Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

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Fuel
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Review article

Hot gas filtration – A review

Steffen Heidenreich ⇑
Pall Filtersystems GmbH, Werk Schumacher Crailsheim, Zur Flügelau 70, D-74564 Crailsheim, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper provides a detailed survey on hot gas filtration. Fundamental aspects of filtration at higher
Received 19 December 2011 temperatures are described first, including the influence of the temperature on dust properties and filtra-
Received in revised form 27 June 2012 tion behaviour. The main focus is on the review of hot gas filter media as well as hot gas filter systems.
Accepted 25 July 2012
Moreover, applications of hot gas filtration are presented and discussed in detail, for example advanced
Available online 13 August 2012
coal gasification as well as biomass gasification and pyrolysis, incineration of low-level contaminated
radioactive waste from nuclear power generation, waste incineration, fluid catalytic cracking in oil refin-
Keywords:
eries and other processes.
Hot gas filtration
Particle removal
By using hot gas filters, downstream equipment, such as heat exchangers, catalyst units, turbines and
Gas cleaning scrubbers, are protected from erosion and fouling, processes can be intensified or simplified as well as
Fly ash blocking by condensation or desublimation can be prevented.
High temperature filter elements Energy efficiency, process intensification, PM 10 and PM 2.5 emission values, water shortage and water
quality as well as overall process costs are topics which raise an increasing interest in hot gas filtration.
Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Filtration at high temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3. Hot gas filter media and filter elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1. Ceramic filter media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.2. Metal filter media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3. Hot gas filter elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4. Catalytically activated hot gas filter elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4. Hot gas filter systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1. Single tubesheet design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2. Multi stage designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.3. Filter tube design of Asahi Glass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.4. Cross flow filtration concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.5. Filter system integration into a biomass gasifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.6. Further research and development requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5. Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1. Incineration and pyrolysis of low-level contaminated radioactive waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2. Coal gasification and combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.3. Biomass gasification and pyrolysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.4. Fluid catalytic cracking units in refineries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.5. Waste incineration and pyrolysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.6. Other processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

⇑ Tel.: +49 7951 302 172.

E-mail address: [email protected]

0016-2361/$ - see front matter Ó 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2012.07.059
84 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

1. Introduction media and filter systems are reviewed and described as well as de-
tails and particularities of filtration at higher temperatures are dis-
Hot gas filtration has been attracting more and more attention cussed. An overview of applications and some detailed examples
in a wide variety of processes over the last years. Main reasons are presented.
for that are higher demands on emission levels, such as PM 10
and PM 2.5, the possibility to simplify or to intensify processes,
problems to supply and to clean wash waters for wet scrubbing 2. Filtration at high temperature
as well as the development and application of new processes, such
as e.g. biomass gasification. Filtration at temperatures above 260 °C is called hot gas filtra-
In advanced power generation systems, in chemical industry, in tion according to the draft of the VDI guideline 3677-3 [4]. High
oil refineries, in incinerations, metal refining and metal recycling, temperatures place high demands on the properties and the
the need for hot gas cleaning is driven by the requirements of in- mechanical, thermal and chemical stability of the materials which
creased process efficiency, process intensification, product quality are used. The filter media as well as the vessel material have to be
and environmental legislation. stable against temperature, pressure and chemical composition of
It has been shown that product quality and process efficiency gas and dust. The higher the temperature is the higher the de-
and economics can be improved by using hot gas filtration. For mands on the materials are. Hot gas filtration is performed at tem-
example using hot gas filtration for fly ash removal instead of peratures ranging typically up to 900 °C, at pressures up to 8 MPa,
wet scrubbing, increases the efficiency of a coal gasification pro- in both oxidising and reducing atmospheres, and often with chem-
cess by about 3%. In many processes, high filtration temperatures ically aggressive compounds.
are required to avoid undesirable condensation or desublimation At low filtration temperatures, dust properties, such as particle
reactions, which result in the fouling and blocking of filters or size distribution, adhesion and cohesion forces as well as compress-
the polluting of products. One example for this is the condensation ibility of the dust determine the pressure drop and the detachment
of tars in biomass gasification (see Section 5). The filtration of high behaviour of the dust cake. At higher temperatures, the thermal
temperature process gases also generates the opportunity to utilise properties of the dust influence the filtration behaviour.
particle free, high temperature gas in coupled or subsequent pro- Dust softening or sintering of the dust can occur at higher tem-
cess steps. Furthermore, the economic and process-technological peratures which results in a sticking dust layer on the filter ele-
advantages of hot gas filtration are obvious in high temperature ment surface and correspondingly in an instable filtration.
processes that involve the circular movement of substances or pro- Dilatometer [5] or high temperature rheometer measurements
cess gases as well as the recovery of products or expensive materi- [6] of dust samples can show at which temperature softening of
als, such as catalysts or noble metals. Protection of downstream the dust starts. Softening temperature depends on the chemical
heat exchangers or catalyst units by hot gas filters increases the composition of the dust. Chlorides, such as NaCl, KCl or CaCl2 de-
energy efficiency or the reaction performance, respectively. More- crease the softening temperature. In case of a eutectic mixture,
over, some processes can first be realized by using hot gas filters. softening temperature can be decreased significantly.
The only disadvantage of hot gas filtration is the higher invest- By an increase of the sticking force of the dust with increasing
ments for the filter system due to the increased demands on the temperature, also dust bridging can occur. This can cause an insta-
materials and the higher gas volume at higher temperatures. Fur- ble filtration due to incomplete regeneration of the filter elements.
thermore, the pressure drop is higher caused by the increased vis- In the worst case, breakage of filter elements can result from bridg-
cosity of the gas with temperature. However, in most cases the ing. Measurement of the tensile strength of a dust cake as a func-
advantages dominate as well as higher investments for the filter tion of the temperature can give a rough indication whether a dust
system are compensated by a reduction of the overall process costs. cake tends to bridging or not. However, a better measurement for
The first technical application of hot gas filtration was for the the likelihood of dust bridging, proposed by Hurley and Dockter
incineration of low-level contaminated radioactive waste from nu- [7], is the ratio of the tensile strength to the density of the dust
clear power generation. At the beginning of the 1970s, hot gas fil- cake as a function of the temperature. They called this ratio the
tration was used for example at the former nuclear research centre critical thickness index (CTI) and showed by measurements with
of Karlsruhe in Germany [1] and in some incineration plants in different dusts that this index is a better indicator of the likelihood
France [2]. Since 1978 hot gas filtration is used in nuclear power of a dust cake to form bridges. If the index is high, the strength of
plants in Japan [3]. the dust cake corresponding to his weight is high and it is more
The development of advanced coal based power generation likely that the dust cake tends to bridging. The investigation of
techniques such as the pressurized fluidized bed combustion two different fly ashes from a PFBC coal combustion by Hurley
(PFBC) and the pressurized integrated gasification combined cycles and Dockter showed a significant increase of the CTI index for
(IGCC) from the end of the 1980s until the end of the 1990s has one of these ashes from 700 to 750 °C which indicates an increase
significantly influenced the development of hot gas filtration. At of the tendency to form bridges at the higher temperature. This re-
this time, many big research and demonstration projects have been sult was in good agreement with the filtration experience with this
started in the USA, in Japan and in Europe for development, inves- dust. The second fly ash which had a much higher density showed
tigation and testing of different hot gas filter media and filter a lower CTI index and no increase of the CTI index by increasing the
systems. temperature from 700 to 750 °C. The filtration experience with this
Meanwhile more than 25 large hot gas filter units are in opera- dust showed no bridging at these temperatures.
tion or in commissioning in coal gasification plants worldwide. Filtration tests at a 4 MWth PFBC coal combustion of other
About 20 of them were installed in China in the last 8 years. The researchers showed no bridging and no problems of regeneration
hot gas filter with the longest operating time in an IGCC plant at 800 °C, however, at 950 °C bridging of the dust was detected [8].
was installed in 1994 in Buggenum in the Netherlands. At high temperature, the dust cake properties can be changed
The total number of hot gas filters worldwide installed in many by chemical solid phase reactions in the dust. By means of dilatom-
different applications is in the order of some hundreds. eter, thermo-gravimetric analysis and differential scanning calo-
This paper aims to provide a detailed survey on hot gas filtra- rimetry, thermal expansion, loss of weight and relative heat flux
tion and to raise the awareness of hot gas filtration. Hot gas filter of the dust can be analysed, respectively. Using these analysis
 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94 85

methods, Hemmer [9,10] could show clear relations between ther- at the contact points by inorganic and/or organic binders. By the
mal changes of different dusts – bark ash, lignite ash, incineration vacuum-forming manufacturing process high porosity of the filter
ash and sodium bicarbonate – and their filtration behaviour. For elements is achieved. Fig. 1 shows the structure of a low density
one lignite ash from PFBC combustion as an example, he could ceramic filter element made of alumosilicate fibres. Low density
determine stable filtration up to 600 °C by filtration tests. Corre- ceramics have high fracture toughness due to the loose structure.
sponding investigations of the thermal changes of the ash showed However, the mechanical strength is very low according to the
first major instability at 600 °C. Sintering of this lignite ash started loose structure of the fibres and the risk of candle breakages is cor-
at 820 °C. Filtration tests and analysis of the thermal changes of a respondingly high. The intensity of the back pulse for regeneration
second lignite ash showed a first instable operating region between needs to be controlled so that no fibres are released from the filter
350 and 450 °C as well as instable filtration above 575 °C. Sintering structure. The differential pressure of low density ceramics is rela-
of this lignite ash started at 875 °C. tively low.
Furthermore, the dust can react with the gas. Kanaoka et al. High density ceramics have a mechanically very stable structure
could show that the reaction of lime with CO2 for example changes with a high mechanical strength. High density ceramic filter ele-
the dust properties significantly [11]. ments of Pall Corporation made of silicon carbide have bursting
The differential pressure of the dust cake depends strongly on pressures of higher than 5 MPa and O-ring pressure strength of
the porosity of the cake. A decrease of the porosity by compression more than 20 MPa. High density ceramics are manufactured by
for example raises the pressure drop of the cake. At higher temper- pressing or extrusion followed by sintering at high temperature.
atures, the structure and the porosity of the dust cake can change The pore size and the size distribution can be very exactly adjusted
due to the increase of the sticking force or by plastic deformation of by selecting the right grain sizes. Furthermore, an option to adjust
the dust particles. Measurements with different dusts, such as the pore size and porosity is to add pore-forming materials which
lime, quartz and bark ash, have shown higher porosities of the dust burn out during the sintering process, such as e.g. polymers, saw-
cake at high temperatures than at ambient temperature [10,12]. dust or graphite. By the amount and particle size of the pore-form-
Other investigations with fly ash from coal combustion showed ing material, the pore size and the porosity can be controlled. High
no change of the porosity of the dust cake with increasing temper- density ceramics are available with symmetric or asymmetric
ature [13]. structure. A symmetric structure has a uniform pore size distribu-
Particle collection is determined by different mechanisms tion over the whole thickness of the material. An asymmetric
which depend differently on temperature. For particles smaller structure has a thin membrane layer with smaller pores on top
than 1 lm, an increase of temperature improves particle collection. of the support material, as shown in Fig. 2. The membrane collects
In this size range diffusional forces dominate the collection. Collec- small particles due to its fine pores. By making the membrane thin,
tion by inertial forces is reduced with increasing temperature since the differential pressure of the filter element is limited. An opti-
the impaction is reduced according to theoretical consideration for mum is to have a layer which is so thin that the support is just cov-
a single fibre [12,14]. However, the influence of inertial impaction ered by the layer without defects. Surface filtration is achieved by
is negligible compared to the barrier effect for typical filtration the membrane. A penetration of particle in the support structure of
velocities [12,14]. Thus, collection efficiency increases only for the filter element is prevented and the element can be effectively
small particles with increasing temperature. Grade efficiency mea- regenerated by back pulsing. This is an advantage with regard to
surements with different filter media and dusts have confirmed the long term behaviour of the filter elements and their life time.
this general tendency [12,15,16].

3. Hot gas filter media and filter elements

The filter medium has to be resistant against the temperature

and needs to have a sufficient high mechanical stability. Further-
more, the filter medium has to have a good thermal shock resis-
tance and chemical stability against gases, such as H2S, HCl, NH3,
Cl2 and H2O, and against alkalis. With increasing temperature the
requirements for the materials increase. When selecting the mate-
rial it has to be taken into account that the properties of the porous
filter material with the high surface area will be different com-
pared to the compact material.
Only rigid self supporting filter elements made of ceramic or
metal are applied at high temperatures. Flexible filter media which
are applied at low temperatures would be destroyed at high tem-
peratures due to the high mechanical stress caused by the move-
ment during back pulsing.

3.1. Ceramic filter media

High density and low density ceramics are available as filter

media. High density ceramics are made of sintered grains prefera-
bly of silicon carbide, alumina or cordierite. Low density ceramics
are mostly made of alumosilicate fibres. The porosity of high den-
sity ceramics is in the range of about 40%. Low density ceramic fil-
ter elements have a high porosity of up to about 90% and a high
internal surface due to the fibre structure. They are typically vac-
uum-formed from fibre slurry and the fibres are bonded together Fig. 1. Structure of a fibre ceramic.
86 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

which generate a protection surface of alumina [21,22]. The maximal

operating temperature of these elements is at about 780 °C [23].
Other filter elements with a protective alumina surface layer are
made of FeCralloy (Footnote 1). By heat treatment at about
1000 °C under oxidising atmosphere, aluminium moves to the sur-
face and generates a protection surface of alumina [24]. This protec-
tion layer is compact and very corrosion resistant. The maximal
operating temperature of these elements is at about 1000 °C [25].
Investigations in coal gasification environment have shown corro-
sion for FeCralloy as well as for iron aluminide media [26,27]. It is
supposed that by cracking and spalling of the alumina layer due to
different thermal expansion of the alumina and the underlying alloy,
the iron in the alloy is attacked by hydrogen sulphide and water va-
pour [27]. Filter elements of HR 160 (Footnote 1) and Hastelloy X
showed no noticeable corrosion after an exposure of 1500–2500 h
in coal gasification environment [28]. Maximal operating tempera-
ture of filter elements of HR alloys is at about 600 °C [25].

3.3. Hot gas filter elements

The preferred geometry of hot gas filter elements is the form of

a candle which is closed at one end (see Figs. 3 and 4). This geom-
etry enables a very reliable operation. The cake is typically build-
up at the outside of the candles and can be easily and reliably de-
Fig. 2. Asymmetric structure of a high density ceramic filter element with a support tached from the outside surface of the candle. The filter candle
having coarse pores and a filtering membrane having fine pores.
lengths range from 1 to 3 m depending on the material. Typical
candle outer diameters are between 60 and 150 mm.
The collection efficiency of high density ceramic filter elements is In some cases also inverted candles with a flow direction from
very high and reaches nearly 100% [17], and even for submicron the inside to the outside having the dust cake on the inside surface
particles this performance can be achieved [18]. of the candle as well as filter tubes were used.
Thermal stability of ceramic filter media depends on the mate- Other geometries with a higher density of the filtration area
rial used. Temperatures up to 1000 °C and higher are possible have also been tested. One example are ceramic filter elements
[19,20].

3.2. Metal filter media

Only metallic filter elements are an alternative to the ceramic at

high temperatures. Sintered porous metal filter media, manufac-
tured from either fibre metals or powder metals are used. Addi-
tionally, metal fabrics are available as filter media.
Sintered powder metal media are typically manufactured by
pressing metal powders of selected particle size distribution and
subsequent sintering in hydrogen or under vacuum. The porosity
of sintered powder metal filter media ranges from about 20% up
to about 40%. Sintered fibre metal media are non-woven structures
formed from short fine metal fibres with diameters typically rang-
ing from 2 to 40 lm. These non-woven structures are carefully sin-
tered in hydrogen or under vacuum. Porosity of these sintered fibre
structures can be up to about 90%.
Metallic filter elements are made of different steel grades and
various metal alloys. The material applied is selected by its thermal
and chemical stability. Oxidation and corrosion lead to irreversible
plugging of the pores due to the fact that the volume of the reac-
tion products is higher than that of the pure metal. Filter elements
made of stainless steel are typically applied for temperatures up to
420 °C. Filter media of high temperature steels can be applied up to
650 °C [19]. In most hot gas applications, sulphur or chlorides are
present in the gas. In this case, only special metal alloys, such as
Inconel1 600, Monel (Footnote 1) or Hastelloy (Footnote 1) X, can
be applied. For applications with high levels of hydrogen sulphide,
special filter elements have been developed in the recent years.
These filter elements are made of special iron aluminide alloys

1
Dia-Schumalith is a trademark of Pall Corporation. Inconel und Monel are
trademarks of Special Metals Corporation. Hastelloy and HR 160 are trademarks of Fig. 3. High density ceramic filter candles with lengths of 1.25 m, 1.5 m, 2 m and
Haynes International Inc. Fecralloy is a trademark of UKEA, UK. 2.5 m.
 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94 87

commercial hot gas filtration applications so far. A further design

to increase the filtration area density was the development of a
cross flow hot gas filter element [30]. The raw and clean gas flow
channels are placed above each other with a change in the flow
direction of 90° for the clean gas channels. Particles are collected
by flowing through the porous walls. However, also for this design
the main drawback is the risk of plugging the raw gas channels and
an insufficient detachment of the dust by back pulsing. This made
this design not attractive for technical application.

3.4. Catalytically activated hot gas filter elements

Recent developments have been hot gas filter elements which

combine filtration and a catalytic function.
One example for such developments are catalytically activated
ceramic hot gas filter elements for the combined removal of parti-
cles and the reduction of nitrogen oxides [31–33]. A catalyst based
on TiO2–V2O5–WO3 is integrated into the inner structure of the fil-
ter element. A fine filtering membrane on the outer side of the fil-
ter element protects the catalyst of any particle deposition.
Filtration as well as selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of the nitro-
gen oxides is performed at temperatures between 280 and 320 °C.
A second example for the development of catalytic filter ele-
ments is the combined removal of particles and tars from syngas
in biomass gasification. Different tar reforming catalytic filter ele-
ments having the catalyst integrated as fixed bed or as catalytic
coating of the porous inner structure of the filter elements have
been developed [34–36]. Filtration as well as tar reforming is per-
formed at temperatures between 800 and 850 °C.
By using catalytic filter candles two functions can be combined
in one unit instead of having two. This simplifies the process flow
and reduces costs and footprint. Furthermore, the combination al-
Fig. 4. Metal filter candle. lows the use of the energy of the gas as well as prevents plugging of
the catalyst by particle deposition.

with a honeycomb monolith structure. The monolith has a plural-

ity of cells aligned in parallel. In order to get a wall flow, the cells 4. Hot gas filter systems
are alternately plugged either at the upstream end or at the down-
stream side of the monolith. The gas flow enters in the cells open at The filter vessel has also to fulfill special requirements at high
the upstream side and flows through the walls and the cells open temperatures. For the combination of high temperature and high
at the downstream side (see Fig. 5). The particles are collected at pressure a vessel with refractory lining is essential.
the walls of the cells open at the upstream side. Nowadays, this fil- Different filter system designs have been developed in the past.
ter geometry is well known as diesel soot filter applied in vehicles. The main reasons for all these developments have been to increase
Such hot gas filter honeycomb monoliths have been successfully the robustness and reliability of the systems or to reduce the sys-
tested in a PFBC application at 863 °C during a 300 h test [29]. tem costs, respectively. Some of these system designs with their
However, the main disadvantage of this filter element design is advantages and disadvantages shall be highlighted in the following.
the risk of plugging the upstream cells which cannot be removed
by back pulsing. Due to this risk, this design has not been used in 4.1. Single tubesheet design

The single tubesheet design is the one mostly applied for hot gas
filtration. Conventionally, filter candles closed at one end are in-
stalled vertically hanging in a tubesheet which separates the filter
vessel in a raw and a clean gas room (see Figs. 6a and 6b). The gas
to be filtered flows from the outside of the candles inwards building
a dust cake on the outer surface of the candles. The filter candles are
arranged into groups. The different groups are sequentially cleaned
on-line by a back pulse with clean gas from a gas tank. Conventional
jet pulse systems are used for back pulsing or special blowback sys-
tems developed for the regeneration of rigid hot gas filter elements,
such as the jet pulse system with a common venturi ejector [37] or
the Coupled Pressure Pulse (CPP) system [38,39], both of Pall Corpo-
ration. Air or nitrogen as well as cleaned process gas can be used for
regeneration. Sometimes the blowback gas needs to be preheated
to overcome problems with condensation. The vessel can be either
circular (for higher operating pressures) or rectangular (for applica-
Fig. 5. Scheme of a wall flow filter with honeycomb structure. tions at atmospheric pressure). In rectangular vessels, sometimes
88 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

Gas Tank

Blowback
Blowpipe
Valve

Venturi Clean Gas

Ejector

Tube
Sheet

Raw Gas
Filter
Element

Fig. 6a. Scheme of a filter system with single tubesheet design.

Fig. 7. Schematic drawing showing the relative position of the filters in the multi-
stage filter system developed by Lurgi Lentjes Babcock [40].

gle tubesheet design, alternative hot gas filter systems with multi
stages have been developed in the past, e.g. the systems developed
by Lurgi Lentjes Babcock (LLB) (see Fig. 7) [44] and by Westing-
house (see Fig. 8) [45].
Main feature of the LLB filter system is that the candles are
mounted standing instead of hanging. The filter candles are
pressed by a weight with the open end in a metal seat. The weight
shall keep them tightly in the seat during filtration and specially
during back pulsing. The candle seats are fixed on horizontal man-
ifolds which can be placed in multiple stages in the filter vessel. An
advantage of the standing installation of ceramic filter candles has
been seen that the candles are kept under compression by their
own weight and are therefore less likely to break. LLB filter systems
were installed and operated in the past at the High Temperature
Winkler gasification demonstration plant in Berrenrath (Germany)
Fig. 6b. View of high density ceramic filter candles hanging in a tubesheet from the and at the 300 MWel IGCC coal gasification plant in Puertollano
bottom of a filter vessel. (Spain). The filter system in Berrenrath contained 578 ceramic fil-
ter candles [46] and the one in Puertollano had two filter vessels
each equipped with 1036 ceramic filter candles [47].
the filter elements are also horizontally installed in a vertically ar-
In the Westinghouse filter system, the filter candles are clus-
ranged tubesheet (see e.g. [40–43]).
tered in groups which are positioned above each other (see
The main advantage of the single tubesheet design is that the
Fig. 8). Each group has 30–60 filter candles. The candles are in-
installation of the filter elements and maintenance is performed
stalled hanging in single holders. The head of each candle is en-
easily from the clean gas side of the filter vessel. The main disad-
closed by a sealing material and fixed by screwing a counterpart
vantage for circular vessels is the restricted number of filter ele-
to the holder. Installation has to be carried from the raw gas side
ments that can be installed for a given vessel diameter. However,
of the vessel. A group of holders are connected to a common ple-
despite of this disadvantage the single tubesheet design is still
num. This plenum has its own back pulsing arrangement and is
the preferred applied one for hot gas filtration.
in flow connection to the clean gas side to collect the clean gas
from the candles and to discharge it. Two or more plenums are
4.2. Multi stage designs stacked vertically and supported by a common pipe which is con-
nected to the main tubesheet. The Westinghouse filter system has
In order to increase the filtration area in circular vessels and to been mainly tested in different pilot and demonstration projects in
overcome the limitation of the number of filter elements of the sin- the USA. A 384 filter candle containing system has been operated
 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94 89

Fig. 9. Inverted candle filter system concept of Siemens-Westinghouse [47].

Fig. 8. Schematic drawing showing the relative position of the filters in the multi-
stage hot gas filter system developed by Westinghouse [41].

in the 70 MW Tidd PFBC demonstration plant in Brilliant (Ohio,

USA) from 1992 to 1996 [48]. A filter system containing 748 filter
candles was installed at the 107 MW Pinon Pine coal gasification
plant in the USA [49]. This plant was completed in 1997, but has
never been in real operation due to problems and was closed in
2001 [50]. A filter system containing 91 candles is installed and
operated since 1996 at the Power System Development Facility
of Southern Company Services in Wilsonville (Alabama, USA) [28].
Siemens-Westinghouse developed and tested two advanced hot
gas filter system configurations based on the experiences with the
afore-described Westinghouse system [51]. Both systems followed
the principle of having vertically stacked plenums which are sup-
ported from a tubesheet as in the case of the Westinghouse design.
However, one concept used so called ‘‘inverted candle’’ installation
with a flow of the raw gas to the inner side of the candles (see
Fig. 10. Sheet filter system concept of Siemens-Westinghouse [47].
Fig. 9). Each individual filter candle is contained in a metal housing
that protects the filter element from ash bridging and vibration.
Each filter element is fixed with its open end at the bottom of 4.3. Filter tube design of Asahi Glass
the individual metal housing. Dust cake is build-up on the inner
surface of the candles. Installation has to be carried from the raw A further hot gas filter design has been developed in Japan by
gas side of the vessel. One of the advantages of this design is that Asahi Glass Co. Ltd. In this design, shown in Fig. 11, ceramic filter
the possibility of ash bridging between the candles and corre- tubes with a length of 3 m and an outer and inner diameter of
sponded candle breakage is avoided. A second advantage is that 168 mm and 140 mm, respectively, were used [52]. The filter tubes
if an element would crack it will stay in its housing, maybe still were made of cordierite. The raw gas entered into the inside of the
providing partial filtering, without the risk to damage neighbour- filter tubes downwards from the top. The tubes were open at both
ing elements by dropping on them. ends. The dust cake which was built-up at the inside surface of the
The second concept used filter sheets installed in the vessel as tubes was detached by a back pulse from the outside to the inside
shown in Fig. 10. The filter sheets were installed on vertical and discharged at the bottom of the tubes. The tubes were sup-
clean-gas pipe manifolds. The main advantage of this second con- ported by water cooled tubesheets which divided the filter vessel
cept is the compact installation of the filter elements which results into several clean gas chambers. The main advantages of this filter
in an increase of the filtration area within a given vessel compared design have been seen in the fact that dust bridging between the
to the candle design. filter tubes and thus the risk of candle breakage is avoided and that
So far, both concepts have not been applied in commercial the tubes can be installed with high packing density. Testing of this
applications even if testing revealed the potential of the ‘‘inverted filter system has been performed in the 10 MW PFBC test facility in
candle’’ design to be a highly reliable, commercially successful hot Karhula (Finland) at the beginning of the 1990s. Later in the 1990s,
gas filter system [51]. it was applied in the 71 MW PFBC demonstration plant at
90 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

Raw Gas

Filter Tube
Clean Gas

Clean Gas

Cross Flow
Filter Module

Cyclone

Fig. 12. Scheme of the cross flow concept investigated by Sibanda et al. [56].

is kept small in order to have high enough shear forces resulting

from the downward flow. The shear force on the filter surface re-
moves the agglomerates from the surface and the recycled flow car-
ry them to a downstream cyclone where they are separated. Sharma
et al. reported successful testing of their concept on laboratory scale.
Fig. 11. Scheme of the tube filter system developed by Asahi Glass [48]. The requirement that this concept works is the same as in the case of
the concept of Sinbanda, described above. Furthermore, if fine par-
ticles are in the gas which cannot be agglomerated, then particles
Wakamatsu in Japan where it achieved more than 11,000 h of
smaller than the cut size of the cyclone will be concentrated in
operation at temperatures between 650 and 850 °C and clean gas
the recycled gas stream. As long as agglomeration can be achieved
concentrations of below 1 mg/N m3 [53,54]. The filter system suf-
or just coarse dusts have to be removed then the cross flow concepts
fered from several problems in both applications. Breakages of
should work. However, scale-up of these interesting concepts has
tubes apparently caused by the different thermal expansions of
not been evaluated so far.
the ceramic tubes and the metal connection parts at the tubesheets
as well as dust leakages at the sealing of the joint portion of the fil-
ter tubes and the metal parts occurred [55]. 4.5. Filter system integration into a biomass gasifier

4.4. Cross flow filtration concepts A new concept of a compact hot gas cleaning and conditioning
system for biomass gasification syngas has recently been
Recent hot gas filter design concepts try to use the cross flow fil-
tration principle which is a state of the art method in liquid filtra- Jet Clean Gas
tion. These concept studies have been performed just on Ejector/
laboratory scale yet. Main advantages of such systems have been Pump
seen in the reduction of the filter size by using higher filtration Raw Gas
velocities as well as in limited growth of the filter cake by the shear Filter
stress generated by the axial flow and less frequent backpulsing of Candle
the filter elements. Sibanda et al. [56,57] investigated a concept
(see Fig. 12) in which the raw gas flow enters the inside of a filter Recycled
tube. Part of the gas flow passes radially through the wall of the filter Gas Stream
tube and the remaining part flows axially through the tube and is di-
rected to a downstream cyclone. The particles need to agglomerate
at the surface of the filter tube and the shear forces resulting from
the axial flow need to remove the agglomerates from the surface
and carry them to the downstream cyclone so that the concept
works. Agglomeration and detachment of the particles depend
strongly on their sticking properties. Sibanda et al. could achieve
collection efficiencies of 99% for optimal operating conditions. The
Cyclone
collection efficiency of the cyclone alone was 90% in this case [56].
Sharma et al. [58,59] tested a similar concept in which a part of
the gas flow entering the filter vessel passes through a filter candle
wall from the outside to the inside and exits as clean gas. The
remaining part of the gas flow is recycled and mixed with the inlet
flow (see Fig. 13). The gap between the housing and the filter candle Fig. 13. Scheme of the cross flow concept investigated by Sharma et al. [58].
 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94 91

Syngas Table 1
General overview of hot gas filtration applications.

Coal gasification Smelting processes

Coal combustion Metal production
Blowback Gas
Biomass gasification Metal recycling (e.g. Aluminium
recycling
Biomass pyrolysis Glass industry
Catalytic Biomass combustion Cement industry
Filter Refineries Steel industry
Candles Low-level radioactive waste Chemical industry (e.g. production and
incineration and pyrolysis recovery of catalysts
Waste incineration and pyrolysis Production of metal oxide powders,
pigments and nanoparticles

Gasification
filter installations worldwide based on references of three leading
Zone
Biomass companies in hot gas filtration (Pall Corporation, Clear Edge Ltd.,
Glosfume Ltd.).
Steam/
Gas 5.1. Incineration and pyrolysis of low-level contaminated radioactive
waste

First technical application where hot gas filtration has been used
was incineration of low-level contaminated radioactive waste from
nuclear power generation. From the beginning of the 1970s until
the mid of the 1990s, a two stage hot gas filter system was used
Slag
at the former nuclear research centre of Karlsruhe in Germany.
Fig. 14. Schematic principle of the integration of a catalytic filter system into the The filter system was operated at temperatures between 650 and
freeboard of a fluidized bed gasifier. 900 °C. Each filter stage comprised a refractory lined vessel contain-
ing 85 ceramic filter elements of silicon carbide [1]. At the beginning
of the 1970s, hot gas filters were also used in some incineration
developed [60]. Catalytic filter elements for particle and tar re- plants for low contaminated radioactive wastes in France. Filter ele-
moval are directly integrated into the freeboard of a gasifier. The ments made of asbestos fibres installed in refractory lined vessels
integration of the filter system within the gasifier results in a very were operated at 700–800 °C [2]. Since 1978 hot gas filtration is
compact unit. By this cost-effective approach, the investment costs used for incineration of low contaminated radioactive wastes in nu-
of the gas cleaning equipment for a biomass gasification plant can clear power plants in Japan. About 30 hot gas filter systems have
be reduced as well as the needed space for the installation. An been installed. Typically, the hot gas filter systems have two filter
additional advantage of this concept is that the gas temperature stages. Each stage comprises a refractory lined vessel containing
is in the right range for the catalytic tar reforming reaction and about 100 ceramic filter candles. The first stage is operated at
no reheating or auxiliary electric heating of pipes and filter vessel 600–800 °C, the second one at 500–600 °C [3]. Hot gas filters are
is necessary. The temperature in a fluidized bed biomass gasifier is also applied for the pyrolysis of low contaminated radioactive
typically around 800–900 °C, which is the temperature required for waste [63–66].
catalytic tar reforming. Fig. 14 shows schematically the principle of
this new compact cleaning concept. Remarkable system simplifica-
5.2. Coal gasification and combustion
tion and process intensification can be achieved by this concept.
Investigations at a bench-scaled fluidized bed biomass gasifier,
The development of advanced coal based power generation
operated at atmospheric pressure and temperatures between 800
techniques, such as PFBC and IGCC, has required, stimulated and
and 820 °C with a catalytic filter candle integrated in the freeboard
significantly influenced the development of hot gas filter elements
of the gasifier has demonstrated the general feasibility of the con-
and systems for high temperatures and high pressures. The condi-
cept [61,62]. However, tests at a scaled-up gasifier unit are needed
tions in PFBC are temperatures of up to 850 °C and pressures of 1–
for reliable proof of this concept.
1.2 MPa and in IGCC pressures are up to 8 MPa and temperatures
are between 250 and 400 °C. Several big research and demonstra-
4.6. Further research and development requirements tion projects have been started in the USA, in Japan and in Europe
from the end of the 1980s until the end of the 1990s. Some exam-
Even if the single tubesheet design has been being well proven ples are the 250 MWel IGCC demonstration plant in Buggenum (in
as reliable hot gas filter system already applied in hundreds of the Netherlands), the 300 MWel IGCC demonstration plant in Puer-
installations for many years and even if some of the afore described tollano (Spain), the 10 MWth PFBC test facility in Karhula (Finland),
design concepts are very interesting, the mainly required approach the 71 MWel PFBC demonstration plant in Wakamatsu (Japan), the
for further developments is to increase the competitiveness of hot 262 MWel IGCC demonstration plant in Wabash River (USA) and
gas filtration by providing cost-reduced filter systems. This re- the 15 MWth Power System Development Facility in Wilsonville
quires the development of new compact filter system designs with (Alabama, USA). While the PFBC technology has not been applied
high packing density of the filtration area. commercially yet, the IGCC has got significant interest in the last
10 years. Worldwide, more than 25 large hot gas filter units are
5. Applications in operation or in commissioning in coal gasification plants. The
largest filter vessels have a diameter of about 6.5 m, a height of
Hot gas filtration has already been applied in many processes. A more than 25 m and a weight of about 300 t containing about
general overview is given in Table 1. There are hundreds of hot gas 1200 filter candles. About 90% of the filter units are equipped with
92 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94

Wet Gas Cleaning Columns

Hot Gas
Filter

Cyclone
Syngas
Cooler

Gasifier
Oxygen

Fig. 15. Simplified principal process flow scheme of the gasifier and gas cleaning of the IGCC plant in Buggenum.

ceramic filter candles of silicon carbide. The remaining 10% are

operated with iron aluminide or FeCralloy metal filter candles. Biomass Hot Gas Gas und Tar
The filter unit with the longest operating time is running at the Gasification Filtration Reforming
IGCC plant in Buggenum. Start-up of this filter was in 1994. More 800 - 900 ºC 800 - 900 ºC 800 - 900 ºC
than 800 ceramic silicon carbide Dia-Schumalith filter elements
of Pall Corporation are installed in the vessel with single tubesheet Fig. 16. General process steps for an energy efficient biomass gasification.
design. The ceramic filter elements achieve service life times of
more than 4 years. The filtration temperature is between 250 and
285 °C and the operating pressure is about 2.6 MPa. The filtration filters increased particulate emission standards are accomplished
velocity varies between 60 and 90 m/h depending on the syngas as well as turbo expanders and heat exchangers are efficiently pro-
quantity and the temperature. Fig. 15 shows a simplified principal tected from erosion and fouling. For many years hot gas filters of
flow scheme of the IGCC plant which is operated according to the smaller size containing up to about 100 candles have been being
Shell gasification process [67]. used as 4th stage underflow filters of the 3rd stage separator.
About 3–5% of the gas flow of the third separator stage is directed
5.3. Biomass gasification and pyrolysis as underflow to the 4th stage filter (see the simplified flow scheme
in Fig. 17). The filtration temperature of 4th stage filters is typically
Interesting applications for the employment of hot gas filtration between 500 and 600 °C and the filtration velocity varies between
are gasification and pyrolysis of biomass. Many small hot gas filter 90 and 150 m/h. Metal as well as ceramic filter elements are ap-
units containing 1–100 candles have been operated in lab and dem- plied in 4th stage filters. A typical regenerator of a FCC unit has
onstration plants around the world since the beginning of the 1990s. two internal cyclones and an external third cyclone. Due to more
With regard to biomass as a regenerable energy resource, plans are stringent emission standards some refineries have replaced their
currently existing to build large biomass gasification plants. So far, third stage cyclone by a third stage hot gas filter unit in the recent
filtration has been performed preferably in the temperature range years. Such filter units have typically a filtration surface area of
of 500–600 °C [68–71]. At these temperatures, on the one hand con- 500–1000 m2 and contain 1000–2000 metal filter elements. The
densation of tars can be prevented and on the other the likelihood of filtration temperature of 3rd stage filters is typically between
softening and stickiness of the dusts which have typically high alka- 300 and 400 °C and the operating pressure at 0.3 MPa. Hot gas fil-
line content is low. New advanced concepts in biomass gasification ters are also used in FCC units as vent filters on catalyst storage
have the goal to perform the hot gas filtration at temperatures of hoppers (see Fig. 17).
800–900 °C [72]. Since gasification in a fluid bed reactor is typically
performed at these temperatures and downstream catalyst units for 5.5. Waste incineration and pyrolysis
gas and tar reforming require at least these reaction temperatures,
filtration shall be performed at these temperatures in order to sim- Furthermore, hot gas filters are broadly applied for flue gas
plify the process by avoiding gas cool down and heat up. This pro- cleaning in incinerations. Low density ceramic filter candles are
cess concept, as shown in Fig. 16, is considered as the most mostly used in these applications. It is reported on hot gas filters
economical and efficient protection of the catalyst unit from particle in hazardous waste, industrial waste and clinical waste incinera-
deposition and fouling. Tests on the filtration of syngas from bio- tion, in incineration and pyrolysis of municipal waste and sewage
mass gasification of different feedstocks at high temperatures of sludge as well as in pyrolysis of plastic waste [75–79]. Filtration
about 800 °C have shown first promising results that stable filtra- temperature in the incineration applications is usually between
tion can be achieved at these high temperatures [73,74]. However, 200 and 350 °C. Filtration surface areas of up to 1000 m2 are in-
additional long-term tests are needed to prove these results. stalled and the filtration velocity ranges usually between 60 and
70 m/h. Filtration temperature in pyrolysis is between 350 and
5.4. Fluid catalytic cracking units in refineries 500 °C. Startin reported on more than 30 hot gas filtration applica-
tions in pyrolysis where low density ceramics are employed [80].
Hot gas filters are also used in refineries for flue gas cleaning of Most of these applications are in Japan. The largest filter unit
fluid catalytic cracking units (FCCUs). By means of the hot gas was commissioned in 2002 containing 600 filter candles with a
 S. Heidenreich / Fuel 104 (2013) 83–94 93

Spent 3rd Stage

Catalyst Vent Filter Separator

FCC-
Fresh
Reactor
Catalyst
Hopper

4th
Regenerator Stage
Filter

Regenerated
Catalyst
Air

Spent
Catalyst
Hopper

Fig. 17. Process flow scheme of the separation units in a typical fluid catalytic cracking unit.

filtration surface of 840 m2. The filtration velocity is in the range of process costs are aspects which increase the interest in hot gas fil-
72–90 m/h. tration significantly.

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