What is the Self?

- It refers to one's individual and subjective experience of their own existence, identity,
and consciousness.

THE SELF FROM VARIOUS PERPECTIVES

Philosophy - Philosophy is a complex and multifaceted field of inquiry that seeks to explore fundamental
questions about the nature of reality, knowledge, ethics, and the human experience. It is often
described as the "love of wisdom" and is characterized by a systematic and critical approach to
understanding the world and our place in it.

Socrates – there was soul first before man’s body. Man’s existence was first in the realm of ideas and
exists as a soul of pure mind. This soul has knowledge by direct intuition and all these are stored in his
mind. However, once he came to the material world or the world of senses, he forgot most of what he
knew. This resulted in lack of knowledge or ignorance which causes problems to man.

- known as the market philosopher because of his penchant for engaging youths in
philosophizing in public markets.

Socratic Method - a form of dialectical questioning. He believed that true wisdom comes from
within and that individuals can discover it through self-examination and dialogue. He would engage in
conversations with fellow Athenians, asking them probing questions to elicit their beliefs, assumptions,
and contradictions. Through this process, he aimed to help individuals recognize their own ignorance
and gain a deeper understanding of themselves and their beliefs.

"Know Thyself" - One of the most famous sayings associated with Socrates is "Know thyself." He
believed that self-knowledge was a fundamental aspect of wisdom and that individuals should
constantly question and examine their beliefs, values, and actions. By doing so, people could better
understand their own limitations, biases, and areas where they needed improvement.

Moral Philosophy - Socrates was deeply concerned with ethical questions. He believed that
understanding the self was intimately tied to leading a virtuous and examined life. He argued that
people do wrong not out of evil intent but out of ignorance, and that through self-examination and
critical thinking, individuals could come to know what is morally right and just.

Plato – founded the Academy, now considered as the prototype of the modern university.

Theory of Forms (Theory of Ideas) - One of Plato's most influential concepts related to the self is
his theory of Forms (also known as the Theory of Ideas). Plato believed that the physical world we
perceive with our senses is an imperfect and ever-changing realm of appearances. The true reality,
according to Plato, exists in the realm of Forms. Forms are abstract, unchanging, and perfect ideals that
exist independently of the physical world.

Self and Knowledge - Plato argued that the human soul has an innate connection to the
world of Forms. He believed that the soul existed prior to birth, in a state of perfect knowledge, where it
had direct knowledge of the Forms. However, upon entering the physical world, the soul forgets this
knowledge and must spend a lifetime recollecting it through philosophical inquiry and dialectical
reasoning.

Immortality of the Soul - Plato argued that the soul is immortal and exists before birth and after
death. It is the soul which is the true self – the permanent, unchanging Self. The changing body,
however, or what we see in the material world is not the real self but only a replica of our true Self.

Tripartite Structure of the Soul - Plato proposed a three-part division of the human soul.

Reason (Logos) - This is the rational and intellectual part of the soul. It is associated with
the pursuit of knowledge, wisdom, and logical thinking.

Spirit (Thumos or Thymos) - The spirited part of the soul is associated with emotions,
including courage, honor, and indignation. It drives individuals to seek recognition and act morally.
 Appetite (Epithumia) - The appetitive part of the soul is responsible for desires, including
physical desires for food, pleasure, and other bodily needs. It is associated with basic instincts and
cravings. * Reason should govern and guide the spirited and appetitive parts, ensuring that they act in
accordance with rational principles and moral values. This inner harmony leads to virtuous and just
behavior.

Allegory of the Cave - In Plato's famous "Allegory of the Cave," he uses a metaphor to illustrate
his views on human perception and knowledge. He describes people as prisoners in a dark cave, bound
by chains, and only able to see shadows on the cave wall. These shadows represent the physical world.
Understanding the self, according to Plato, involves breaking free from these illusions, ascending toward
the light (the world of Forms), and gaining true knowledge.

St. Augustine of Hippo - a Christian theologian and philosopher

– in his younger years, he abandoned his early Christian faith because he found
it difficult to reconcile a loving, all-knowing, and all-powerful god with the evils in the world. His
encounter with Plato’s Theory of Forms gave him a philosophical strongpoint for the idea of god, and
paved the way for his return to Christianity. According to him, our world (material world) is not our final
home but just a temporary home where we are just passing through. Our real world is found in the
world where there is permanence and infinity – that’s the world where god is.

Inner Self and God's Image - Augustine believed that every individual has an inner self or soul
that is created in the image of God. This soul is immortal and eternal, and it possesses qualities such as
reason and free will. Augustine's concept of the self is rooted in his Christian faith, emphasizing the
soul's relationship with God as the ultimate source of meaning and identity.

Original Sin and Fallen Nature - Augustine's understanding of the self is heavily influenced by his
doctrine of original sin. He argued that all humans inherit the sin of Adam and Eve, leading to a "fallen"
or sinful nature. As a result, humans are prone to sin and are in need of divine grace for salvation.

Desire and Restlessness - Augustine famously described the human condition as one of
restlessness and longing. He believed that the human heart is naturally inclined to seek happiness and
fulfillment, but true satisfaction can only be found in God. Augustine's concept of the self is
characterized by a tension between earthly desires and the soul's ultimate desire for union with God.

Divine Grace and Redemption - Augustine's understanding of the self ultimately emphasizes the
importance of divine grace in the process of self-discovery and redemption. He believed that God's
grace was necessary for individuals to turn away from sin, overcome their fallen nature, and achieve
spiritual wholeness.

Rene Descartes – considered as the father of modern philosophy and was also a brilliant mathematician.

Methodical Doubt - Descartes initiated his philosophical journey with a process of radical doubt.
He doubted everything that could possibly be doubted, including sensory perceptions, the external
world, and even the existence of God. He sought to establish a foundation of knowledge that could
withstand doubt and skepticism.

Cogito, Ergo Sum - In the process of doubt, Descartes arrived at a foundational certainty when
he realized that he could doubt everything except the fact that he was doubting. He famously
concluded, "I think, therefore I am." This statement represents his indubitable starting point for
knowledge—the existence of the thinking self (the "cogito").

Res Cogitans and Res Extensa - Descartes divided reality into two distinct substances: the
thinking substance (res cogitans) and the extended substance (res extensa). The thinking substance
encompasses mental attributes like thoughts, consciousness, and doubt, while the extended substance
pertains to the physical world, including space, matter, and the body.
 Mind-Body Interaction - the mind (or soul) and the body, though distinct substances, could
influence each other. He suggested that this interaction occurred at a specific point in the brain, the
pineal gland. According to Descartes, the mind could influence the body by causing bodily movements,
and conversely, the body could affect the mind by transmitting sensory information to it.

John Locke - the first of the great british empiricist philosophers and is widely credited for laying the
foundation of human rights and his commitment to the idea that the sovereign should be the people
and not the monarch.

Tabula Rasa - Locke begins his exploration of the self by positing the concept of the "tabula
rasa," which is Latin for "blank slate." According to Locke, when a person is born, their mind is like an
empty slate, devoid of innate ideas or preconceptions.

Empiricism - Locke's philosophy is grounded in empiricism, the belief that all knowledge and
ideas originate from sensory experience. He argues that our understanding of the self and the world
around us is shaped by our experiences and the information we gather through our senses.

Identity and Consciousness - Locke's theory of personal identity is closely tied to the concept of
consciousness. He defines personal identity as the continuity of consciousness. In other words, a person
is the same person over time as long as there is a continuous chain of consciousness linking their past
and present experiences. If an individual cannot remember a past experience, they are not the same
person as the one who had that experience.

Memory - Memory plays a central role in Locke's theory of personal identity. He argues that our
memories are the key to connecting our past and present selves. If we can remember having certain
experiences, we can identify ourselves as the same person who had those experiences. Conversely, if we
cannot recall an experience, we are not the same person who had it. *John Locke's philosophy on
understanding the self is rooted in empiricism and the idea that our identity is tied to our consciousness
and memory. He rejects the notion of innate knowledge and argues that the self is not a fixed,
unchanging entity but rather a product of our experiences and the continuity of consciousness over
time.

David Hume - an 18th-century Scottish philosopher

Impressions and Ideas – impressions are those things we perceive through our senses as we
experience them. Like when I see the sky, and my sense of sight tells me I am looking at a blue sky, that
is now my impression. On the other hand, ideas are those things that we create in our minds even
though we are no longer experiencing them.

Bundle Theory of the Self - posits that the self is not a unified, unchanging entity but rather a
collection or "bundle" of constantly changing perceptions, sensations, and ideas. In this view, there is no
underlying, enduring self that ties these perceptions together. Hume argued that when we examine our
inner experiences, we do not find any impression that corresponds to a simple, unchanging self. Instead,
we observe a continuous flow of changing impressions and ideas.

Association of Ideas - Hume believed that the apparent continuity of the self, arises from the
principles of association of ideas. Our minds associate ideas based on various principles like
resemblance, contiguity, and cause and effect. These associations create a sense of coherence and
connection between our various experiences, making it appear as though there is a continuous self.

Immanuel Kant – Prussian Philosopher

Transcendental Idealism - Kant's philosophy is rooted in transcendental idealism, a position that

recognizes the active role of the human mind in shaping our experience of the world. He argues that our
knowledge is not simply a passive reception of sensory data but is actively structured by the mind's
innate concepts and categories.

"a priori concepts" - refer to innate or fundamental mental categories and principles that exist
prior to and shape our experience of the world. These concepts, such as space, time, causality, and
substance, are not derived from sensory experience but are inherent to human cognition. They serve as
the framework through which we organize and interpret our perceptions and are necessary for
constructing meaningful experiences and knowledge. Kant argues that a priori concepts are universal
and apply to all human beings, providing a common foundation for understanding the world.

Noumena and Phaenomena - Noumena are things as they are in themselves, beyond human
perception and cognition. We can never know noumena because they lie outside the boundaries of
human experience. On the other hand, the phaenomena is the empirical part of a thing. It is indeed that
part of a thing that can be experienced by humans. Applied to humans, the homo noumenon is the
“enlightened” self of the human person which comprises the psychological state and intellect, while the
homo phaenomenon is merely the human self, or the physical self.

The transcendental ego - the foundational and unifying subject of all human experiences. It
represents the "I think" or the self-awareness that accompanies all conscious thought. Kant posited that
the transcendental ego is necessary for the synthesis and organization of our diverse perceptions,
making them coherent experiences. It is a central element of Kant's philosophy, serving as the core self
that underlies and unifies our various conscious experiences, even though it is not itself an object of
experience.

Unity of Apperception - Kant emphasizes the "unity of apperception," which means that all of
our diverse perceptions are integrated by the transcendental ego. This unity allows us to recognize that
our various experiences belong to a single, continuous self.

Sigmund Freud – the founder of psychoanalysis.

The Unconscious Mind - At the core of Freud's philosophy of self is the concept of the
unconscious mind. Freud believed that the self is not a monolithic, conscious entity but is divided into
three parts: the conscious mind, the preconscious mind, and the unconscious mind. The unconscious
mind contains thoughts, memories, and desires that are not immediately accessible to conscious
awareness but play a crucial role in shaping our behavior and experiences.

The Tripartite Model of Personality - Freud's structural model of personality posits that the self
consists of three fundamental components: the id, ego, and superego. Id is the primal, instinctual part of
the psyche that seeks immediate gratification of basic desires and needs. It operates on the pleasure
principle and is largely unconscious. Ego is the rational and conscious part of the mind that mediates
between the id's desires and the external world's demands. It operates on the reality principle and helps
make practical decisions. Superego is the moral and ethical component of the psyche, representing the
internalized rules and values learned from society and parents. It enforces moral standards and strives
for perfection.

Psychosexual Stages - Freud proposed a theory of psychosexual development, suggesting that

the self undergoes a series of stages during childhood, each characterized by a focus on different
erogenous zones and accompanied by unique psychological conflicts. These stages influence the
development of personality and the self.

The Oral Stage (Birth - 18 months) - During this stage, the primary focus is on the mouth,
and the infant's main source of pleasure and interaction is through sucking, eating, and oral exploration.
Freud suggested that unresolved conflicts during this stage, such as weaning issues, could lead to oral
fixation and personality traits such as dependency or oral aggression.

The Anal Stage (18 months - 3 years) - This stage centers on toilet training and the
control of bodily functions. Freud believed that successful navigation of this stage results in the
development of self-control and a sense of independence, while unresolved conflicts may lead to anal-
retentive(overly strict toilet training-fixated on cleanliness, order, and control) or anal-expulsive
personality traits(permissive toilet training—messy, disorganized, and rebellious). These early
experiences can shape a person's approach to self-discipline and orderliness as they grow.

The Phallic Stage (3 - 6 years) - In this stage, children develop a fascination with their
own genitals and may experience the Oedipus complex (Male – Castration Anxiety/Female – Penis Envy),
where they have complex feelings toward their opposite-sex parent. Freud believed that the resolution
of these conflicts played a crucial role in the development of gender identity and the superego, which is
a person's moral and ethical conscience. These experiences can impact a person's sense of identity and
their attitudes toward authority and morality.

The Latency Stage (6 years - Puberty) - During this stage, sexual desires and conflicts
become largely dormant, and the focus shifts to developing social and cognitive skills. Children tend to
form same-sex friendships and engage in activities that contribute to their self-esteem and competence.
This stage is important for the development of social and intellectual abilities.

The Genital Stage (Puberty – Onward) - The final stage of Freud's theory is marked by
the emergence of mature sexual interests and the ability to form intimate relationships. Successful
resolution of earlier conflicts should lead to healthy adult relationships. However, unresolved conflicts
from earlier stages can still influence adult behavior and relationships.

Gilbert Ryle - a British philosopher, principally known for his critique of Cartesian dualism.

The Rejection of Cartesian Dualism - Ryle rejected the Cartesian view of the mind as a non-
physical, immaterial substance distinct from the body. He argued that this dualism created a
problematic "ghost in the machine" perspective, where the mind was seen as an invisible, non-physical
entity controlling the body.

“Ghost in the machine” - It refers to the mistaken belief that the mind is a non-physical,
immaterial entity (the "ghost") that inhabits or controls the physical body (the "machine"). Ryle argued
that this view creates a fundamental error by treating mental and physical states as belonging to
different categories, leading to a misunderstanding of the nature of the self. Instead, Ryle advocated for
a perspective in which mental processes are not separate from physical processes, rejecting the notion
of a separate, immaterial mind controlling the body.

The "Category Mistake" - Ryle famously introduced the concept of a "category mistake" to
criticize dualist thinking. He argued that the dualist view made a fundamental error by treating mental
and physical states as belonging to different categories, like trying to locate the "university" in a physical
building. Ryle contended that mental processes are not separate from physical processes but rather are
part of our everyday understanding of human behavior.

The concept of dispositions - mental states should be understood as tendencies or

predispositions to behave in certain ways under specific circumstances. Instead of viewing mental states
as separate, inner events or entities, Ryle argued that they are best understood by examining how
individuals are disposed to act or behave in various situations. In other words, mental states are not
hidden, inner processes but rather manifest themselves through observable behaviors and actions in the
external world.

Ordinary Language Philosophy - emphasizes the importance of analyzing and understanding

philosophical problems by examining how language is used in everyday, ordinary contexts. Ryle believed
that many philosophical puzzles arise from misunderstandings and linguistic confusions. Ryle criticized
the traditional philosophical concept of the "mind" as a mysterious, non-physical entity. In ordinary
language, when we talk about someone's mind, we're often referring to their thoughts, feelings, and
cognitive processes. Ryle argued that understanding the self and the mind should involve examining
how these terms are used in everyday conversation rather than positing an immaterial mind.

"Knowing How" vs. "Knowing That" - Ryle made a distinction between two types of knowledge:
"knowing how" and "knowing that.

Knowing How: This type of knowledge is about practical skills and the ability to perform
tasks or actions. It is often tacit, embedded in our abilities, and doesn't always require explicit
verbalization.

Knowing That - This type of knowledge involves propositional or declarative knowledge,

often expressed in sentences or statements. It's the knowledge of facts, information, or concepts.

Paul Churchland - a philosopher known for his work in the philosophy of mind and cognitive science.
 Eliminative Materialism - Churchland is a proponent of eliminative materialism, a radical stance
in the philosophy of mind. He argues that our common-sense understanding of mental states and the
self, often described in folk psychological terms, is fundamentally flawed and should be replaced by a
more accurate scientific account based on neuroscience. This view suggests that many of our mental
concepts, like beliefs and desires, may not correspond to anything real in the brain.

Neurophilosophy - Churchland's philosophy places a strong emphasis on neuroscience as the

key to understanding the self. He believes that as neuroscience progresses, it will provide a
comprehensive explanation of mental phenomena, consciousness, and the self. This perspective aligns
with a naturalistic and reductionist approach, where mental states are seen as brain states.

Neuroscientific Self - The neuroscientific self is the notion that our sense of self, personal
identity, and consciousness are products of the physical processes and organization of the brain. It
suggests that there is no need for a separate non-physical self-entity; instead, the self is a result of
neural activities and interactions within the brain. This approach implies that the self and our mental
experiences are intricately linked to the physical brain and its activities.

Elimination of Folk Psychology - Churchland argues that our everyday psychological

explanations, which rely on concepts like beliefs, desires, and intentions, are imprecise and should
eventually be eliminated in favor of a more accurate scientific understanding of the mind. In this way,
Churchland's idea advocates for a shift from our everyday mental vocabulary to a scientific vocabulary
grounded in neuroscience, ultimately eliminating the need for folk psychological concepts to explain
human behavior and mental states.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty - prominent French phenomenologist and existentialist. His ideas challenge
traditional Cartesian dualism, which separates the mind and body, and instead propose a more holistic
and interconnected view of the self.

Embodiment and the Lived Body - One of Merleau-Ponty's central ideas is the concept of the
"lived body" or "embodied subject." He argued that our perception of the world is deeply intertwined
with our bodily existence. The body is not just an object in the world; it is the means through which we
perceive and interact with the world. Our body is not separate from our self but is an integral part of it.
This idea challenges the traditional dualism that separates the mind from the body.

Perception as Skillful Activity - Merleau-Ponty emphasized that our perception of the world is
not a passive process but an active and skillful engagement. He described perception as a form of
"motor intentionality," where our body and senses work together to shape our understanding of the
world.

Intersubjectivity - Merleau-Ponty emphasized the interconnectedness of individuals with their

social and cultural environments. He argued that our sense of self is not isolated but is developed
through our interactions with others. Our self-understanding is intertwined with our understanding of
others, and our perception of ourselves is influenced by societal norms, values, and cultural contexts. In
this sense, the self is relational and emerges in the context of our relationships with others.