to
occipital lobe for perception
 Physiology of Vision
❖Eye work on the principle of camera. similar to camera eye contains a lens
(to focus light ray).
❖The optical elements of the eye (i.e. cornea and lens) focus the image of an
object on the light-sensitive film, that is retina.
❖the image is processed by the photoreceptor cells of the retina that convert
the light rays into nerve impulses.

Visual areas of hemisphere where the real perception of

vision arises
 Physiology of Vision

❖ Various process are involved in focusing the light rays

and producing a clear image on the retina.
❖These processes are as follow:

❑ Refraction or bending of light ray

❑Accommodation

❑Change in pupil size

 1.Refraction or bending of light ray
❖ When light rays travel from a medium of one density (such as
air) to a medium of different density (such as water), they
undergo refraction (bending)
❖ As the light rays reflected by the objects enter the eyes, they
pass through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous humor, lens &
vitreous humor.
❖ These parts are denser than air, refracting (bending) the light
rays passing through the eye to bring them to a focus on the
retina.
 1.Refraction or bending of light ray

1. Near object vision

❖ For the objects which are nearer refraction is greater (increased
refraction)
❖ For Near object vision Ciliary muscles contracts & pulls the
suspensory ligament which increases refractive power, convexity
and thickness of the lens.
❖ In this process lens bulges in forward direction
2. Distant object vision
❖ For distant object needs least refraction.
❖ For near object vision ciliary muscles relaxes which pull the
suspensory ligament & it finally makes the lens thinner. So
convexity of lens decreased.
❖ Finally image is produced by lens on the retina & this image is
inverted & reversed. however the brain interpreted that the
image in the right way.
Physiology of Vision
 2.Accommodation
It is the process by which light rays from near or distant objects
are brought to focus on the retina with the help of ciliary muscles
and suspensory ligament is called accommodation.

Close vision
❑ Constriction of pupil: size of the pupil, changes according to
used. It reduces the width of beam of light entering to the eye. So
its passes through central curved part of the lens.
❑ Convergence:
➢ It is the process of movement of eyeballs thus the extrinsic
muscles of the eye helps in convergence.
➢The nearer the object greater will be the convergence.
➢If the convergence is not complete eyes which are focused on
different objects or on different point of the same objects. In this
case two images will be sent to brain ( diplopia).
 Close vision
❖Changing the power of lens:
➢ It is done by changing the thickness of lens.
➢ Lens is thicker for near vision and thinnest for distant
vision.(More than 6 meters distance)
Distant vision
➢ For objects more than 6 meters away from eyes requires no
adjustment & convergence of eye. Only changes the power of
lens.
Physiology of Vision
 3.Change in pupil size
❖ The size of pupil to controls the amount of light entering to the
eye.
➢ In a Bright light pupils are constricted.
➢ In a dim light pupils are dilated.

Bright light Dim light

Iris Iris

Circular muscles contracted Radial muscles dilated

Result constricted of pupil Result dilated of pupil

 ACCESSORY ORGAN OF THE EYE

Eyebrows
• The eyebrows contain numerous hairs that project obliquely from
the surface of the skin. they protect the eyeballs from sweat, dust
and other foreign objects.
Eyelids
• The eyelids are two movable folds of tissue situated above and
below of each eye. on the free edges of the eyelids, there are short
curved hairs, the eyelashes.
• The eyelids & eyelashes shade the eyes during sleep, protect the
eyes from excessive light and foreign objects, and spread the
lubricating secretions over the eyeball.
• The space between the upper & lower eyelids that exposes the
eyeball is called the palpebral fissure.
 Lacrimal Gland

• They are situated between the socket and eye ball at upper &
lateral part. The lacrimal glands secrete the lacrimal fluid
(tears) that is composed of water, mineral salts, some mucus
and lysozome. A protective bactericidal enzyme. They have
many function:
➢ To maintain moisture of cornea
➢ To maintain optical properties of cornea
➢ Tear also wash away many irritants, the dust.
➢ It prevent eye from microbial infection as it contains lysozyme
enzyme.
➢ It acts as a disinfectant.
 Meibomian or tarsal glands (Sebaceous gland)

➢ They are modified sebaceous glands which are present along

the edges of eyelids.
➢ They secrete oily substance which lubricates corneal surface.
Zeis gland

➢ They are also sebaceous glands. They are associated with the
follicles of eyelashes.
Diseases of eye
➢ Glaucoma
➢ Cataract
➢ Presbyopia etc
 Visual pathway
❖ The nerve impulses(action potential) generated in the photoreceptors is
transmitted to the occipital lobe of cerebrum by a nervous pathway, called
the visual pathway or optic pathway
➢ The various step of visual pathway:
❖ The optic nerve is formed by the axon of ganglion cells. The excited
ganglion cells transmit the action potential to the optic nerve, which leaves
each eye through the optic disc or blind spot.
❖ After leaving the eye, the axon within the optic nerves pass through the
optic chiasma, a crossing point of the optic nerves present near the
pituitary gland.
❖ After passing through the optic chiasm, the axons become part of the optic
tract and enter the brain.
❖ The nerve fibres of the lateral geniculates bodies of the thalamus then pass
through the internal capsule and form the optic radiations that terminate in
the visual area of the cerebral cortex in the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
 Visual pathway

• The visual area of cerebral cortex contains three

areas, each with its own function. They are as
follows:
a. Primary visual area: it is concerned with the
perception of visual impulses
b. Visual association area: it is concerned with the
interpretation of visual impulses
c. Occipital eye field: it is concerned with movement
of eyes:
 Visual pathway

• Optic nerve optic chiasma

Lateral genuculate bodies of thalamus

Optic radiations

Visual area of the cerebral cortex

Visual pathway
 ANATOMY OF EAR
❖ The Ear is the organ of hearing. It is supplied by 8th cranial nerve.
❖ The sense of hearing is the ability to detect the mechanical
vibrations i.e. sound.
❖ Ears are associated which sense of hearing & equilibrium
maintenance.
Structure of ear
The ear is divided into 3 parts:
1. External Ear
2. Middle ear
3. Internal ear
 OVERVIEW OF EAR
Sense organ

Ear
External ear Middle Internal ear
ear

Bones: Eustachian
Milieus, incus, stapes tube

Maintains air
Auricle Ear drum pressure in ear
Auditory
canal
Cochlea Vestibule
Vibrates Semicircular
Collects &
sends sound when sound canal
waves waves strike
Involved in Involved in
it
equilibrium equilibrium
 1. External Ear
The auricle (pinna):
❖ It is broad expanded, outer most flap called pinna.
❖ Pinna is a cartilaginous structure composed of fibro elastic
cartilage.
❖ It helps to receive & direct sound waves.
External Auditory Canal
❖ It is about 2.5 cm long canal which is “S” shaped.
❖ Lined with cerumen glands.
❖ The inner and of this canal is covered which is a delicate and sound
sensitive tympanic membrane.
❖ The Walls of tympanic canal contains special glands called
ceruminous glands. These gland secrete earwax which help to
protect ear from dust particles.
 1. External Ear
Ceruminous glands:
❖ Cerumen (ear wax) contains lysozyme & immunoglobulin's so
prevents dust, insects & microbes from reaching the tympanic
membrane.
Tympanic membrane (Ear drum)
❖ It is a thin, silvery grey, delicate membrane that completely separates from
middle ear.
❖ The auricle allows the sound waves to enter the auditory canal, which directs
those waves towards the delicate membrane and causes the membrane to vibrate.
❖ It serves to convey sound waves to middle ear ossicles.
 2. Middle Ear
❖ The external ear is followed by middle ear.
❖ The middle ear is an irregular-shaped, air filled cavity
enclosed in the temporal bone.
❖ It is separated from external ear by the eardrum and from the
internal ear by a thin bony partition that contains two small
membrane-covered openings: the oval window (fenestra
ovalis) and the round window (fenestra rotunda).
❖ The oval window is occluded by part of small bone called
stapes and the round window by a fine sheet of fibrous tissue.
❖ The middle ear are the three smallest bones in the body, the
auditory ossicles (ear bones), that extend from the tympanic
membrane to the oval window.
❖ These bones are present in a series and are connected to each
other by synovial joints.
 2. Middle Ear
❖ The auditory ossicles are named according to their shapes: Malleus
( hammer shaped), incus (anvil shaped) and stapes (stirrup shaped).
❖ Malleus: the handle of malleus is attached to the internal surface of
the tympanic membrane and the head forms a movable joint with
the incus.
❖ Incus: the body of incus is joined to the malleus and the long
process to the stapes.
❖ Stapes: the head of stapes is joined to the incus and its foot plate
into the oval window.
The auditory ossicles transmit vibrations from the tympanic
membrane to the internal ear.
Eustachian tube/ auditory tube:
➢ The middle ear cavity is communicated with nasopharynx through
a tube called Eustachian tube.
➢ It help to maintain the pressure balance in the ear.
➢ Most of the time this tube remains closed, it opens only during to
equalize the pressure & swallowing.
 3. Internal Ear
❖ The internal ear is also called membranous labyrinth. It is submerged in a fluid
called perilymph.
❖ The membranous labyrinth contains another fluid called endolymph.
❖ The composition of endolymph differs from rest of the lymph in the body as it
possess high concentration of k+ ions.
❖ Internal ear consist of
1. The vestibules (balancing organ)
2. The cochlea (hearing organ)
3. Semicircular canals
 3. Internal Ear
1.Vestibule (vestibular apparatus)
❖ The part of inner ear other than cochlea is called as vestibular
apparatus.
❖ It is differentiate into two chambers
▪ Utriculus is upper wide chamber
▪ Sacculus is lower smaller chamber
❖ These chamber are connected with each other by a duct called
endolymphatic duct.
 3. Internal Ear
2.Semicircular canals
Three semicircula canal are attached to utriculas. These are at right angle to
one another which are named as:
1. Anterior vertical canals
2. Posterior vertical canals
3. Horizontal canals
➢ The anterior and posterior canal arise from the same place & remain
associated with each other for a short distance.
➢ The place of origin of semicircular canals become swollen is known as
Ampulla.
➢ The utriculus, sacculus of semicircular canals which are filled with
viscous fluid called as endolmyph.
➢ Inner surface of utriculus & sacculus have patches of sensory hair cells
named as maculae.
➢ Sensory hair cells which are associated with thousand of tiny particle of
caco3 called otolish (ear stones)
 3. Internal Ear
3.The cochlea (hearing organ)
➢ This part of internal ear is associated with auditory function (i.e
hearing)
➢ Cochlae is a tube about 3.5 cm long, it is filled with endolymph.
➢ The canal of choclea is divided in to 3 chambers.
1. Scala vestibule (upper)- perilymph
2. Scala media (middle)- endolymph
3. Scala tympani (lower)- perilymph
➢ An important structure called organ of corti rests an basilar
membrane.
 3. Internal Ear
Organ of corti
❖ The organ of corti lies the middle chamber of cochlea.
❖ It consists of 2 rods, outer & inner.
❖ Both rods run parallel to each other along the entire
length of cochlea & rest an basilar membrane.
❖ Outer rod- 3 rows of hair cells- no of hair cell 20000.
❖ Inner rod-one row of hair cells- 3500 cells.
❖ Bottom of each hair cell is associated with 8th cranial
nerve.