PUMPS

Pump Performance and Characteristic Curves

james magee,
john r. mason,
& v.t. yates
Thermal Balance, Inc.

Introduction
Why won’t pump performance always
plot on a pump curve? An exhaustive
answer transcends the scope of entire
careers, let alone the limitations of a
single article; but, with respect to our
peers and predecessors in the HVAC
industry, without whose disciplined
efforts this work would be impossible,
we humbly undertake to begin a cata-
logue of causes and effects explaining
why field-installed pumps don’t always
operate at their design selection point.

Manufacturing
Pump quality translates directly to pump
efficiency. The Hydraulic Institute (HI)
standard approved by the National
Standards Institute (ANSI) entitled
ANSIJHI 1.6-1994, Centrifugal Pump
Test provides a uniform code for Figure 1: Efficiency Curves
hydrostatic, hydraulic and mechanical
testing of pumps.

The ANSI/HI test standard delineates impellers and volutes. To assure strict curve, pump characteristic curve or
two tolerance levels. Level A is intended manufacturing tolerances, specification pump curve. Pump head-capacity curves
for compliance with contract specifica- of compliance to ANSI/HI 1.6-1994, developed by manufacturers relying
tion values while Level B refers to Centrifugal Pump Tests, Level A can largely on affinity laws, one-dimensional
published performance data. Unless result in operating efficiencies close to models and empirical methods provide
specified otherwise, most pump manu- 80%. Small pumps should meet at least a general description of operation
facturers ensure Level B compliance. Level B performance criteria. The unaffected by temperature or density
ANSI/HI standard also assures an accu- variations of water (density does affect
HVAC pumps constitute the largest rate evaluation of a pump’s NPSHR. brake horsepower requirements). Figure
classification of pumps, namely, clear 2 depicts four generic pump curves.
water service. We limit our discussion to Centrifugal pumps produce energy as Fluid viscosity affects the pump curve,
centrifugal pumps of two types: volute foot pounds per pound of water, which but water in the 40°F to 400°F ranges
(or double volute) and axial flow (a.k.a. is shortened to foot head by mathemati- possesses negligible viscous variation.
diffusion-vane or turbine pump). cal term cancellation providing a simple However, heat transfer fluids (HTFs)
parameter suitable for plotting against such as ethylene glycol or propylene
Manufacturers achieve quality fluid capacity, in gallons per minute, glycol added in sufficient concentrations
production through refined casting, in a graphical representation of pump can manifest viscous effects as depicted
machining and finishing techniques for performance known as the head-capacity in Figure 3.

12 TAB Journal
 S

A - Water Curve
B - Increased Viscosity Liquid Curve
A - Steep Curve
B - Humped Curve
C - Looped Curve
D - Flat Curve
ft hd S - System Curve ft hd

D
C A
B A B

gpm gpm

Figure 2 Figure 3

In to Figure 2, four generalized where gpm = gallons per minute, Efficiency curves are superimposed on
characteristic curve shapes are: A - Steep, H = Total Differential Head in ft, many manufacturers’ published pump
B - Humped, C - Flat and D - Looped. sp. gr. = Specific Gravity of Liquid. curves to facilitate designer selection
Flatness and steepness are variously Additional power losses associated (see Fig. 1)
described as flat if no-flow head is with water friction, friction losses
approximately 1.1 times highest at the driver shaft and bearings, and Most hydronic system pumps have their
efficiency head or less than 25% head recirculation within the pump account maximum efficiency range about midway
rise exists between design point and for overall brake horsepower require- plus or minus 1/4 of the published pump
shut-off head, and steep if no-flow head ments of a given installation. Pump curve. This defines a pump’s intended
is approximately 1.2 or more times the efficiency is defined as: usage range. Designers are advised to
head at the highest efficiency point or select the duty point just to the left of
greater than 25% head rise exists WHP X 100 % the highest efficiency point, thereby pro-
between design point and shutoff. Flat PUMP EFF. = BHP viding shift allowance to the right in
curves can be problematic in that slight case the designer’s connected system
changes in head result in large gpm
changes, so flow determination utilizing
the pump curve method becomes
unreliable. Flat curved pumps operated
in conjunction with 3-way valves
associated with a closed hydronic loop
can result in system instability.

The head-capacity curve represents

power put into the water and at any
point this energy rate can be expressed
as water horsepower.

gpm X H (ft) X sp. gr.

WHP = 3960

Figure 3.5

TAB Journal 13
 water hammer condition and damage
piping. A constant volume application
for this type of pump could be excellent,
provided it is selected well beyond the
hump where efficiencies are higher.

High specific speed pumps can have a

Looped Curve characteristic (Fig. 2).
Similar problems associated with
multiple capacity possibilities for a
given head, as described above for
the Humped Curve characteristic, exist
for the Looped Curve characteristic.
Furthermore, some manufacturers
of pumps with the Looped Curve
characteristic publish only a portion
of the head-capacity curve accounting
for the right-hand portion where the
pump is to be operated. This can give
Figure 4a the impression that the pump has a
continuously rising characteristic.

It should be obvious from this discus-

sion that a continuously rising pump
characteristic depicts a desirable
attribute for pump performance. Some
pump manufacturers do not include
efficiency curves superimposed on their
published head-capacity curves. Such
data does not lend itself to detailed
design analysis and selection criteria
are seriously compromised by such
omissions. Brake horsepower curves
should also be superimposed on pub-
lished head-capacity curves. Pumps with
the nonoverloading characteristic —
pump brake horsepower never exceeds
installed motor horsepower over the
entire range of operation — represent a
preferred choice for obvious reasons.
Figure 4b
Pump manufacturers may choose to
friction loss estimate was high. Carryout Again reviewing Figure 2, consider B - test and rate their products based on
refers to a pump operating at the far Humped Curve. Notice that two distinct proprietary standards. Many companies
right of its curve, where efficiency is capacities may occur for a single head produce performance data from dynam-
poor, noise and cavitation potential reading. This allows for the possibility ometer tests which may vary from
exists, and reduced flow may occur. of system instability. If a pump with a
conditions achieved using electric motors.
Operating to the left of the most Humped Curve characteristic is selected
A lack of consistent testing standards
efficient point presents few problems for a variable speed application, the
unless the shut-off (no-flow) condition distinct possibility exists that the pump among different pump manufacturers
is approached, where heat dissipation may switch back and forth from one makes specification of ANSI/HI 1.6 1994
and axial thrust load considerations capacity to another, a situation which in important to protect the best interests of
become critical. a large pump application could cause a building designers and owners.

14 TAB Journal
Installation
Duty point refers to the HVAC
system designer’s selected design flow
condition based on calculations which
attempt to quantify system function
effects of the connected hydronic loop.
Friction losses in a hydronic piping
network represent complex dynamic
forces which may or may not be
rigorously accounted for by engineering
analysis. Duty points are the only part
of pump curves guaranteed by the
manufacturer

Figure 1 included a theoretical system

curve obtained by plotting actual system
head against actual system flow in gpm
for a uniformly loaded connection of
pump to a hydronic system. Operation Figure 5
point of a pump installed against a
hydronic load pertains to the intersection
of the system characteristic curve with Consider a tee fitting, Figure 3.5. Clearly Safety factors up to 15% may be
the pump characteristic curve. Operation the factory-fabricated fitting presents designed into HVAC closed looped
point and duty point rarely coincide superior friction loss characteristics systems, with up to 20% safety factors
exactly since an accurate engineering compared to the two field-assembled applied to condenser water systems
estimate of all friction losses associated tees. Notice how unacceptable crafts- exposed to air (cooling tower pumps).
with fabrication and installation of manship can severely impact system This practice accounts for the wide
piping and hydronic accessories is friction losses. Unfortunately, many poor popularity of discharge throttling valves
nearly impossible (Fig. 4A & 4B). practices prevail in the selection and furnished with HVAC pumps.
installation of pipe materials and
The HVAC system designer bears the fittings. No significant design data exists System characteristic curves represent
responsibility of choosing pipe size for reducing elbows, tees, welded steel the uniform hydronic load conditions of
and maximum velocity parameters for pipe, etc. Fabrication tendencies—such a given pump or pumps. For example,
hydronic networks. The designer also as thermoplastic pipe’s propensity to a hydronic system composed of 2-way
selects hydronic specialty accessories higher than expected friction losses valves serving reheat coils would have
such as expansion tanks, air separators, caused by sharper fitting radii—can different system curves for different
air vents, pressure relief valves, etc. manifest as unexpected system curve load conditions (Fig. 5). Closing 2-way
The engineer’s decision amounts to a characteristics. valves in the system increases head
compromise between design efficiency and reduces flow.
and economic restraints. The cost of Piping system friction increases
piping materials, the cost of accessories exponentially with velocity; however, Suppose a given pump selection
and the length of pipe involved all factor maximum allowable pipe velocities resulted in operating point 2 (Fig. 6)
heavily in the design selection process. increase with pipe size. Unfortunately, with significant carryout compared to
most fluid flow testing is conducted with its duty point 1. The impeller could be
Pipe and fitting friction vary significantly small pipe and extrapolated to larger pipe. removed and trimmed to 9 3/8” as
with different manufacturers and instal- shown at point three where head is
lers. The Hydraulic Institute estimates Pipe aging, variation in pipe significantly reduced. Alternatively,
roughness factor tolerances for steel manufacturing and field assembly all point 3 could be achieved by imposing
pipe in the -5 to +10% range, while require allowances during the design a pressure drop equivalent to the
listed Losses for steel and cast iron process. Hot and chilled water HVAC difference in head between point 1 and
fittings may deviate +l0 to + 50%. loops are also susceptible to dirty pipe point 3 using a discharge valve. This
Fabrication quality associated with conditions, causing increased friction latter method of lowering system flows
installation further affects friction losses. losses which will reduce system flow. is less efficient than changing the pump

TAB Journal 15
 this reason it is advisable to install
make-up water connections near the
air removal equipment.

Air in a hydronic piping system can

greatly reduce system flows. Automatic
air vents are recommended for all
points where piping runs vertically
upward just before turning downward
again. Elimination of air is vital to
a successfully functioning hydronic
system. Centrifugal pumps impart
energy on water by slapping it with
impeller vanes (impellers don’t “dig”
into water) As such, these machines
are extremely inefficient at moving air.

Air separators are employed to

mechanically separate air from water.
Figure 6 Air is then released from the system
through an air vent at the top of the
closed expansion tank. Air separators
cannot evacuate dissolved air, so
chemical pot feeders can be used to
add sodium sulfate which will free
the air for mechanical removal.

Maintaining constant system pressure

despite expansion and contraction of
water due to temperature fluctuations
represents the role of the expansion
tank. For closed looped HVAC systems
these are typically closed expansion
tanks called compression tanks.
Sometimes compression tanks become
waterlogged, which means they lose
their compressed air charge and cannot
act as a cushion spring to absorb system
volume changes. Such a condition is
marked by high system pressure or
Figure 7 radically fluctuating system pressure.
Pump readings of a waterlogged system
impeller. On pumps with wide impeller usually doesn’t plot on the pump curve do not represent system performance.
diameter ranges, changing impeller since horsepower lines decrease with
diameters can greatly reduce efficiency reduced flow. Pump volute casings Clogged start-up or permanent pump
(Fig. 7). are often marked with correct rotation strainers can be detrimental to system
arrows. Close examination of volute flow. Start-up strainers should always be
Fundamental hydronic operation inlet and outlet geometry can reveal removed after they have served sufficient
principles can often explain gross pump the proper rotation direction. time to eliminate most of the installation
performance discrepancies. Incorrect debris in the hydronic system.
pump rotation produces increased Water possesses an inherent affinity
turbulence, reduced flow and unexpect- for air. Water passing through pumps Pressure gauge connections for pumps
edly high brake horsepower. Reverse experiences increased pressure which should be at the inlet and outlet flanges.
rotating pump power consumption enhances its ability to entrain air. For Any pipe, fitting, valve, abrupt

16 TAB Journal
enlargement or elbow between a gauge than with discharge valve throttling. scenario in Figure 12. With the variable
and the pump source it is measuring Below 45% of the selected duty point, speed pump running at point A, the
will necessitate correction of the reading speed pump performance becomes a system load increases until it reaches
to account for pressure losses associated variable and manufacturers do not point B, where the variable speed pump
with those components. If gauge heights certify operation in this condition. reaches 100% speed. When the system
differ, this distance must be converted to load increases to point C, the variable
feet and added to the pressure reading of The theories behind parallel and speed pump can no longer meet the load
the highest gauge. series pump operation are well known. demand so the constant speed pump is
Misapplication of the principles energized and it operates at point D2,
Design Application demonstrated in Figures 9 and 10 forcing the variable speed pump to
usually involves a failure to recognize operate at point D1. As mentioned
Variable speed pumping constitutes a the influence of the system curve on before, near no-f1ow operation of a
revolutionary change in pumping design pump operation. Also, the designer must pump produces heat and axial thrust
application. This electronic technology, account for the phenomenon that one loads detrimental to safe service.
combined with direct digital controls pump running individually operates Contrast this situation with the efficient
and pressure transmitters, provides a at a different point than when it runs running of two equivalent variable
wide range of design options. Figure 8 in combination with a second pump. speed pumps at point D3. Notice from
presents a comparison of head capacity the preceding example the importance
curves for variable speed and constant Caution must be exercised if one of designers evaluating not only the
speed pumps. Flat versus steep curves attempts to operate pumps in parallel maximum design conditions of a
is not an issue concerning variable that have different head - capacity system, but also the minimum design
speed pumping. The important criteria curves (Fig. 11). This arrangement can conditions - these represent two critical
is efficiency, the intent of which is to result in the pump with the lower head design points.
select along the parabolic curve of best condition operating near shutoff, which
efficiency over the operational speed can produce high axial thrust loads and Flowmeters installed in HVAC hydronic
range. While the selection analysis for heating capable of damaging the pump systems can contradict information
variable speed pumps is complicated, (the A curve in Fig. 11). This condition derived from pump curves. While
involving efficiency evaluation of the can exist whenever two pumps operate flowmeters provide an excellent means
motor, variable frequency drive (VFD) simultaneously with one pump below by which to verify flow conditions,
and the pump itself, the specific 62% capacity. widespread misapplication of these
selection point is not as critical. devices exists.
Pumps in parallel should operate at the
Variable speed pumping eliminates the same speed (preferably within 1% of Often the calibration of flowmeters
need for 3-way valves and inefficient each other). Operating a constant speed comes into question. They should never
discharge throttling valves by offering a pump in parallel with a variable speed be calibrated against pump curve results
range of operation adjustable to changes pump can result in disaster. Rishel since manufacturers only certify single
in system loading. For example, with provides a graphic example of this points on their curve. Pump curves
constant volume pumping, 3-way
valves were often used to bypass water
at individual elements under low load
to prevent buildup of excessive system
pressure. With variable speed pumping,
2-way valves can be employed since
system pressurization can be maintained
through modulation of motor rpm by the
VFD through DDC controls.

The duty point for variable speed pumps

can be selected to the right of the most
efficient point since carryout can be
compensated for by operating at slower
speeds. Likewise, overestimation of
piping system losses can be corrected
more efficiently with speed variation Figure 8: Variable Speed - Constant Speed

TAB Journal 17
 Series Pump
Curve
Single Pump Curve
Single Pump ft hd
ft hd Curve 1
Point of Operation
One Pump Running
Operating Point of Each Pump System 1 2 Point of Operation
System 3 Curve One Pump Running
Curve When Both are Running
2 3

gpm
gpm

Figure 9: Single Pump Operation - Series Installation Figure 10: Single Pump Operation - Paralleled Installation

generated by dynamometer testing the volute. Net Positive Suction Head 3. Speeds above manufacturer’s
may not represent conditions with an Required (NPSHR) quantifies this required recommendation.
installed induction motor. Installed gravitational push. NPSHR for a specific 4. Liquid temperatures (vapor
motor speed may differ from pump pump is determined by the manufacturer pressures) higher than that for
nameplate speed. Therefore, to reliably and should be superimposed on the which the system was designed.
calibrate a flowmeter, some means pump’s published characteristic curve.
independent of the pump readings The actual suction pressure a pump Cavitation is associated with higher
should be employed. experiences at its installation is called Net temperature flow and generally not a
Positive Suction Head Available (NPSHA) concern in cold water applications. One
Cavitation refers to the vaporization of and can be calculated as: common error leading to cavitation in
water inside a pump forming bubbles cooling tower application results from
which implode violently against the inner NPSHA = Pa ± Hs + Hv - Hvp failing to calculate NPSHA for the
volute. This occurs when the fluid pressure maximum possible water temperature in
within the pump is less than the vapor Where Pa = atmospheric pressure (from the tower. Centrifugal pumps are usually
pressure. Cavitation causes noise, reduced altitude table); limited to a total suction side pressure
flow, pitting, erosion and other mechanical Hs = gauge pressure or vacuum at the drop of 15 feet when used with their
problems. Most centrifugal pumps cannot suction flange and corrected to the pump published capacity curves. Therefore, in
suck water into their casings, but must rely centerline; applications pulling from lower tanks,
on the forces of gravity to push water into Hv = velocity head (from velocity table) NPSHA must be carefully evaluated.
at the point of measurement of Hs; Open water systems also require detailed
Hvp - absolute vapor pressure of the examination. To provide some safety
liquid at the pumping temperature (from margins, many sources recommend the
steam tables). following basis to avoid cavitation:
B
Cavitation is avoided for the conditions NPSHA ≥ NPSHR + 2 ft.
A where:
%H
A+B Heat Transfer Fluids (HTF) added to
NPSHA ≥ NPSHR water systems change the circulating
fluid’s viscosity, and this effect must be
Four conditions can lead to cavitation: corrected for. Propylene-glycol solutions
1. Discharge head far below a pump’s of 50% or greater concentration used in
%Q
head at peak efficiency. wide temperature range applications can
2. Suction lift higher or suction head reveal these effects. For example, pipe
Figure 11: Two Different Pumps in lower than manufacturer’s friction losses change 77% between
Parallel recommendation. 30°F and 130°F for this solution. Many

18 TAB Journal
 be applied directly to pump performance
of a connected system because the
pump’s performance point changes
along the head-capacity curve as the
system load varies. Imagine a pump
designed to operate at 500 gpm and
50 ft. hd. To determine the point on
its head-capacity that best approaches
this condition, two affinity laws
would be applied:

Q1 = D1 and H1 = D12
Q2 D2 H2 D22

Substituting the second equation into

the first results in:
H1
Q1 = Q2 H2

Solving this equation for a best fit by

trial and error would result in the point
Figure 12: A - Inefficient operation with one variable speed pump and one constant 1 on our curve (Fig. 13), or 561 gpm
speed pump. B - Efficient operation with two variable speed pumps. at 63 ft. To calculate the impeller
which could achieve 500 gpm, a
formulas used in calculating pipe depending on the number of pumps direct application of affinity law now
friction losses do not accommodate serving a header at a given time. Also, yields 561/600 x 10 = 9.35”
fluctuations in density or specific header accessories like flanges, suction
gravity. For example, C factors used in diffusers, discharge increasers, butterfly Applying affinity laws initially by just
the Williams-Hazen formulas work well valves and check valves all add friction dividing flows would have resulted in
for cool or chilled water, but are totally losses which may or may not be accounted 500/600 x 10 = 8.33” (an undercut
inaccurate for hot water applications. for in the hydronic loop design. impeller).

Pumps operating together through Misapplication of pump affinity laws Conclusion

headers can experience friction losses occurs occasionally in the design of
not accounted for by the piping system hydronic systems. These laws apply While HVAC designers and equipment
calculations. Header losses differ only to pump performance and cannot manufacturers select and certify a single
duty point design, the pump operation
point depends on the intersection of the
hydronic system curve with the pump
head-capacity curve. Duty point and
operation point seldom agree exactly
due both to difficulties associated with
accurately calculating hydronic system
friction losses and a pump’s dependence
on system loading. Multiple fabrication,
installation, and engineering effects
combine to further complicate matters.
Experience and design understanding
remain our most important resources
for diagnosing and solving pumping
problems.

Figure 13 A&B: A - Uniform system head curve and calculation of pump

operating point. B - Uniform system head curve and percent
horsepower curve.

TAB Journal 19