A Mini Project Report

On
DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF THREE-PHASE INDUCTION
MOTOR BASED ON CONSTANT VOLTAGE PER FREQUENCY
CONTROL WITH SIMPLE CONTROLLER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirement for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

From

JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

HYDERABAD
By

M.PREM KUMAR (19C15A0233)

Under the Esteemed guidance of

Mr. M.SRINU M.Tech
Assistant Professor

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

ANURAG ENGINEERING COLLEGE

AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION
(Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
ANANTHAGIRI (M), SURYAPET (DT), T.S, INDIA -508206
www.anurag.ac.in
2021-2022
 ANURAG ENGINEERING COLLEGE
AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTION
(Accredited by NBA, New Delhi & Approved by AICTE, New Delhi & Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
ANANTHAGIRI (M), SURYAPET (DT), T.S, INDIA -508206
www.anurag.ac.in

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL OF THREE-
PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR BASED ON CONSTANT VOLTAGE PER FREQUENCY
CONTROL WITH SIMPLE CONTROLLER” is a bonafide work done by M.PREM
KUMAR (19C15A0233) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and Electronics Engineering from JNTU, Hyderabad
during the academic year
2021-2022.

Mr.M.SRINU Mr.S.CHANDRA SHEKAR

M.Tech M.Tech (PhD)
Assistant Professor Associative Professor
Project Guide Head of the department

EXTERNAL EXAMINAR Dr.M.V.SIVA PRASAD

B.E, M.Tech, PhD, MISTE
Principal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincere acknowledgment to my project guide Mr.M.SRINU,

Assistant professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his kind co-
operation and encouragement, which help us in completion of this project. It would have been
very difficult to complete this project without the enthusiastic support, encouragement and
insight advice given by him.

It is my privilege to thank all Project Review Committee members for their continuous
guidance and monitoring

Also I would like to express my sincere thanks to Mr.S.CHANDRA SHEKAR,

Associative professor & Head of the department, Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for his
support and valuable suggestions for the completion my project.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to our Principal Dr.M.V.SIVA PRASAD, for
giving permission and his constant motivation towards higher education and research.

I am indebted to the computer support group and library of my college for giving us
access to the software and books required for this project.

Finally, I wish to thanks my parents and friends for their help and encouragement during the
project work.

Thank you

M.PREM KUMAR (19C15A0233)

Direct Torque Control of Three-Phase Induction
Motor based on Constant Voltage per Frequency
Control with Simple Controller
 CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NO
ABSTRACT i
LIST OF FIGURES ii
LIST OF TABLES iii
LIST OF TABLES vi

Chapter-1
INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………… (1-3)

Chapter-2
DIFFERENTCONTROLSTRATEGY…………….…………………….... (4-9)
2.1Direct torque control………………………………………………………..4

2.1.1. DTC control platform……….……...………………………..………….4

2.3 Impact of poor power quality…………………………………….………4

2.3.1 Customer side……………………..…………………….………5

2.3.2 Utility side……………………………………………………….5

2.4 Power quality problems…………………………………………………..5

2.5 Voltage sag and swell…………………………………………………….7

2.6 Solutions to power quality problems……………………………………..8

Chapter-3
DYNAMIC VOLTAGE RESTORER…..…………………….. (10-19)
3.1 Introduction………………………………………….…………………..10

3.2 Principles of DVR operation……………….……………………………10

3.3 Operating modes of DVR…….…………………………………….……11

3.3.1 Protection mode/bypass mode………….…………….…….…12

3.3.2 Standby mode………….………………………………….…..12

3.3.3 Active/injection/boost mode………………………………….13

3.4 Voltage injection methods………………..………….….……………….13

3.4.1 Pre-sag/DIP compensation method.…………….……..……..13

3.4.2 In phase compensation method………………………………..14

3.4.3 In phase advanced compensation method………….…………..15

3.5 Implementation of DVR………….……………………………………….15

3.5.1 Detection and control block………..………………………….16

3.5.2 Voltage source converter…….………..………………………16

3.5.3 Storage devices………………………………………………..17

3.5.4 Harmonic filter…………...……………………………………17

3.5.5Injection/booster transformer…..………………………………17

3.6 Proposed control scheme for DVR……………………….……………….18

Chapter-4
MODULATING TECHNIQUES FUSED FOR DVR…..………. (20-36)
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………..20

4.2 Sinusoidal pulse width modulator………..………………………………..20

4.3 Space vector pulse width modulator………….……………………………23

 4.3.1 Basic two level inverter……………………………………….…23

4.3.2 Principles of space vector pulse width modulator…………….…24

4.3.3 Implementation of SVPWM……………………………………..27

4.4 Comparison between space width modulator and space vector pulse

width modulator………………………..…………………….36

Chapter-5
CASE STUDY AND RESULTS….…………………………... .(37-52)
5.1 Introduction……….………………………………………………………37

5.2 Simulink diagram for proposed control system and DVR………………..39

5.3 Simulink diagram for sinusoidal pulse width modulator….……………..39

5.4 Simulink diagram for space vector pulse width modulator……………....40

5.5 Parameters of the system…………..……………………………………..43

5.6 Results using sinusoidal pulse width modulator technique…………...….44

5.7 Results using SVPWM technique………………………………………..46

5.8 Comparative study………………………………….……………………..49

Chapter-6
CONCLUSIONS & SCOPE OF FUTURE WORK………………..………....53

REFERENCES……………………………………………………..54
PLAGIARISM REPORT
PUBLISHED PAPER
Direct Torque Control of Three-Phase Induction
Motor based on Constant Voltage per Frequency
Control with Simple Controller
Abstract
Direct torque control of three-phase induction motor based on constant voltage per frequency
control preserves the conventional direct torque control transient merits, furthermore, produces
better quality steady-state performance in a wide speed range. In this paper, the simple controller
is introduced to substitute the original PI controller for speed, torque and stator flux magnitude
control. The concept of proposed controller adapts from the concept of variable step size
maximum power point tracking for photovoltaic system. The simulation results have confirmed
the validity of the proposed controller as well as shown good dynamic and steady-state responses
of this control system.
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Three-phase induction motors have been widely used as variable speed drives in the industry
because of their low cost, reliability, efficiency, robustness and low maintenance, although, they
are multivariable, nonlinear and strongly coupled. There are two most popular control methods
for high performance variable speed drive applications of induction motors: field-oriented
control (FOC) and direct torque control (DTC) .Both control techniques can control flux and
torque independently, and provide good torque response in steady-state and transient conditions.
DTC is more attractive than FOC in simple control structure, robustness against rotor parameters
variation, quick torque response and lower computational burden aspects. Furthermore, it does
not require coordinate transformation and any current regulators. However, it produces high
torque and flux ripples and variable switching frequency due to usage of nonlinear hysteresis
comparators and look-up table for voltage vector selection. Several techniques have been
introduced to overcome these drawbacks such as DTC based on space vector modulation (DTC-
SVM), duty ratio control method, model predictive torque control (MPTC), etc. Direct torque
control based on constant voltage per frequency (V/F) control is another method for control
three-phase induction motor.

This control technique uses torque and stator flux magnitude errors to generate the stator
voltage magnitude and phase angle references based on V/F control method. The flux and torque
are controlled independently and coordinate transformation and current regulators are not
required in this control method. Its control structure is simple and similar to the conventional
DTC. The PI controllers and SVM technique are used instead of hysteresis comparators and
look-up table, respectively. As a result, the torque and flux ripples are reduced and the switching
frequency is constant while transient merits of the conventional DTC are still conserved.
Although PI controller has simple structure and is the most widely employed solution, it has to
be tuned to obtain the satisfactory responses when any disturbances occur in the control system.
Unfortunately, this control strategy utilizes three PI controllers for speed, torque and stator flux
magnitude control. The tuning of these controller gains is not easy task and wastes considerable
time. This paper presents the simple controller for direct torque control based on constant V/F
control.

The variable step size algorithm, which only uses one parameter to adjust duty cycle for
finding maximum power point of output power versus duty cycle curve in photovoltaic system,
is adapted to find the minimum point of curve between absolute error and control signal. As a
result, the number of controller gains is decreased to half when compared with the PI controller.
Moreover, the algorithm of the proposed controller is simple. Hence, the computational burden is
reduced. The simulation results verify the validity of the proposed controller as well as show
good dynamic and steady-state responses of this control system.

LITERATURE SURVEY:
1) A new quick-response and high efficiency control strategy of an induction motor:
New quick-response and high-efficiency control of an induction motor, which is quite different
from that of the field-oriented control is proposed. The most obvious differences between the
two are as follows. 1) The proposed scheme is based on limit cycle control of both flux and
torque using optimum PWM output voltage; a switching table is employed for selecting the
optimum inverter output voltage vectors so as to attain as fast a torque response, as low an
inverter switching frequency, and as low harmonic losses as possible. 2) The efficiency
optimization in the steady-state operation is also considered; it can be achieved by controlling the
amplitude of the flux in accordance with the torque command. To verify the feasibility of this
scheme, experimentation, simulation, and comparison with field-oriented control are carried out.
The results prove the excellent characteristics for torque response and efficiency, which confirm
the validity of this control scheme.

ACCORDING to the advance of factory automation, servo systems became indispensable

to applications such as industrial robots and numerically controlled machinery. Especially the
progress of an ac-servo system is remarkable, owing to the fact that it is maintenance-free. In
recent years, field oriented control has been employed that enables an induction motor to attain
as quick torque response as a dc motor. The principle of its torque generation is based on the
interaction between the flux and current, like a dc motor [1]. Fig. 1(a) is a system configuration
of a typical field-orientation drive. In this system the flux current component I* and the torque
current component I* are estimated from both flux command 2 and torque command T* by using
a calculator possessing motor parameters. The system usually employs a position sensor for
coordinate transformation of the current components and a current-controlled inverter. Therefore,
if the values used in the calculator deviate from the correct ones, both steady-state and transient
response would be degraded. A number of papers have reported the problem and have explored
the means of compensation [2]-[4]. There also remain some problems concerning instantaneous
current control. Since the current-controlled inverter contains three independent hysteresis
comparators, it is difficult to avoid increase of the inverter switching frequency, torque ripple,
and harmonic losses of the machine in the steady-state operation. Moreover, when the PWM
inverter saturates, sufficient torque response would not be expected. This paper describes a novel
control scheme of an induction motor [5]. The principle of it is based on limit cycle control, and
it makes possible both quick torque response and high efficiency operation at the same time. Fig.
1(b) shows a system configuration of the proposed scheme. In this system, the instantaneous
values of the flux and torque are calculated from only the primary variables. They can be
controlled directly and independently by selecting optimum inverter switching modes. The
selection is made so as to restrict the errors of the flux and torque within the hysteresis bands and
to obtain the fastest torque response and highest efficiency at every instant. It enables both quick
torque response in the transient operation and reduction of the harmonic losses and acoustic
noise. Moreover, the implementation of an efficiency controller for the improvement of
efficiency in the steady-state operation is also considered.
Novel induction motor control optimizing both torque response and efficiency is proposed. The
control is quite different from the usual field-oriented control because it depends on the concept
of the instantaneous slip frequency control, in spite of the electromagnetic force. In other words,
the former is to Arago's law as the latter is to Fleming's law. Through the experimental and
simulation techniques, the validity of the proposed theory can be proven. The main results
obtained in this paper are as follows.
1) In the transient state, the highest torque response can be obtained by selecting the fastest
accelerating voltage vector to produce the maximum slip frequency.
2) In steady state, by selecting the accelerating vector and the zero voltage vector alternately, the
torque can be maintained constant with small switching frequency by the hysteresis comparator
of torque. Accordingly, the harmonic losses and the acoustic noise level of the motor can be
reduced.
3) The amplitude of the primary flux is also controlled to attain the maximum efficiency in
steady-state operation. The flux level can be automatically adjusted to get the optimum
efficiency in the steady state and the highest torque response in the transient state at the same
time by using a nonlinear active filter.
4) At extremely low frequency operation, the proposed control circuit makes some drift, but can
be compensated easily and automatically to minimize the effect of the variation of the machine
constants. The proposed scheme is found to be very promising and valuable as compared to
field-oriented control. All results show that the scheme is superior in every respect to field
oriented control.
2) A brief review on torque control of induction motor:

In this paper a brief review on different torque control methods of induction motor are
discussed. Induction motor nowadays has become an interesting area in the field of industrial
drives. The different control strategies are implemented in order to reduce the torque, flux,
current and speed ripple. The different control methods are direct torque control (DTC), DTC --
SVM (DTC-Space Vector Modulation) and Model Predictive Control (MPC).

AC Induction Motors (IM) are generally used as industrial drive because they are simple
in construction, robustness, more efficient, easy to use and less expensive. The torque
linearization in separately-excited DC machine acquired easily due to independent control of flux
and torque. For medium and high power motor drives the induction motors more suitable than
DC motors. But it is highly nonlinear. Therefore, different control algorithms are developed to
decouple and liberalize the control of these machines. The control methods of induction motor
are classified into Scalar control and Vector control. Scalar control scheme: The amplitude and
frequency of the supply voltage are varied to control the speed of IM when operating in the
steady state. The scalar-controlled drive is very easy to implement but the disadvantage is the
inferior performance of the drive, lower ‘low speed ‘speed accuracy and poor torque response.
Vector control scheme: The IM motor can operate both in the Steady state and Transient state.
Vector control made independent control of flux and torque of the ac drives like DC drives. The
major disadvantages are sensitive to rotor time constant and erroneous flux measurement or
estimation at lower speeds. For the implementation of vector control the instantaneous rotor
position or field angle is required. The vector control methods are classified in to direct torque
control (DTC), DTC --SVM (DTC-Space Vector Modulation) and Model Predictive Control
(MPC). This paper presents the different vector control methods of Induction motor and its
comparative study.
The vector control of induction motor is based on torque and flux producing components
of currents and the selection of reference frame. Instead of a three phase current modeling, the
induction motor can be modeled using two quadrature components; Direct current (id) and
Quadrature current (iq), where id is proportional to the torque producing component and iq is
proportional to the flux producing component. The concept of reference frame is to convert a
sinusoidal quantity in one reference frame to a constant value in a reference frame which also has
the same rotating frequency. It is done by using traditional Proportional Integral (PI) Controller.
Algorithm.
Field Oriented Control (FOC) In this method space vector modulation has been
implemented according to the two-phase modulation technique. The current regulator and PI
controller are used for the selection of gate signal. The basic block diagram is given in figure1.

Direct torque control (DTC) The basic DTC is shown in figure 2.In this method, the torque error
and flux error are the input to the three level and two level hysteresis comparator respectively.
 DTC-SVM In this method, space vector modulation technique is used to generate the
desired voltage vector to reduce torque and current ripples. This control algorithm use more
number of voltage vectors within a cycle period and therefore more accurate and complex
switching table is needed for the selection of voltage vector. In DTC, no active vector is
available between two sectors, thereby causing distortion in stator current and hexagonal stator
flux trajectory. The block diagram of DTC-SVM is shown in figure 3.
 Model Predictive Torque Control: The predictive control predicts the changes in the
dependent variable of the modeled system that will be caused by the change in the independent
variable. The predictive control techniques classified in to dead beat control, hysteresis and
trajectory based control and model predictive control. The Dead beat control makes the error
signal to zero in the next sampling instant .The main disadvantage of dead beat control is that it
requires a modulator and constraints, but cannot be directly included in the design. In hysteresis
and trajectory based control, the optimization criteria is used to keep the control variables within
the band. The block diagram of model predictive control is shown in figure 5. This control
method combines the use of PI control and the predictive model of the system for the
improvement of both steady state and dynamic response of the system.

In this method, outer speed controller is the same as FOC, but the inner loop is replaced
by model predictive control algorithm. This algorithm includes flux estimation, flux and torque
prediction and cost function n optimization. The cost function optimization based on torque and
flux error and the voltage vector minimizing the cost function is taken as the best voltage vector
for the switching of inverter.

The paper presents a brief discussion on basic torque control methods of Induction
Motor. Fundamental concepts including the pros and cons of each technique have been
discussed. From the comparison analysis it is noted that MPC with low complexity to achieve the
torque ripple reduction in Induction Motor.
3) Direct torque control method for induction motor drives based on modified
amplitude and angle decoupled control of stator flux:
In this paper, a simple and effective algorithm for direct torque and flux control three phase
induction motor drive is proposed. In this method, control technique is based on decouple
between amplitude and angle of reference stator flux for determining required stator voltage
vector. This proposed method eliminates the estimation of stator flux angle to generate stator
voltage vector with constant switching frequency. Within given sampling time, flux as well as
torque errors are controlled by stator voltage vector which is evaluated from reference stator
flux. The direct torque control is achieved by reference stator flux angle which is generated from
instantaneous rotor angle and slip angle. The amplitude of the reference stator flux is kept
constant at rated value. Simulation results for 3 hp induction motor drive for both the proposed
algorithm and conventional techniques are presented and compared. The simulation results show
that the proposed strategy has many advantages such as reduced torque ripple, nearly sinusoidal
stator current.

IN high dynamic performance instantaneous electromagnetic torque control applications

for induction motor drives, there are basically two types of popular control strategies: vector
control and direct torque control(DTC) [1].Both control techniques can decouple the flux and
torque producing components, and provide good torque response in transient and steady state
operation [2]. Unlike vector control, DTC does not require any current regulators and coordinate
transformation. The operating principle of DTC is simple and it controls flux and torque directly
based on their instantaneous errors [3]. In addition, DTC has less parameter sensitivity. The
operation of the conventional DTC is simple but it produces high ripple in torque due to the non-
linear hysteresis controllers. The switching frequency of conventional DTC is not constant and
also only one voltage space vector is applied for the entire sampling period. Hence even when
small error exits, the motor torque may exceed the upper/lower torque limit [4]. In order to
overcome the problem, the SVM-DTC method was proposed [5]. By applying space vector
modulation technique in DTC, the sampling frequency is maintained constantly and the torque
ripple is reduced with low switching losses. This paper introduces an algorithm for decouple
between the amplitude and angle of reference stator flux and also presents the algorithm for flux
estimation. The conventional and proposed DTC simulation results are presented and compared.
Simulation shows that torque, flux linkage, and stator current ripple are decreased with the
proposed DTC.
 In this paper, an effective algorithm is presented for direct torque and flux control of
three phase induction motor drives. In this technique, stator flux angle is not required to evaluate
the reference voltage vector. Using MATLAB/SIMULINK the simulation of proposed and
conventional techniques are carried out for DTC of 3hp three phase induction motor. From
simulation results, proposed technique concludes that stator current, flux linkage and torque
ripples are lesser than conventional technique.
4) Simulation and analysis of variable step size P&O MPPT algorithm for photovoltaic
power control:
The Maximum Power point Tracking Controller (MPPT) is an essential part of the
photovoltaic (PV) system, it is used to extract the maximum power from the photovoltaic solar
module and transfer that power to the load. Several MPPT techniques have been proposed in the
literature. One of the most commonly used techniques is the perturb and observe algorithm
(P&O), due to its low cost and simple implementation, but it suffers from the slow tracking
speed for small step of perturbation and oscillations around the maximum power point (MPP)
when it is subjected to a large step. In this article, the P&O algorithm with a variable step size
(VS_P&O) is simulated by the PSIM software, analyzed and compared with the fixed step size
P&O technique (FS_P&O). These two techniques are also simulated with and without
proportional integrator corrector (PI corrector). The results show the good tracking, the high
efficiency and precision of the VS_P&O technique using the PI corrector.
 Photovoltaic production systems have two big problems: the first one is the efficiency of
electric power generation which is very low, especially in places with low solar irradiation; the
second problem is the amount of electrical energy generated by the solar panels which is still
strongly linked to the evolution of weather conditions. Therefore, to obtain maximum output
power in real time, the maximum power point tracking (MPPT) becomes essential for PV
generation systems [1,2]. Various researches are conducted and many articles have been
published and have suggested different methods to extract the maximum power. P&O MPPT
method is the most widely used for controlling solar energy [3]. A drawback of this method is
that, at steady state, the operating point oscillates around the MPP giving rise to the waste of
some amount of available energy; moreover, it is well known that the P&O algorithm can be
confused during those time intervals characterized by rapidly changing atmospheric conditions
[4]. In order to limit the negative effects associated to the above drawbacks, a variable step size
P&O MPPT technique with PI corrector has been proposed [5,6]. In this paper FS_P&O
technique with large and small step size are simulated, also a VS_P&O MPPT algorithm has
been simulated and compared with the conventional FS_P&O technique to verify that it reaches
to the maximum power much faster than the conventional P&O. The simulation has been
accomplished using PSIM software.
 PV CONVERSION CHAIN As illustrated by the PV conversion chain of Fig. 1, the
achievement of the MPP is ensured by controlling the DC-DC converter with a system
employing an MPPT control algorithm, which optimizes the transfer of power from the PV panel
to the load [7]. The PV panel under test, shown in Fig. 1 is of the Solarex MSX-60 type. Table 1
summarizes the electrical characteristics of this PV panel under the Standard Test Conditions
(STC: 1000 W / m2 and 25 ° C). The electrical characteristic P-V of a PV panel is not-linear and
has a maximum power point (MPP), which varies as a function of temperature and solar
irradiation [8] as shown in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3.

DC-DC BUCK CONVERTER: A DC-DC converter is inserted between the load and the PV
generator as an adaptation interface. The duty cycle of the DCDC converter is controlled by an
MPPT control [7,9]. The model that we have chosen in our study is a buck converter shown in
Fig. 4.
 MPPT METHOD: The Perturb and observe method is mainly used in PV systems for
tracking of the MPP due to its simple implementation, high reliability, and tracking efficiency.
The flowchart of this algorithm can be seen on Fig. 5. The current power P(t) is calculated with
the current values of the voltage V(t) and the current I(t) and compared with the previous value
of power P(t-1). The maximum power is obtained when ΔP is equal to zero, but when the power
increases, it can keep the next change of voltage in the same direction as the previous change.
Otherwise, change the voltage in the opposite direction of the previous [10]. The large step size
perturbation of P&O technique offers a fast response but has a noticeable fluctuation around the
MPP of a photovoltaic module. On the other hand, the small step size gives a slower tracking
speed at the start of the operation, but leads to a smoother perturbation [5,11]. To remedy these
disadvantages an alternative method is developed based on the use of a variable step size, which
change value with changing of dP value that reflects the variation in atmospheric conditions.
 To have the best power transfer between the photovoltaic panel and the load, a VS_P&O
algorithm is developed and analyzed under PSIM software. The VS_P&O MPPT algorithm
forces the PV panel to work at its Maximum Power Point, resulting in an overall improvement in
the efficiency of the electrical conversion system compared to that working with a fixed step
size. Although the results of simulations of the VS_P&O method are satisfactory, the addition of
the PI controller has considerably improved the efficiency of the system, by increasing the search
speed of the PPM.
5) FOC and DTC: two viable schemes for induction motors torque control:
Field-oriented control and direct torque control are becoming the industrial standards for
induction motors torque control. This paper is aimed to give a contribution for a detailed
comparison between the two control techniques, emphasizing advantages and disadvantages. The
performance of the two control schemes is evaluated in terms of torque and current ripple, and
transient response to step variations of the torque command. The analysis has been carried out on
the basis of the results obtained by numerical simulations, where secondary effects introduced by
hardware implementation are not present.
ALMOST 30 years ago, in 1971 F. Blaschke [1] presented the first paper on field-
oriented control (FOC) for induction motors. Since that time, the technique was completely
developed and today is mature from the industrial point of view. Today field oriented controlled
drives are an industrial reality and are available on the market by several producers and with
different solutions and performance [2]–[19]. Thirteen years later, a new technique for the torque
control of induction motors was developed and presented by I. Takahashi as direct torque control
(DTC) [20]–[22], and by M. Depenbrock as direct self control (DSC) [23]–[25]. Since the
beginning, the new technique was characterized by simplicity, good performance and robustness
[20]–[31]. Using DTC or DSC it is possible to obtain a good dynamic control of the torque
without any mechanical transducers on the machine shaft. Thus, DTC and DSC can be
considered as “sensorless type” control techniques. The basic scheme of DSC is preferable in the
high power range applications, where a lower inverter switching frequency can justify higher
current distortion. In this paper, the attention will be mainly focused on the basic DTC scheme,
which is more suitable in the small and medium power range applications. Several papers have
been published on FOC and DTC in the last 30 years, but only few of them was aimed to
emphasize differences, advantages and disadvantages.
The name direct torque control is derived by the fact that, on the basis of the errors
between the reference and the estimated values of torque and flux, it is possible to directly
control the inverter states in order to reduce the torque and flux errors within the prefixed band
limits. Unlike FOC, DTC does not require any current regulator, coordinate transformation and
PWM signals generator (as a consequence timers are not required). In spite of its simplicity,
DTC allows a good torque control in steady-state and transient operating conditions to be
obtained. The problem is to quantify how good the torque control is with respect to FOC. In
addition, this controller is very little sensible to the parameters detuning in comparison with
FOC. On the other hand, it is well known that DTC presents some disadvantages that can be
summarized in the following points: 1) difficulty to control torque and flux at very low speed; 2)
high current and torque ripple; 3) variable switching frequency behavior; 4) high noise level at
low speed; 5) lack of direct current control. Thus, on the basis of the experience of the authors,
the aim of this paper is to give a fair comparison between the two techniques (FOC and DTC) in
both steady-state and transient operating conditions. The comparison is useful to indicate to the
users which one of the two schemes can be efficiently employed in the various applications that
today require torque control.
In the last five years, many researchers have been carried out to try to solve the above
mentioned problems of DTC scheme [26]–[44]. In particular the following solutions have been
developed: 1) use of improved switching tables [29]–[32]; 2) use of comparators with and
without hysteresis, at two or three levels, 3) implementation of DTC schemes for constant
switching frequency operation with PWM or SVM techniques [33]–[39]; 4) introduction of fuzzy
or neuro-fuzzy techniques, 5) use of sophisticated flux estimators to improve the low speed
behavior. All these contributions allow the DTC performance to be improved, but at the same
time they lead to more complex schemes. Analyzing these works in details it appears that one of
the basic features of DTC scheme at least is lost. So, a crucial question is to establish which one
of these new schemes might be included in “DTC family.” It is then necessary to propose, first of
all, an answer to the last question and to clarify which control scheme can be considered as DTC
scheme and which one has to be classified in different way. Because the DTC technique is
intrinsically sensorless, the authors feel that it is more suitable for the comparison to consider a
direct field oriented control (DFOC) scheme, instead of a general FOC scheme. Starting from
this basis, the DTC scheme is characterized (in comparison with the DFOC) by the absence of:
1) PI regulators; 2) coordinate transformations; 3) current regulators; 4) PWM signals generators
(no timers). So, only the control schemes, which meet all these requirements, should be
considered as real DTC schemes. According to these considerations, the analysis is carried out
with reference to a basic DTC scheme characterized by the above mentioned features. Some
criteria to evaluate the performance of DFOC and DTC are proposed in this paper. They are used
to compare the two control schemes in both steady-state and transient operating conditions. With
reference to steady-state operating conditions, the current and torque ripple evaluated for
different values of speed and torque will be analyzed.
With reference to transient operating conditions, the time response to a step variation of
the torque command will be analyzed at different rotor speeds.Furthermore, some comments will
be presented with reference to flux level changes and lowspeed operation of DTC scheme. In
order to fairly compare the two solutions, the following conditions have been considered as
constraints: 1) the same DSP board for implementing DFOC and DTC schemes; 2) the same
average switching frequency of the inverter. Related to this last point, the authors think that the
comparison carried out with the same cycle period is not fair enough. This because the same
cycle period does not allow a suitable use of the basic characteristics of DTC scheme, which are:
easy implementation and reduced calculation time with respect to DFOC. The same average
switching frequency for the two schemes can be obtained varying the amplitude of the hysteresis
bands in DTC scheme.

Steady-State Performance: The steady-state performance of DFOC and DTC schemes

has been compared evaluating the three-phase rms current ripple in different operating
conditions. The results obtained using DFOC and DTC schemes are summarized in Tables III
and IV, respectively. The considered operating conditions are related to rotor speed values of
100%, 50%, and 10% of the rated value, and torque values of 100%, 50%, and 0% of the rated
value. As it is possible to see, in all the operating conditions the behavior of DFOC scheme is
characterized by lower values of the three-phase rms current ripple with respect to the DTC
scheme. The torque, the stator current waveform and the stator current harmonic spectrum
obtained with DFOC scheme are shown in Fig. 7(a)–(c), respectively. The rotor speed is 1440
rpm and the reference torque is 26.5 Nm (rated torque). Fig. 8(a)–(c) shows the same quantities
obtained when using DTC scheme. It should be noted that in the high-speed range the DTC
scheme operates at a switching frequency lower than 4.1 kHz, even if the amplitude of the
hysteresis bands is reduced. These is due to the moderate effect produced by the voltage vectors
and when the torque has to be increased at high speed (see Figs. 5 and 6). Under the assumption
made of the same mean inverter switching frequency, the amplitude of the torque ripple in DTC
is slightly higher than that of DFOC. However, the oscillations in DFOC scheme are more
regular and uniform.
With reference to the current waveforms it can be noted that the harmonic spectrum of
DFOC shows only the harmonic component corresponding to the modulation cycle period,
whereas with DTC scheme the spectrum shows a series of harmonics with lower values, but
distributed all over the frequency range. For a more clear representation of the harmonic
amplitudes, the fundamental component has been truncated. According to the current spectrum,
DFOC generates a high frequency uniform noise, whereas DTC produces an irregular noise
level, which is particularly maddening at low speed.
The aim of the paper was to give a fair comparison between DFOC and DTC techniques,
to allow the users to identify the more suitable solution for any application that requires torque
control. Several numerical simulations have been carried out in steady-state and transient
operating conditions. A new DTC scheme has been also presented in order to improve the
performance of the basic DTC scheme. The conclusion is that the whole performance of the two
schemes is comparable. DTC might be preferred for high dynamic applications, but, on the other
hand, shows higher current and torque ripple. This last drawback can be partially compensated
by the new DTC scheme (DSVM). The DTC scheme is simpler to be implemented, requiring a
very small computational time. As a consequence, low cost DSP boards can be utilized. The
implementation of DSVM technique requires only a small increase (25%–30%) of the
computational time required by basic DTC scheme. Then, using a cycle period of 80 s, as in
numerical simulations, a large amount of time is available for parameter adaptation, protection
and diagnostic facility.
CHAPTER 2
 CHAPTER 2
DIFFERENT CONTROL STRATEGY
2.1 Direct torque control

Direct torque control (DTC) is one method used in variable frequency drives to control
the torque (and thus finally the speed) of three-phaseAC electric motors. This
involves calculating an estimate of the motor's magnetic flux and torque based on the
measured voltage and current of the motor.

2.1.1. DTC control platform

Stator flux linkage is estimated by integrating the stator voltages. Torque is estimated as
a cross product of estimated stator flux linkagevector and measured motor current vector. The
estimated flux magnitude and torque are then compared with their reference values. If either the
estimated flux or torque deviates too far from the reference tolerance, the transistors of
the variable frequency drive are turned off and on in such a way that the flux and torque errors
will return in their tolerant bands as fast as possible. Thus direct torque control is one form of the
hysteresis or bang-bang control.
2.2 Overview of key competing VFD control platforms:

VFD Scalar control

V/f (Volts per frequency)

Vector control
FOC (Field-oriented control)

DTC (Direct torque control)

DSC (Direct self control)

SVM (Space vector

modulation)

The properties of DTC can be characterized as follows:

 Torque and flux can be changed very fast by changing the references
 High efficiency & low losses - switching losses are minimized because the transistors are
switched only when it is needed to keep torque and flux within their hysteresis
bandsThe step response has no overshoot
 No coordinate transforms are needed, all calculations are done in stationary coordinate
system
 No separate modulator is needed, the hysteresis control defines the switch control signals
directly
 There are no PI current controllers. Thus no tuning of the control is required
 The switching frequency of the transistors is not constant. However, by controlling the
width of the tolerance bands the average switching frequency can be kept roughly at its
reference value. This also keeps the current and torque ripple small. Thus the torque and
current ripple are of the same magnitude as with vector controlled drives with the same
switching frequency.
  Due to the hysteresis control the switching process is random by nature. Thus there are no
peaks in the current spectrum. This further means that the audible noise of the machine is
low.
 The intermediate DC circuit's voltage variation is automatically taken into account in the
algorithm (in voltage integration). Thus no problems exist due to dc voltage ripple
(aliasing) or dc voltage transients.
 Synchronization to rotating machine is straightforward due to the fast control; Just make
the torque reference zero and start the inverter. The flux will be identified by the first
current pulse
 Digital control equipment has to be very fast in order to be able to prevent the flux and
torque from deviating far from the tolerance bands. Typically the control algorithm has to
be performed with 10 - 30 microseconds or shorter intervals. However, the amount of
calculations required is small due to the simplicity of the algorithm
 The current measuring devices have to be high quality ones without noise because spikes
in the measured signals easily cause erroneous control actions. Further complication is
that no low-pass filtering can be used to remove noise because filtering causes delays in
the resulting actual values that ruins the hysteresis control
 The stator voltage measurements should have as low offset error as possible in order to
keep the flux estimation error down. For this reason the stator voltages are usually
estimated from the measured DC intermediate circuit voltage and the transistor control
signals
 In higher speeds the method is not sensitive to any motor parameters. However, at low
speeds the error in stator resistance used in stator flux estimation becomes critical.

2.3 Field oriented control:

AC Induction motors offer enviable operational characteristics such as robustness,

reliability and ease of control. They are extensively used in various applications ranging from
industrial motion control systems to home appliances. However, the use of induction motors at
its highest efficiency is a challenging task because of their complex mathematical model and
non-linear characteristic during saturation. These factors make the control of induction motor
difficult and call for use of a high performance control algorithms such as “vector control”.

2.3.1 Introduction of Field Oriented Control

Scalar control such as the “V/Hz” strategy has its limitations in terms of performance. The
scalar control method for induction motors generates oscillations on the produced torque. Hence
to achieve better dynamic performance, a more superior control scheme is needed for Induction
Motor. With the mathematical processing capabilities offered by the micro-controllers, digital
signal processors and FGPA, advanced control strategies can be implemented to decouple the
torque generation and the magnetization functions in an AC induction motor. This decoupled
torque and magnetization flux is commonly called rotor Flux Oriented Control (FOC).

Field Oriented Control describes the way in which the control of torque and speed are
directly based on the electromagnetic state of the motor, similar to a DC motor. FOC is the first
technology to control the “real” motor control variables of torque and flux. With decoupling
between the stator current components (magnetizing flux and torque), the torque producing
component of the stator flux can be controlled independently. Decoupled control, at low speeds,
the magnetization state of motor can be maintained at the appropriate level, and the torque can be
controlled to regulate the speed. “FOC has been solely developed for high-performance motor
applications which can operate smoothly over the wide speed range, can produce full torque at
zero speed, and is capable of quick acceleration and deceleration”

2.3.2. Working Principle of Field Oriented Control

The field oriented control consists of controlling the stator currents represented by a vector. This
control is based on projections that transform a three phase time and speed dependent system
into a two coordinate (d and q frame) time invariant system. These transformations and
projections lead to a structure similar to that of a DC machine control. FOC machines need two
constants as input references: the torque component (aligned with the q coordinate) and the flux
component (aligned with d coordinate).
  The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors can be analyzed in terms of
complex space vectors. If we take ia, ib, ic as instantaneous currents in the stator phases,
then the stator current vector it defined as follow:

Where, (a, b, c) are the axes of three phase system. This current space vector represents the three
phase sinusoidal system. It needs to be transformed into a two time invariant coordinate system.
This transformation can be divided into two steps: (a, b, c) → (α, β) (the Clarke transformation),
which outputs a two coordinate time variant system. (a, β) → (d,q) (the Park transformation),
which outputs a two coordinate time invariant system. The (a, b, c) → (α, β) Projection (Clarke
transformation) Three-phase quantities either voltages or currents, varying in time along the axes
a, b, and c, can be mathematically transformed into two-phase voltages or currents, varying in
time along the axes α and β by the following transformation matrix:

Assuming that the axis a and the axis α are along same direction and β is orthogonal to them, we
have the following vector diagram:
The above projection modifies the three phase system into the (α, β) two dimension orthogonal
system as stated below:

But these two phase (α, β) currents still depends upon time and speed. The (α, β) → (d.q)
projection (Park transformation) this is the most important transformation in the FOC. In fact,
this projection modifies the two phase fixed orthogonal system (α, β) into d,q rotating reference
system. The transformation matrix is given below:

Where, ‘θ’ is the angle between the rotating and fixed coordinate system.

If you consider the d axis aligned with the rotor flux, Figure 2 shows the relationship from the
two reference frames for the current vector:
Where, “θ” is the rotor flux position. The torque and flux components of the current vector are
determined by the following equations:

These components depend on the current vector (α, β) components and on the rotor flux position.
If you know the accurate rotor flux position then, by above equation, the d,q component can be
easily calculated. At this instant, the torque can be controlled directly because flux component
(isd) and torque component (isq) are independent now.

2.3.3. Basic Module for Field Oriented Control

Stator phase currents are measured. These measured currents are fed into the Clarke
transformation block. The outputs of this projection are entitled i sα and isβ. These two components
of the current enter into the Park transformation block that provide the current in the d, q
reference frame. The isd and isq components are contrasted to the references: i sdref (the flux
reference) and isqref (the torque reference). At this instant, the control structure has an advantage:
it can be used to control either synchronous or induction machines by simply changing the flux
reference and tracking rotor flux position. In case of PMSM the rotor flux is fixed determined by
the magnets so there is no need to create one. Therefore, while controlling a PMSM, i sdref should
be equal to zero. As induction motors need a rotor flux creation in order to operate, the flux
reference must not be equal to zero. This easily eliminates one of the major shortcomings of the
“classic” control structures: the portability from asynchronous to synchronous drives. The
outputs of the PI controllers are V sdref and Vsqref. They are applied to the inverse Park
transformation block. The outputs of this projection are V sαref and Vsβref are fed to the space vector
pulse width modulation (SVPWM) algorithm block. The outputs of this block provide signals
that drive the inverter. Here both Park and inverse Park transformations need the rotor flux
position. Hence rotor flux position is essence of FOC. The evaluation of the rotor flux position is
different if we consider the synchronous or induction motor.

 In case of synchronous motor(s), the rotor speed is equal to the rotor flux speed. Then
rotor flux position is directly determined by position sensor or by integration of rotor
speed.
 In case of asynchronous motor(s), the rotor speed is not equal to the rotor flux speed
because of slip; therefore a particular method is used to evaluate rotor flux position (θ).
This method utilizes current model, which needs two equations of the induction motor
model in d,q rotating reference frame.

Simplified Indirect FOC Block Diagram

2.4 Classification of Field Oriented Control

FOC for the induction motor drive can be broadly classified into two types: Indirect FOC
and Direct FOC schemes. In DFOC strategy rotor flux vector is either measured by means of a
flux sensor mounted in the air-gap or by using the voltage equations starting from the electrical
machine parameters. But in case of IFOC rotor flux vector is estimated using the field oriented
control equations (current model) requiring a rotor speed measurement. Among both schemes,
IFOC is more commonly used because in closed-loop mode it can easily operate throughout the
speed range from zero speed to high-speed field-weakening.

Advantages of Field Oriented Control

 Improved torque response.

 Torque control at low frequencies and low speed.
 Dynamic speed accuracy.
 Reduction in size of motor, cost and power consumption.
 Four quadrant operation.
 Short-term overload capability.

CHAPTER 3
 CHAPTER 3

INDUCTION MOTOR

Induction motor drive:

Before discussing about the induction motor drives we have to understand and know
about induction motors. In very simple words induction motors can be described as a three
phase, self-starting constant speed AC motors. The reason of describing induction motors as
constant speed is because normally these motors have a constant speed depending on the
frequency of the supply and the no of windings. In the past it was not possible to control the
speed of the induction motors according to the need. That’s why their use was limited and
despite having many a motors they advantages over DC motors they could not be used because
of this disadvantage. But at the field of drivers have improved due to the availability
of thyristors or SCRs, power transistors, IGBTs and GTOs the variable speed induction motor
drives have been invented. Though the cost of these drivers are more than dc driver, but still the
use of induction motors are increasing and they are replacing DC motors because of their
advantages. While discussing about this topic we will look through the starting, braking and
speed control of induction motor.

Starting of Induction Motors:

We know that the induction motor is self-startingi.e. when the supply is given to the motor it
starts to rotate without any external help. When an induction motor is started as there is
no resistance initially (i.e., during starting), there is a tendency of huge current flow through the
rotor circuit which may damage the circuit permanently. To overcome this problem various
methods have been introduced to limit the starting current. Some of the methods are

1 Star delta starter

2 Auto- transformers starter

3 Reactor starter

4 Saturable reactor starter

5 Part winding starter

6 AC voltage controller starter

7 Rotor resistance starter is used for starting of wound rotor motor.

The induction motor drives are normally designed to run on delta connection, but during starting
the supply is given from star connection because then the starter voltage and current reduces by
1/√ 2times than the delta connection. When the motor reaches a steady state speed the connection
changes from starto delta connection.
 .

Another type of starting method of induction motors is the auto transformer starting. Since we
know that the torque is proportional to square of the voltage. By auto transformers the starting
voltage and current are reduced to overcome the problem of overheating due to very high current
flow. During starting the ratio of the transformer is set in a way that the starting current does not
exceed the safe limit. Once the induction motor starts running and reaches a steady state value,
the auto transformer is disconnected from the supply. The circuit diagram is given below
Another method of starting is soft start using saturable reactor drivers. In this method high
reactance is introduced into the circuit so that the starting torque is closed to zero. Now the
reactance is reduced smoothly during starting and the starting current increases and the torque
also varies steplessly. In this method the motor starts without any jerk and the acceleration is
smooth, that’s why it’s called soft startalso.
Unbalanced starting scheme for soft start is another type of starting method where the impedance
is introduced only in one of the supply phases. During starting the impedance is kept very high
so that the motor operates as a single phase motor, the speed torque characteristics at that time is
similar to curve A in the graph. When the speed attains a steady state value the impedance is
removed completely, at that time the curve is similar to B, which is the natural characteristics of
the matine. This starting method is also without any jerk and the operation is very smooth.

Part winding starting method is special for squirrel-cage induction motors. In this method two or
more starter winding are connected in parallel. When the motor starts, any one of the winding is
connected as a result the starter impendence is increased and starting current is reduced. When
the steady speed is acquired by the motor both the windings are connected.
Especially for wound rotor motors. Rotor resistance starter is used. In this method
external resistors are used in the rotor circuit to limit the starting current. Maximum value of
resistance is chosen to limit the current at zero speed within the safe value. As the speed
increases, the sectional resistance is the temperature rise is lower than other methods of starting
high acceleration, frequent starts and stops starting with heavy loads can be done with this type
of starting method.
Braking of Induction Motors
When it comes to controlling an electric machine by electric drivers braking is a very important
term because it helps to decrease the speed of the motor according to will and necessity. Braking
of induction motors can be classified mainly in three types

1 Regenerative braking.

2 plugging or reverse voltage braking

3 Dynamic braking which can be further classified as

 AC dynamic braking
 Self-excited braking using capacitors
 DC dynamic braking
 Zero sequence braking

To explain that regeneration braking for induction motor, we can take help of the equation P in = 3
N Is Cosθs Here θs is the phase angle between the stator voltage and stator current, the simple
words whenever this phase angle exceeds 90° (i.eθ s>90°) regenerative braking can take place. To
explain this more clearly and easily we can say that whenever the speed of the rotor exceeds
synchronous speed, regeneration braking occurs. That is because whenever the rotor rotates at a
speed more than synchronous speed there is a reverse field occurs which opposes the normal
rotation of the motor and therefore braking takes place. Main disadvantage of this type of
braking is that the speed of the motor has to exceed synchronous speed which may not be
possible every time. To acquire regenerative braking at a lower speed than synchronous speed,
variable frequency source can be used.
Plugging of induction motors is done by interchanging any two of the supply terminals. When
the terminals are reversed the operation of the machine changes from motoring to plugging.
From technical point of view and for better understanding it can be said that the slip changes
from‘s’ to (2-s), which indicates that due to reversal of the terminals the torque also changes its
direction and braking occurs.

The first classification of dynamic braking of induction motors is AC dynamic braking any one
of the supply phase is disconnected from the supply and then it is either kept open or connected
with the other phase. The first type is known as two lead connection and the second one is
known as three lead connection. To understand this braking method clearly we can assume the
system to be a single phase system. Now the motor can be considered to be fed by positive and
negative sequence voltages. That’s why when the rotor resistance is high the net torque is
negative and braking can be acquired.

Sometimes capacitors are kept permanent by connected across the supply terminals of the motor.
This is called self-excited braking using capacitors of induction motors. This type of braking
works mainly by the property of the capacitors to store energy. Whenever the motor is
disconnected from the supply the motor starts to work as a self-excited induction generator, the
power comes from the capacitors connected across the terminals. The values of the capacitor are
so chosen that they are sufficient to make the motor work as an induction generator after being
disconnected from the supply. When the motor works as an induction generator the produced
torque opposes the normal rotation of the motor and hence braking takes place.

Another type of dynamic braking is dc dynamic braking. In this method the stator of running
induction motor drives is connected to dc supply. The consequences of connecting a dc supply to
the stator is as follow, the DC current produces a stationary magnetic field, in the rotor keeps
rotating and as a result there is a induced voltage in the rotor winding, therefore the machine
works as a generator which opposes the motion of the motor and braking is acquired
Speed Control of Induction Motors
We have discussed about the starting and braking of induction motors but what about controlling
the speed during the running time. Speed control of induction motors can be done in six methods
which are Pole changing

1 Stator voltage control

2 Supply frequency control

3 Eddy –current coupling

4 Rotor resistance control

5 Slip power recovery

We know that the speed of the induction motor is inversely proportional to number of poles. So it
is possible to increase or decrease the speed of the induction motor if the number of the poles are
decreased or increased respectively. The motor in which the provision of changing the number of
poles is present, they are called ‘pole changing motor’ or ‘multi –speed motor’. Another method
of controlling the speed of induction motor drives is the stator voltage control. Stator voltage is
directly responsible for the rotating speed of the rotor. Torque is proportional to voltage squared
and the current is proportional to the voltage. So, if the stator voltage is reduced the speed
reduces and similarly if the stator voltage is increased the speed also increases.

The speed of an induction motor is proportional to the product of the supply frequency and air
gap flux. But as there is a chance of magnetic saturation while decreasing the supply frequency,
that’s why not only the frequency but the v/f ( i. e the ratio of supply voltage and frequency ) is
controlled and this ratio is tried to be kept constant. And if the speed is needed to be changed the
ratio of v/f is changed accordingly.

The eddy current speed control method is done by placing an eddy current clutch between an
induction motor is running at a fixed speed and the variable speed load. Now what is this eddy
current clutch? It is nothing but an induction motor drives in which both stator and the rotor are
allowed to rotate. The rotor is coupled with the main induction motor. When eddy currents are
produced in the rotor drum, their interaction with the stator field and a torque is produced which
rotates the main motor. By controlling the DC current through the stator winding the speed of the
motor can be controlled. Depending on the rotor resistance, the speed of the rotor falls or
increases. The variation of speed torque characteristics with respect to change in rotor resistance
is shown in the figures below. This speed controlling method is better than many other methods
because of low cost.

Induction motor

Introduction

An induction motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to
produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of
the stator winding. An induction motor can therefore be made without electrical connections to
the rotor. An induction motor's rotor can be either wound type or squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used as industrial drives because they are
rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used extensively for smaller
loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although traditionally used in fixed-speed service,
induction motors are increasingly being used with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-
speed service. VFDs offer especially important energy savings opportunities for existing and
prospective induction motors in variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load
applications. Squirrel cage induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed
and variable-frequency drive (VFD) applications.

Principle of operation

In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the motor's stator creates
a magnetic field that rotates in synchronism with the AC oscillations. Whereas a synchronous
motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an induction motor's rotor rotates at a
somewhat slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor stator's magnetic field is
therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces an opposing current in the
induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary winding, when the latter is short-circuited
or closed through external impedance. The rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the
windings of the rotor; in a manner similar to currents induced in a transformer's secondary
winding(s).

The induced currents in the rotor windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react
against the stator field. Due to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be
such as to oppose the change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current
in the rotor windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-
winding currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field.
The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the
applied mechanical load on the rotation of the rotor. Since rotation at synchronous speed would
result in no induced rotor current, an induction motor always operates slightly slower than
synchronous speed. The difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from
about 0.5 to 5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. [30] The induction motor's
essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately excited as in
synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent magnet motors.

For rotor currents to be induced the speed of the physical rotor must be lower than that of the
stator's rotating magnetic field (ns); otherwise the magnetic field would not be moving relative to
the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the speed of the rotor drops below
synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field in the rotor increases, inducing more
current in the windings and creating more torque. The ratio between the rotation rate of the
magnetic field induced in the rotor and the rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called
"slip". Under load, the speed drops and the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to
turn the load. For this reason, induction motors are sometimes referred to as "asynchronous
motors".

An induction motor can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear
induction motor which can directly generate linear motion.
Synchronous speed
An AC motor's synchronous speed, ns, is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic field,
2f
n s=
p
Where f is the motor supply's frequency, where p is the number of magnetic poles and
where ns and f have identical units. For f in unit Hertz and ns in RPM, the formula becomes

For example, for a four-pole three-phase motor, p = 4 and ns 120f/4 = 1,500 and 1,800, RPM
synchronous speed, respectively, for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply systems.

The two figures at right and left above each illustrate a 2-pole 3-phase machine consisting of
three pole-pairs with each pole set 60º apart.

Slip
Slip, s, is defined as the difference between synchronous speed and operating speed, at the same
frequency, expressed in rpm, or in percentage or ratio of synchronous speed. Thus

n S−nr
s=
ns
Where ns is stator electrical speed, nr is rotor mechanical speed. Slip, which varies from zero at
synchronous speed and 1 when the rotor is at rest, determines the motor's torque. Since the short-
circuited rotor windings have small resistance, even a small slip induces a large current in the
rotor and produces significant torque.At full rated load, slip varies from more than 5% for small
or special purpose motors to less than 1% for large motors. These speed variations can cause
load-sharing problems when differently sized motors are mechanically connected. Various
methods are available to reduce slip, VFDs often offering the best solution.
CHAPTER 4
 CHAPTER 4

VOLTAGE SOURCE CONVERTER

A voltage converter is an electric power converter which changes the voltage of an
electrical power source. It may be combined with other components to create a power supply. A
common use of the voltage converter is for a device that allows appliances made for the mains
voltage of one geographical region to operate in an area with different voltage. Such a device
may be called a voltage converter, power converter, travel adapter, etc. Most single
phase alternating-current electrical outlets in the world supply power at 210–240 V or at 100–
120 V. A transformer or autotransformer can be used; (auto) transformers are inherently
reversible, so the same transformer can be used to step the voltage up, or step it down by the
same ratio. Lighter and smaller devices can be made using electronic circuitry; reducing the
voltage electronically is simpler and cheaper than increasing it. Small, inexpensive, travel
adapters suitable for low-power devices such as electric shavers, but not, say, hairdryer’s, are
available; travel adapters usually include plug-end adapters for the different standards used in
different countries. A transformer would be used for higher power.

Transformers do not change the frequency of electricity; in many regions with 100–
120 V, electricity is supplied at 60 Hz, and 210–240 V regions tend to use 50 Hz. This may
affect operation of devices which depend on mains frequency (some audio turntables and mains-
only electric clocks, etc., although modern equipment is less likely to depend upon mains
frequency). Equipment with high-powered motors or internal transformers designed to operate at
60 Hz may overheat at 50 Hz even if the voltage supplied is correct.

Most mains-powered electrical equipment, though it may specify a single nominal

voltage, actually has a range of tolerance above and below that point. Thus, devices usually can
be used on either any voltage from approx. 100 to 120 V, or any voltage from approx. 210 to
240 V. In such cases, voltage converters need only be specified to convert any voltage within one
range, to a voltage within the other, rather than separate converters being needed for all possible
pairs of nominal voltages (110–220, 117–220, 110–230, etc.)Another requirement is to provide
low-voltage electricity to a device from mains electricity; this would be done by what is usually
called a power supply. Most modern electronic devices require between 1.5 and 24 volts DC;
lower-powered devices at these voltages can often work either from batteries or mains. Some
devices incorporate a power supply and are simply plugged into the mains. Others use an
external power supply comprising either a transformer and rectifier, or electronic
circuitry. Switched-mode power supplies have become widespread in the early twenty-first
century; they are smaller and lighter than the once-universal transformer converters, and are
often designed to work from AC mains at any voltage between 100 and 250 V. Additionally,
because they are typically rectified to operate at a DC voltage, they are minimally affected by the
frequency of the mains (50 vs 60 Hz). Details on operation are given in the article on power
supplies.

IGBTs:
An insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is a three-terminal power semiconductor
device primarily used as an electronic switch which, as it was developed, came to combine high
efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power in many modern appliances: variable-
frequency drives (VFDs), electric cars, trains, variable speed refrigerators, lamp ballasts, air-
conditioners and even stereo systems with switching amplifiers. The IGBT is a semiconductor
device with four alternating layers (P-N-P-N) that are controlled by a metal-oxide-semiconductor
(MOS) gate structure without regenerative action.

Since it is designed to turn on and off rapidly, amplifiers that use it often synthesize
complex waveforms with pulse-width modulation and low-pass filters. In switching applications
modern devices feature pulse repetition rates well into the ultrasonic range—frequencies which
are at least ten times the highest audio frequency handled by the device when used as an analog
audio amplifier.
Device structure
An IGBT cell is constructed similarly to a n-channel vertical construction power
MOSFET except the n+ drain is replaced with a p+ collector layer, thus forming a vertical
PNP bipolar junction transistor. This additional p+ region creates a cascade connection of a PNP
bipolar junction transistor with the surface n-channel MOSFET.

Application and advantages:

The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of MOSFETs with the high-
current and low-saturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors. The IGBT combines an
isolated-gate FET for the control input and a bipolar power transistor as a switch in a single
device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications like switched-mode power
supplies, traction motor control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically consist of
many devices in parallel and can have very high current-handling capabilities in the order of
hundreds of amperes with blocking voltages of 6500 V. These IGBTs can control loads of
hundreds of kilowatts.

Basic Controller Types

PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes: P - proportional, I - integrative

and D - derivative. While proportional and integrative modes are also used as single control
modes, a derivative mode is rarely used on its own in control systems.

Combinations such as PI and PD control are very often in practical systems.

P Controller:

In general it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher order processes.

For the 1st order processes, meaning the processes with one energy storage, a large increase in
gain can be tolerated. Proportional controller can stabilize only 1st order unstable process.
Changing controller gain K can change closed loop dynamics. A large controller gain will result
in control system with:
a) Smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference following

b) Faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of the closed loop system and larger
sensitivity with respect to measuring noise

c) Smaller amplitude and phase margin

Block diagram of P controller

The error of signal given as follows: e(t) = k[r(t) - h(t)]

When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state error. Stable systems do
not have problems when large gain is used. Such systems are systems with one energy storage
(1st order capacitive systems). If constant steady state error can be accepted with such processes,
than P controller can be used. Small steady state errors can be accepted if sensor will give
measured value with error or if importance of measured value is not too great anyway.

PD Controller:

D mode is used when prediction of the error can improve control or when it necessary to
stabilize the system. From the frequency characteristic of D element it can be seen that it has
phase lead of 90°. Often derivative is not taken from the error signal but from the system output
variable. This is done to avoid effects of the sudden change of the reference input that will cause
sudden change in the value of error signal. Sudden change in error signal will cause sudden
change in control output. To avoid that it is suitable to design D mode to be proportional to the
change of the output variable.

PD controller is often used in control of moving objects such are flying and underwater vehicles,
ships, rockets etc. One of the reason is in stabilizing effect of PD controller on sudden changes in
heading variable y(t). Often a "rate gyro" for velocity measurement is used as sensor of heading
change of moving object.

PI Controller:

PI controller will eliminate forced oscillations and steady state error resulting in operation of on-
off controller and P controller respectively. However, introducing integral mode has a negative
effect on speed of the response and overall stability of the system.

Block diagram of PI controller

The controller output in this case is:

u(t) = K p . e(t) + K i∫ e (t ) dt

Thus, PI controller will not increase the speed of response. It can be expected since PI controller
does not have means to predict what will happen with the error in near future. This problem can
be solved by introducing derivative mode which has ability to predict what will happen with the
error in near future and thus to decrease a reaction time of the controller.

PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when speed of the response is not an
issue. A control without D mode is used when:

a) Fast response of the system is not required

b) Large disturbances and noise are present during operation of the process

c) There is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive)

d) There are large transport delays in the system

PID Controller:

PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on change of the controller input (D
mode), increase in control signal to lead error towards zero (I mode) and suitable action inside
control error area to eliminate oscillations (P mode).

Derivative mode improves stability of the system and enables increase in gain K and decrease in
integral time constant Ti, which increases speed of the controller response.

Block diagram of PID controller

Controller output is

PID controller is used when dealing with higher order capacitive processes (processes with more
than one energy storage) when their dynamic is not similar to the dynamics of an integrator (like
in many thermal processes). PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the control of
mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when stability and precise reference
following are required. Conventional autopilot is for the most part PID type controllers.

Effects of Coefficients:
CHAPTER 5
 CHAPTER 5
PULSE WIDTH MODULATION
Pulse width modulated (PWM) inverters are mostly used power electronic circuits in
practical applications. These inverters are able to produce ac voltages of variable magnitude and
frequency. The quality of the output voltage of PWM inverter is better as compared to square
wave inverters. The PWM inverters are commonly used in variable speed ac drives. Wide speed
variation of drive can be obtained by varying the frequency of the applied ac voltage. There
should be linear relationship between applied voltage and frequency. The PWM inverters could
be implemented for use in single phase and three phase types. There are different kind of PWM
techniques, depending on the methods of implementation. However, in all these techniques, the
generated output voltage after filtering, obtain a good quality sinusoidal voltage waveform
having desired fundamental frequency and magnitude respectively. PWM inverters are used to
control the voltage and to reduce the harmonic contents in the output voltage. In case of PWM
inverters, the widths of the output pulses are modulated to achieve the desired voltage control
(Lavanyaet. Al., 2012).
Classification of Modulation Strategies:

The modulation methods used in multilevel inverters can be classified according to the
switching frequency was discussed in Rodriguez et al (2002), Celanovic and Boroyevic (2001)
and Rodriguez et al (2001). Modulation techniques that work with high switching frequencies
have many commutations for the power semiconductors in a cycle of the fundamental output
voltage. Multilevel inverters generate sinusoidal voltages from discrete voltage levels, and Pulse
Width-Modulation (PWM) strategies accomplish this task of generating sinusoids of variable
voltages and frequencies. Several techniques for the implementation of PWM for multilevel
inverters have been developed.
The well-known high switching frequency methods are classic carrier based Sinusoidal
PWM (SPWM) was presented in Tolbert and Habetler (1999) and Hammond (1997) and Space
Vector PWM. The popular methods for low switching frequency methods are Space Vector
Modulation (SVM) method and selective harmonic elimination method.
 Classifications of Multilevel Modulation Methods
A very popular technique with high switching frequency in industrial applications is the
classic carrier-based Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) that uses the phase-shifting technique to increase
the effective switching frequency. Therefore, the harmonics in the load voltage can be reduced
was proposed by Liang and Nwankpa (1999). Space Vector Modulation (SVM) has been used in
three-level inverters was presented in Celanovic and Boroyevic (2001). Control techniques that
work with low switching frequencies generally perform one or two commutations of the power
semiconductors during a cycle of the output voltages, generating a staircase waveform.
Representatives of this family are the multilevel selective harmonic elimination was presented in
Li et al (2000) and Sirisukprasert et al (2002) based on elimination theory presented was
presented in Enjeti et al (1990), Patel and Hoft (1973) & (1974) and the Space Vector Control
(SVC)was first introduced by Rodriguez et al (2000).
The three multilevel modulation methods most discussed are multilevel carrier-based
sinusoidal PWM, selective harmonic elimination, and multilevel space vector PWM; all are
extensions of traditional two-level modulation strategies to several levels. Other methods have
been used to a much lesser extent by researchers; therefore, only these three major techniques are
discussed.
Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
The generation of a sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation signal has been shown in Figure 5.3. This
technique has been used in industries. The gating signal can be generated by comparing a sinusoidal
reference signal with a triangular carrier wave. The width of each pulse is changed proportionally to
the amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the center of the same pulse.
The output frequency ‘fo’ of the inverter can be determined by using the frequency of the reference
signal ‘fr’. The output voltage (Vo) can be controlled by modulation index ‘M’ and in turn peak
amplitude ‘Ar’ controlled the modulation index. The output voltage can be determined by V o = Vs(S1
– S4). The number of pulses per half cycle depends on the carrier frequency. The gating signal can be
generated by using an unidirectional triangular carrier wave.

Figure 5.3 Generation of Sinusoidal pulse width modulation

Space Vector Modulation (SVM):

The SVM technique can be easily extended to all multilevel inverters. Below Figure
shows space vector diagrams for the traditional three-level, five-level, and seven-level inverters.
Space vector diagrams are universal regardless of the type of multilevel inverter was presented in
Lee et al (1998), Li et al (2000), Holmes and McGrath (2001) and Kang et al (2000). Therefore it
can be used for diode-clamped, capacitor-clamped or cascaded inverters.
The SVM generate the output voltage as the weighted mean of the three vectors adjacent
to the reference in the d-q plane. SVM involves synthesizing the reference voltage space vector
by switching among the three nearest voltage space vectors.
Generally Space-Vector PWM methods have the followingadvantages,
Advantages:
 Good utilization of DC-link voltage, low current ripple.
  Relatively easy control and hardware implementation by a Digital Signal Processor
(DSP).
 Flexibility in optimizing switching waveforms and has relatively good performance at
low modulation ratio.
Disadvantages:
 As the number of levels increases, redundant switching states and the complexity of
selecting switching states increase dramatically was addressed in Jose Rodriguez et al
(2002).
 It cannot completely eliminate the low order harmonics.

(a)

(b)
Figure:Space Vector Diagram (a) Three-Level; (b) Five-Level.
Li et al (2000) has used decomposition of the five-level space vector diagram into two three-
level space-vector diagrams with a phase shift to minimize ripples and simplify control. Also
SVM cannot be applied to multilevel inverters with unequal dc sources.

Space vector modulation (SVM) is an algorithm for the control of pulse width
modulation (PWM). It is used for the creation of alternating current (AC) waveforms; most
commonly to drive 3 phase AC powered motors at varying speeds from DC using multiple class-
D amplifiers. There are variations of SVM that result in different quality and computational
requirements. One active area of development is in the reduction of total harmonic distortion
(THD) created by the rapid switching inherent to these algorithms.

A three-phase inverter as shown to the right converts a DC supply, via a series of

switches, to three output legs which could be connected to a three-phase motor. The switches
must be controlled so that at no time are both switches in the same leg turned on or else the DC
supply would be shorted. This requirement may be met by the complementary operation of the
switches within a leg. i.e. if A+ is on,then A− is off and vice versa. This leads to eight possible
switching vectors for the inverter, V0 through V7 with six active switching vectors and two zero
vectors.

To implement space vector modulation, a reference signal Vref is sampled with a

frequency fs (Ts = 1/fs). The reference signal may be generated from three separate phase
references using the alpha \beta \gamma transform. The reference vector is then synthesized
using a combination of the two adjacent active switching vectors and one or both of the zero
vectors. Various strategies of selecting the order of the vectors and which zero vector(s) to use
exist. Strategy selection will affect the harmonic content and the switching losses.

Space vector modulation (SVM) is an algorithm for the control of pulse width
modulation (PWM). It is used for the creation of alternating current (AC) waveforms; most
commonly to drive 3 phase AC powered motors at varying speeds from DC using multiple class-
D amplifiers. There are variations of SVM that result in different quality and computational
requirements. One active area of development is in the reduction of total harmonic distortion
(THD) created by the rapid switching inherent to these algorithms.
Fig switching states
All eight possible switching vectors for a three-leg inverter using space vector modulation. An
example Vref is shown in the first sector. Vref_MAX is the maximum amplitude of Vref before
non-linear over modulation is reached

Selective Harmonics Elimination

The selective harmonics elimination method is based on the harmonic elimination theory
was developed by Patel and Hoft (1973) and (1974). A multilevel inverter can produce a quarter-
wave symmetric stepped voltage waveform synthesized by several DC voltages as shown in
Figure 2.7.
To minimize harmonic distortion and to achieve adjustable amplitude of the fundamental
component, up to k-1 harmonic contents can be removed from the voltage waveform. In general,
the most significant low frequency harmonics are eliminated by properly selecting angles among
different level inverters, and high-frequency harmonic components can be removed by using
additional filter circuits. The output is a staircase waveform with steps angle duration optimized
to cancel the specified harmonics; however, the number of harmonics that can be eliminated at
the same time is proportional to the number of inverter levels.

When the selective harmonic elimination method is used, all of the DC voltages are
typically involved, where all of the switches are turned “on” and “off” only once per
fundamental cycle. The selective harmonic elimination method also refers exactly to one
switching pattern. The number of switching angles is equal to the number of DC sources for
selective harmonic elimination method was discussed in McKenzie (2004).
The major difficulty for selective harmonic elimination method is to solve the
transcendental equations given in Equation. 2.3 For calculating switching angles. The selective
harmonic elimination method can eliminate the number of harmonics not more than the number
of the switching angles in the transcendental equations. The solutions are not available for the
whole modulation index range, and it does not eliminate any number of specified harmonics to
satisfy the application requirements and control of multilevel inverters with unequal DC source
voltages which are impractical.
Recently, the resultant method has been proposed by Chiasson et al (2003) and Chiasson
et al (2004) to solve the transcendental equations for switching angles. The transcendental
equations characterizing the harmonic content can be converted into polynomial equations.
Elimination of harmonics using resultant theory has been employed by McKenzie (2004) to
determine the switching angles to eliminate specific harmonics, such as the 5th, 7th, 11th, and
13th. However, as the number of DC voltages or the number of switching angle increase, the
degrees of the polynomials in these equations are large and it is difficult to solve the system of
polynomial equations by using resultant theory was proposed by Chiasson et al (2003).
Needs & problems of synchronization with PWM inverters

It is very essential that the PWM inverters should be synchronized before tied to the
utility grid. Phase, frequency, and phase voltages amplitude are the most important and basic
parameters which are needed to be controlled for grid-connected applications (Rajan, 2015). The
synchronization is generally carried out with respect to the voltage, phase angle of voltage (or
current) signal and frequency of the utility system. In order to provide the required load voltage,
inverter system works in standalone or grid connected mode. In load scheduling condition or grid
off condition, the inverters works in standalone mode and provide the required power to the load.
The power available via renewable systems is of DC form so inverters are preferred to
alternators. The Parameters of the inverter such as voltage, frequency and phase could be
controlled for the purpose of synchronization with the 22 respective parameters of the grid
system. Synchronization of inverter parameters like voltage, frequency and phase with grid
systems shall be possible using specific control system with embedded controller. To meet the
load sharing requirement, the output from the inverter system could be varied in synchronism
with the grid system (Yeng and Sng, 2006; Wu et. Al., 2007; Hua et. Al., 2012). Sinusoidal pulse
width modulation technique have several pulses per half-cycle and the width of each pulse is
changed with respect to the magnitude of sine wave (Rajan, 2015). Pure sine wave dc-to-ac
conversion will introduce smallest amount of harmonics into an electrical system, but these
methods are also expensive. Since the AC sine wave is to be originated from a DC source, the
static devices shall be switched in a logical way such that the energy which is delivered to a load
approaches to that of a pure sine wave.

This means that an extra components and design considerations are involved in its control
circuitry in case of a pure sine wave inverter thereby driving up its cost. A modified sine wave
method of dc-to-ac conversion is more precise method, which introduces a dead time in a normal
square wave output so that higher peak voltages can be used to produce the same average voltage
as a sinusoidal output. This method generates lesser harmonics than square wave generation, but
it is also not as the AC power that we get from an AC supply. The harmonics are still present in a
modified sine wave, so the modified sine wave inverters are unsuitable for use and moreover an
electrical noise is of concern. Synchronization and symmetry can be obtained by using the space
vector pulse width modulation (SVPWM) algorithm, with proper selection of switching states.
This is standard approach without any additional computational requirements or feedback
signals. This synchronization algorithm can be used for open-loop constant v/f ac drives (Beig,
2012). Further implementation of modified synchronized space 23 vector pulse width modulation
(SVPWM) algorithm for three level voltage source inverter (VSI) with Synchronized and
Symmetrical Waveforms can be obtained by maintaining the synchronization, half-wave
symmetry, quarter-wave symmetry, and three-phase symmetry in the pulse width modulation
(PWM) waveforms. Another approach is shifted synchronized space vector pulse width
modulation (SVPWM). This method is used to Control DC Link Resonant Inverters. Its FPGA
realization increase the switching frequency of the inverter, also it reduces the switching
frequency of the dc-link resonant circuit (Chung et. Al., 2010, Serban and Serban 2010, Beig
2012, Beiget. Al., 2007, Pan et. Al., 2012).
CHAPTER 6
 CHAPTER 6
PROPOSED METHOD
DIRECT TORQUE CONTROL BASED ON CONSTANT V/F CONTROL
The concept of direct torque control based on constant V/F control relies on the principle
that torque and stator flux magnitude are directly proportional to stator voltage magnitude and
the ratio between stator voltage magnitude and stator frequency, respectively.

where ψs is the stator flux magnitude, v􀁋s is the stator voltage magnitude, f is the stator
frequency, Te is the electromagnetic torque, P is the number of poles, Rs and Rr are the stator
and rotor resistance, respectively, Xls and Xlr are the stator and rotor leakage reactance,
respectively, and S is the slip. In order to control the stator flux and torque independently, the
stator flux magnitude will be controlled according to (1) and regulates it to be constant, which
complies with the constant V/F control principle. When considering (2), under normal operation
conditions, the slip is small, imply that Rr S >>Rs and Rr S >> (Xls + Xlr ) . Hence, the torque
equation can be approximated as

From (3), because the stator flux magnitude is regulated to be constant and normally, the slip is
constant at each value of the speed in operation range, it can be seen that, torque is directly
proportional to stator voltage magnitude. Consequently, torque can be controlled by the stator
voltage magnitude.
In accordance with these concepts, direct torque control of three-phase induction motor based on
constant V/F control scheme is shown in Fig. 1, where r ù is the rotor speed, s è is the stator
phase angle, vsa ,vsb and vsc are the phase a, phase b and phase c stator voltage, respectively, isb
and isc are the phase b and phase c stator current, respectively, and “*” denotes the reference
value. The hysteresis comparators and look-up table of the conventional DTC are replaced by PI
controllers and SVM technique. Moreover, this control method does not require the coordinate
transformation and current regulators. The input of torque controller is torque error and the
output is stator voltage magnitude reference. The torque error is obtained by comparing the
torque reference, which is the output of the speed controller, with the actual torque. Similarly,
the difference between the stator flux magnitude reference and the actual stator flux magnitude is
the input of the stator flux controller.

The ratio between the stator frequency reference and stator voltage magnitude reference
is achieved at the output of this controller. The stator flux magnitude reference is set to be
constant because the field-weakening operation is not performed in this paper. The stator phase
angle reference is computed by integrating the stator frequency reference, which is the result of
the multiplication between the output of torque and stator flux controllers. After that, the phase
angle and stator voltage magnitude references are fed to SVM module to generate the switching
pattern for firing the switching devices of inverter. The torque and stator flux magnitude are
given by
Where vsd and vsq are d- and q- axis stator voltage components, respectively, and ψ sd and ψ sq
are d- and q- axis stator flux components, respectively. All quantities are expressed in stationary
reference frame.

Fig.7.1. Scheme of direct torque control of three-phase induction motor based on constant V/F
control.
As seen in Fig. , this control method employs three PI controllers and causes six controller gains
to be tuned to obtain the satisfactory responses. This task evokes the difficulty and wastes
considerable time.
7.1 PROPOSED CONTROLLER
The proposed controller is derived by consideration the curve between absolute error and control
signal as shown in Fig. Where e is the error, u is the control signal.

Fig. . Absolute error versus control signal curve.

According to the variable step size algorithm, if the operating point is at A 1 where far from the
optimum point, ∆ u , which is the difference between the new control signal un and previous
control signal uo , should be large, as shown by ∆ u1 in Fig. , to accelerate the operating point
moving closer to the optimum point quickly. With this ∆ u makes ∆ e1 big. While the operating
point is at 2 A , which is around the optimum point, ∆ u should be small, as seen from ∆ u2, to
ensure that the operating point will move into the optimum point accurately. This small ∆ u value
leads to small ∆ e2. The relation of this concept is written as

Since, the errors in the left of the optimum point are positive thus (8) is given as
Where N is the scaling factor, en and eo are the new and previous errors, respectively. In the
same manner, when investigating curve in the right of the optimum point, the relation can be
written as

The minus sign refers to the reduction of the control signal. Due to the errors in the right of the
optimum point are negative thus (10) is given as

From (9) and (11), it is found that both positive and negative errors can be suppressed by the
same equation. This controller only consists of one parameter, scaling factor N, implies that the
effort for tuning the controller gain is reduced in half when compares with PI controller.
Furthermore, its algorithm is very simple.
CHAPTER 7
 CHAPTER 7
SIMULATION RESULTS

(a)Speed response (pi controller)

(b)Zoom in of speed responses(pi controller)

(c) Torque responses (pi controller)

(d) Stator current

 (e) flux (pi controller)

(a)Speed response (hysteresis controller)

(b)Zoom in of speed responses (hysteresis controller)

(c) Torque response(hysteresis controller)

(d) stator current (hysteresis controller)

(e) flux (hysteresis controller)

 (a)speed response (pi)

(b) zoom in response speed

(c) torque response (pi)

(d) stator current

 (e)flux (pi)

(a) Speed response (hysteresis)

(b) torque response (hysteresis)

(c) zoom in speed response

(d) Flux (hysteresis)

(d) stator current

 CONCLUSION
This paper proposes the simple controller for direct torque control based on constant V/F
control. The variable step size algorithm is adopted for the concept of this controller. The
proposed controller has simple algorithm with one controller parameter. The simulation results
show that the control system with the proposed controller has the good dynamic and steady state
responses. The speed, torque and stator flux magnitude responses are similar to the responses
from using PI controllers in both steady-state and dynamic conditions. Furthermore, the usage of
the proposed controller leads to the lower speed drop and reduces torque and stator flux
magnitude overshoot, especially in low speed operation. These results evidently confirm the
validity of the proposed controller. However, this controller still has the steady-state error in
speed response under loading period because of the handling of the constant controller parameter
in the speed controller.
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