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16.2 Speciation
(a) explain the processes of isolation,
genetic drift, hybridisation and
adaptive radiation
(b) explain the importance of speciation
in relation to evolution
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THE SPECIES CONCEPT

• According to the biological species concept:

“A species is a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to

interbreed in nature & produce viable, fertile offspring, but unable to produce viable, fertile
offspring with members of other populations”

• However, the concept doesn’t work in all situations

• Eg:
i. not applicable for organisms that are completely asexual in their reproduction or
don’t have a true sexual cycle
ii. some members of different species can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
iii. mutation may happen on members of a species & the mutant may not be able to
produce fertile offspring
iv. inadequate for grouping extinct forms of life

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SPECIATION

• ‘A process regarding the formation of new species from the pre-existing species’
• 2 types of speciation:
i. intraspecific speciation
ii. interspecific speciation

i. Intraspecific Speciation

‘Formation of new species from a parent species’

2 general modes:
i. allopatric speciation
ii. sympatric speciation

Allopatric speciation
-when a geographical barrier physically isolates populations initially & then
blocks gene flow between those populations
-the allopatric populations will become different species when gene flow
between them is impossible
-eg of geographical barriers: mountain ranges, rivers, oceans, formation of
smaller lakes (from a large lake)

SPECIATION
i. Intraspecific Speciation

Allopatric speciation
-allopatric speciation completely occurs if the populations don’t interbreed even
if they aren’t geographically isolated anymore after that

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SPECIATION
i. Intraspecific Speciation

Sympatric speciation
-when intrinsic factors (such as chromosomal changes & non-random mating) alter gene
flow
-the sympatric populations become different species as they are genetically isolated even
though they are occupying the same geographic location

SPECIATION
i. Interspecific Speciation

• ‘Formation of new species from the hybridisation of 2 different species’

• Speciation doesn’t occur if the hybrids are unable to produce offspring
• Usually occurs in plants as the hybrids can interbreed & produce offspring if allopolyploidy
occurs
• Eg of allopolyploidy: evolution of wheat (Triticum)

T. monococcum AA X BB T. searsii

AB infertile hybrid
mutation

T. dicoccum (fertile tetraploid) AABB X DD T. tauschii

ABD infertile hybrid

mutation

T. aestivum (fertile allohexaploid) AABBDD

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FACTORS INVOLVED IN SPECIATION

 Isolation
 Genetic drift
 Hybridisation
 Adaptive radiation

i. ISOLATION

• ‘Mechanism that separates species’

• Prevents 2 different species from producing fertile hybrid offspring
• Ensures that speciation occurs completely as it maintains the species as 2 different
species
• 2 types of isolating mechanisms:
i. prezygotic barriers
ii. postzygotic barriers

ISOLATING MECHANISM
i. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION
Prezygotic barriers

• Factors that prevent mating between species or inhibit fertilization of gametes

• Categories of prezygotic barriers:
i. habitat isolation
- species that live in different habitats within a same area rarely meet or don’t meet
at all
ii. behavioural isolation
- signals that attract mates & mating behaviour are different between species

iii. temporal isolation

- 2 species that breed during different times of the day or different seasons can’t mate
iv. mechanical isolation
- mating can’t occur because of incompatible sexual or anatomical structures of the
different species
v. gametic isolation
- male gametes fail to fuse with female gametes of different species

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i. REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION

Postzygotic barriers

• If fertilization does occur between 2 species, postzygotic barriers prevent the hybrid zygote
from developing into viable, fertile individual
• Categories of postzygotic barriers:
i. hybrid inviability
- hybrids fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity

ii. hybrid sterility

- sterile hybrids fail to produce functional gametes

iii. hybrid breakdown

- offspring of hybrids have reduced viability or fertility

i. ISOLATION

Equus equus Equus hemionus

Horse Ass
2n = 60 2n = 66

Mule
2n = 63

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FACTORS INVOLVED IN SPECIATION

i. ISOLATION

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ii. GENETIC DRIFT

• ‘A random process by which allele frequencies change over time especially for small
populations’

• Frequencies for certain alleles may increase while frequencies for other certain alleles may
decrease & fall to zero

• Eg of situation that increases genetic drift:

- when few individuals become isolated from a larger parent population as they
colonise new location
- members of the small group mate among themselves & frequencies for certain alleles
change over time
- gene pool will be different from that of the parent population; causing speciation
- this shows the founder effect

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ii. GENETIC DRIFT

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iii. HYBRIDISATION

• Mating / crossing between individuals of different species produces hybrids

• A hybrid is usually sterile because its chromosomes are not homologous

• But mutation may produce fertile allopolyploids

• Speciation occurs when the fertile hybrids are considered as new species

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iv. ADAPTIVE RADIATION

• ‘Formation of many diversely adapted species from a common ancestor due to

introduction to various new environments’

• Eg 1: the Galapagos finches

- the common ancestral finches live on the South American mainland
- some strayed to the Galapagos & diversified on the various islands
- different species of finches are formed with different adaptive features for different
type of food

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iv. ADAPTIVE RADIATION

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iv. ADAPTIVE RADIATION

• Eg 2: the Australian marsupials

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