CHAPTER SEVEN

Work Design and Measurement

Working Conditions
Temperature and Humidity. Although human beings can function under a fairly wide range of
temperatures and humidity, work performance tends to be adversely affected if temperatures or
humidity are outside a very narrow comfort band. Comfort band depends on how strenuous the work
is; the more strenuous the work, the lower the comfort range.

Ventilation. Unpleasant and noxious odors can be distracting and dangerous to workers. Moreover,
unless smoke and dust are periodically removed, the air can quickly become stale and annoying.

Illumination. The amount of illumination required depends largely on the type of work being
performed; the more detailed the work, the higher the level of illumination needed for adequate
performance. Other important considerations are the amount of glare and contrast. From a safety
standpoint, good lighting in halls, stairways, and other dangerous points is important. However, because
illumination is expensive, high illumination in all areas is not generally desirable.

Noise and Vibrations. Noise is unwanted sound. It is caused by both equipment and humans. Noise
can be annoying or distracting, leading to errors and accidents. It also can damage or impair hearing
if it is loud enough. Vibrations can be a factor in job design even without a noise component, so merely
eliminating sound may not be sufficient in every case. Vibrations can come from tools, machines,
vehicles, human activity, air-conditioning systems, pumps, and other sources. Corrective measures
include padding, stabilizers, shock absorbers, cushioning, and rubber mountings.

Work Time and Work Breaks. Reasonable (and sometimes flexible) work hours can provide a sense of
freedom and control over one’s work. This is useful in situations where emphasis is on completing work
on a timely basis and meeting performance objectives rather than being “on duty” for a given time
interval, as is the case for most retail and manufacturing operations. Long work intervals tend to
generate boredom and fatigue. Productivity and quality can both deteriorate. Similarly, periodic
vacation breaks can give workers something to look forward to, a change of pace, and a chance to
recharge themselves.

Occupational Health Care. Good worker health contributes to

productivity, minimizes health care costs, and enhances workers’
sense of well-being. Many organizations have exercise and healthy-
eating programs designed to improve or maintain employees’ fitness
and general health.
Safety. Worker safety is one of the most basic issues in job
design. This area needs constant attention from management,
employees, and designers. Workers cannot be effectively
motivated if they feel they are in physical danger. From an
employer standpoint, accidents are undesirable because they are
expensive (insurance and compensation); they usually involve
damage to equipment and/or products; they require hiring,
training, and makeup work; and they generally interrupt work.
From a worker standpoint, accidents mean physical suffering, mental anguish, potential loss of
earnings, and disruption
of the work routine.
OSHA Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration,
created by the
Occupational Safety and Health
Act of 1970.

Time-based system Compensation based on time an employee has worked during a pay
period.

Output-based (incentive) system Compensation based on amount of output an employee

produced during a pay period.

Ethical Issues. Ethical issues

affect operations through work
methods, working conditions and
employee safety, accurate record
keeping, unbiased performance
appraisals, fair compensation, and
opportunities for advancement.

Knowledge-based pay A pay

system used by organizations to
reward workers who undergo
training that increases their
skills.

Job design The act of specifying the contents and methods of jobs.

Specialization Work that concentrates on some aspect of a product or service.

Behavioral Approaches to Job Design
Job enlargement Giving a worker a larger portion
of the total task, by horizontal loading.
Job rotation Workers periodically exchange jobs.
Job enrichment Increasing responsibility for
planning and coordination tasks, by vertical
loading.
Self-directed teams Groups empowered to make
certain changes in their work processes.

Requirements for successful team building:

1. Clearly stated and commonly held vision and goals.
2. Talent and skills required to meet goals.
3. Clear understanding of team members’ roles and functions.
4. Efficient and shared understanding of procedures and norms.
5. Effective and skilled interpersonal relations.
6. A system of reinforcement and celebration.
7. Clear understanding of the team’s relationship to the greater organization.

Ergonomics
Incorporation of
human factors in the
design of the
workplace.
Methods analysis Analyzing how a job is done.
Sources for methods analysis:
1. Changes in tools and equipment.
2. Changes in product design or introduction of new
products.
3. Changes in materials or procedures.
4. Government regulations or contractual agreements.
5. Other factors (e.g., accidents, quality problems).

Procedure in methods analysis:

1. Identify the operation to be studied, and gather all pertinent facts about tools,
equipment, materials, and so on.
2. For existing jobs, discuss the job with the operator and supervisor to get their input.
3. Study and document the present method of an existing job using process charts. For new
jobs, develop charts based on information about the activities involved.
4. Analyze the job.
5. Propose new methods.
6. Install the new methods.
7. Follow up implementation to assure that improvements have been achieved.

Flow process chart Chart used to examine

the overall sequence of an operation by
focusing on movements of the operator or
flow of materials.

Worker-machine chart Chart used to

determine portions of a work cycle during
which an operator and equipment are
busy or idle.
Motion study Systematic study of the human motions used to perform an
operation.
Motion study principles Guidelines for designing motion-
efficient work procedures.
Therbligs Basic elemental motions that make up a job

Different techniques in motion study analysis in

developing efficient procedures:
1. Motion study principles.
2. Analysis of therbligs.
3. Micromotion study.
4. Charts.

In developing work methods that are motion efficient,

the analyst tries to
1. Eliminate unnecessary motions.
2. Combine activities.
3. Reduce fatigue.
4. Improve the arrangement of the workplace.
5. Improve the design of tools and equipment.

Micromotion study Use of motion pictures and slow motion to study motions that otherwise
would be too rapid to analyze.
Work measurement Determining how long it should take to do a job.
Standard time The amount of time it should take a qualified worker to complete a
specified task, working at a sustainable rate, using given methods, tools and equipment, raw
materials, and workplace arrangement.
Stopwatch time study Development of a time standard based on observations of one
worker taken over a number of cycles.
Basic steps in a time study:
1. Define the task to be studied, and inform the worker who will be studied.
2. Determine the number of cycles to observe.
3. Time the job, and rate the worker’s performance.
4. Compute the standard time.

Standard Elemental Times

Standard elemental times are derived from a firm’s own historical time study data.
Procedural steps in using standard elemental times:
1. Analyze the job to identify the standard elements.
2. Check the file for elements that have historical times, and record them. Use time study
to obtain others, if necessary.
3. Modify the file times if necessary (explained below).
4. Sum the elemental times to obtain the normal time, and factor in allowances to obtain the
standard time
 Predetermined Time Standards
Predetermined time standards Published data based
on extensive research to determine standard elemental
times.
Advantages of predetermined time standards:
1. They are based on large numbers of workers under
controlled conditions.
2. The analyst is not required to rate performance in
developing the standard.
3. There is no disruption of the operation.
4. Standards can be established even before a job is
done.

Work Sampling
Work sampling is a technique for estimating the proportion of time that a worker or
machine spends on various activities and the idle time.
Work sampling is occasionally used to set time standards, its two primary uses are in (1)
ratio-delay studies, which concern the percentage of a worker’s time that involves
unavoidable delays or the proportion of time a machine is idle, and (2) analysis of
nonrepetitive jobs.
Procedural steps in work sampling:
1. Clearly identify the worker(s) or machine(s) to be studied.
2. Notify the workers and supervisors of the purpose of the study to avoid arousing
suspicions.
3. Compute an initial estimate of sample size using a preliminary estimate of p, if available
(e.g., from analyst experience or past data). Otherwise, use pˆ .50.
4. Develop a random observation schedule.
5. Begin taking observations. Recompute the required sample size several times during the
study.
6. Determine the estimated proportion of time spent on the specified activity.
Random number table Table consisting of unordered sequences of numbers, used to
determine random observation schedules.
The procedure for identifying random
times at which to make work sampling
observations involves the following
steps:

1. Determine the number of days in the

study and the number of hours per day.
This will indicate the required number
of digits for days and hours.
2. Obtain the necessary number of sets
for days, ignoring any sets that exceed
the number
of days.
3. Repeat step 2 for hours.
4. Repeat step 2 for minutes.
5. Link the days, hours, and minutes in the order they were obtained.
6. Place the observation times in chronological order.