Unit 1 The Industrial

Revolution

The Industrial
Revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid
technological change that took place from around

8
1750 to 1914. It began in Great Britain before
quickly spreading to Europe and other parts of
the world. Huge developments in farming and
manufacturing changed not only the way things

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were produced and sold, but also how people lived
and where they worked. The changes were so
significant that they revolutionised many societies.

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The RMS Titanic was one of the most important
achievements of the Industrial Revolution. On

chapter
10 April 1912 after more than a century of industrial
development, she set out from England on her
maiden voyage to New York. The night Titanic
sank, over 1500 people died. Like the Industrial
Revolution itself, the Titanic was an immense
achievement and a triumph of technology. For

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many though, it was also a disaster.

Source 1 The RMS Titanic leaving Southampton, England, on her maiden voyage to New York, 10 April 1912
D
8A
What developments and
8B
How did the Industrial
8C
What were the short- and long-
innovations led to the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of term impacts of the Industrial
Revolution? men, women and children? Revolution?
1 The Industrial Revolution was brought about by a 1 During this period people gave up farming to find 1 Industrialisation had many impacts on society and the
range of technological, economic and social changes. work. How do you think this affected their lives? environment. In pairs or small groups, brainstorm as
As a class, brainstorm some examples of each. 2 What do you think living conditions would have many changes as you can that were brought about
2 Do you agree that we are in the middle of a digital been like at the time? by the Industrial Revolution – both in the short-term
revolution? and long-term.

246 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 247
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.1 The Industrial Revolution:

a timeline
A woman A woman
using a using a
spinningspinning
jenny jenny

Brunel’sBrunel’s
engineering
engineering
feat: feat: The steamship
The steamship
Great Eastern laying the
Great Eastern laying
firstthe first The Brooklyn
The Brooklyn
Bridge under
Bridge under
1709 1709 the Thames
the Thames
tunnel tunnel successful
successful
AtlanticAtlantic
cable cable construction,
construction,
c. 1878c. 1878
Abraham Abraham
Darby discovers
Darby discovers
how to how to
make cokemakefrom
coke coal
from
– acoal
more– a more
efficientefficient
fuel in the
fuelproduction
in the production
of iron of iron
1883 1883 1908 1908
1825 1825 1866 1866
The firstThe
ten-storey
first ten-storey Henry Ford
Henry uses
Ford uses
IsambardIsambard
Brunel starts
Brunel starts First transatlantic
First transatlantic
skyscraper
skyscraper
is built is built

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telegraph telegraph a production
a production
line line
buildingbuilding
a tunnela under
tunnel under in Chicago
in Chicago
and and 1903 1903
1839 1839 cable laid
cable laid (assembly
(assembly
line) line)
the Thames
the Thames
River; River; the longest The Wright
the longest The brothers
Wright brothers
1765 1765 1792 1792 to produce
to produce
the the
1710 1710 work is work is completed The world’s
completed The world’s
first screw-
first screw-
suspension
suspension
bridge bridge carry out
carry
the out the
James Hargreaves’
James Hargreaves’
spinningspinning InventorInventor
William William
Murdoch Murdoch Ford Model
Ford T
Model T
ThomasThomas
NewcomenNewcomen in 1842in 1842 propelled propelled
steamship,steamship,
at this time,
at thisthe
time, the first powered
first powered
jenny allows
jenny one
allows
worker
one worker
to to uses coal
uses
gascoal
for gas for SS Archimedes,
SS Archimedes,
is built is built
Bridge Bridge heavier-than-air
heavier-than-air
flight flight

AF
builds abuilds
steama engine
steam engine
to to make eight
maketimes
eightthe
times
previous
the previous Brooklyn Brooklyn
house lighting
house lighting in GreatinBritain
Great Britain
pump water
pumpfrom
water
coalmines
from coalmines amountamount
of yarn of yarn in New in York,
NewisYork, is
completed completed
1580 1580 1700 1700 1750 1750 1800 1800 1850 1850 1900 1900 1915 1915

1885 1885
1733 1733 1775 1775 1863 1863 Karl BenzKarluses
Benz anuses an
John KayJohninvents
Kay invents
the flying
the flying James Watt
James Watt Bulk steel
Bulkcreation
steel creation
is madeispossible
made possible internal-combustion
internal-combustion 1912 1912
createscreates
an efficient
an efficient throughthrough
the open-hearth
the open-hearth
processprocess engine engine
in the first
in the first The Titanic,
The Titanic,
then thethen the

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shuttle,shuttle,
allowingallowing
weaversweavers
to to 1793 1793 1821 1821
make larger
makesections
larger sections
of fabricof fabric steam engine
steam engine Eli Whitney
Eli Whitney
invents invents MichaelMichael
FaradayFaraday createdcreated
by Siemens-Martin;
by Siemens-Martin;
the usethe use ‘automobile’
‘automobile’ world’sworld’s
largest largest
passenger passenger
1589 1589
at greater
at greater
speed, speed,
increasing
increasing the cottonthe gin
cotton gin demonstrates
demonstrates
the the of steel of
combined
steel combined
with reinforced
with reinforced 1876 1876 steamship,
steamship,
hits an hits an
William William
Lee invents
Lee invents
the stocking
the stocking
frame, frame,
demanddemand
for yarnfor yarn (engine),(engine),
which which principleprinciple
of an of an concreteconcrete
enablesenables
the construction
the construction Alexander
Alexander
GrahamGraham
Bell Bell icebergiceberg
in the north-west
in the north-west
a mechanical
a mechanical
knitting knitting
machine machine
for knitting
for knitting
can clean
canlarge
clean large electric electric
motor motor of skyscrapers
of skyscrapers patentspatents
his ‘acoustic
his ‘acoustic AtlanticAtlantic
Ocean andOcean and
stockings.
stockings.
It playedIt an
played
important
an important
role in role in
quantitiesquantities
of of telegraph’,
telegraph’,
or telephone
or telephone sinks; 1517
sinks;people
1517 people
die die
the early
the
part
early
of the
partIndustrial
of the Industrial
Revolution
Revolution
D 1779 1779
raw cottonraw cotton

1811 1811
Riots begin,
Riots lasting
begin, lasting
Steam-powered
Steam-powered
The flying
Theshuttle
flying shuttle
introduced
introduced
a more aefficient
more efficient mills with
mills
automatic
with automatic until 1815,
untilin1815,
whichin which Check your learning 8.1
way of weaving
way of weaving weavingweaving
machinesmachines workersworkers
smash up smash up
begin tobegin
be built
to be built factories
factories
and and Remember and understand Evaluate and create
equipment
equipment
in protest,
in protest,
fearing fearing
machines machines
will will 1 What was the ‘flying shuttle’ used for, 4 Conduct some Internet research to find
replacereplace
them. These
them. These and when was it invented? out the dates of some other significant
people people
becomebecome 2 When was the first transatlantic telegraph inventions and discoveries that occurred
known known
as Luddites
as Luddites during the Industrial Revolution. Add these
cable laid?
events to a new timeline in your notebook.
Apply and analyse
3 Using the timeline, calculate how many
A stocking
A stocking
frame, frame,
c. 1770c. 1770
years there were between when the first
Source 1 A timeline of the key events of the Industrial Revolution steam engine was invented and the first
aeroplane flight.

248 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 249
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.2 The Industrial Revolution

Supplies of coal became
35.44
vital to fuel steam engines 35 34.1
33.84
and, later, electrical power 33.4 33.3
34.0
34.4 34.23 33.39

in Britain
32.36
stations. 33.3

Per thousand of population

31.7
31.1 32.0
• improved transport and 30.5
31.43

communications – as the 30 29.7

27.5 28.8
population grew, towns 28.2
27.9
became linked by new canals, 26.7
26.7
25.65
roads and railway lines. 25.0
25
New modes of transport
Britain before 1750 were also invented to replace 23.14
21.65
Before 1750, Britain was an horse-drawn carriages (see Birth rate
Death rate 20.33
agricultural society. Around 80 per Source 3). As travelling 20.80
20 19.98
cent of people at the time lived conditions improved, people
1700 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1800 10 20 30 40
and worked on small farms in travelled more and lived
Year
rural areas. Most farms harvested less isolated lives. Later, new
communication technologies Source 2 Population change in Britain, 1700–1840
small crops each year and raised
like telegraph and telephone

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small herds of livestock (such
as sheep and cattle). Despite the systems were also introduced. Check your learning 8.2
small scale of most English farms, The growth of cities and industries also saw the emergence of a new
agriculture was still the main
Source 1 A 19th-century artist’s impression of rural life in Britain before the social class that became known as the ‘middle class’. This new group Remember and understand
Industrial Revolution
of people came from a broad range of backgrounds and were neither 1 When and where did the Industrial

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economic activity in Britain.
By comparison, manufacturing, wealthy aristocratic landowners nor impoverished factory workers. Revolution begin?
mining and trade employed relatively few people in The Industrial Revolution begins Instead, they included wealthy industrialists and merchants, as well 2 List five key features of British
Britain. For the most part, manufacturing was small and During the Industrial Revolution, Britain’s population as bankers, shopkeepers, teachers, doctors, lawyers, and the increasing society in the century before the
localised. Tools used in the manufacture of most goods quadrupled from an estimated 6.5 million people in 1750 number of managers, clerks and government officials. People earning Industrial Revolution began.
(such as carts, mills and looms) were basic and powered to around 32.5 million in 1900. This increase was mainly middle class salaries could afford fine clothing, furniture, ceramics and
by people, animals or waterwheels that harnessed the a result of improved living standards and declining death other household items. It was this class of people that drove the demand Apply and analyse
power of fast-flowing rivers and streams. rates. The population of Britain moved from rural to for mass-produced consumer goods. They also drove the need for more 3 Write a paragraph explaining how
Towns and villages at the time were small and self- urban communities, and Britain was transformed through schools, universities and libraries. The political power of the British life changed for British people

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contained. Roads linking villages were poor and most the development of: middle class increased throughout the 1800s. between the mid 1700s and the
people travelled on foot or by horse. In fact, Britain’s • factories and textile mills – the Industrial Revolution late 1800s.
road system had not improved much since the fall of the led to thousands of new factories and mills being 4 Using Source 2, describe the
Roman Empire, around 1300 years earlier. As a result, built across Britain. These factories relied on large changes that took place in Britain
most people rarely travelled far from the places where numbers of workers and machinery to manufacture from 1700 to 1840.
they lived and worked.
In most cases, the working day began at sunrise and
ended at sunset. People’s diets were inadequate and
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massive quantities of goods in one place. The growth
of factories and textile mills transformed Britain’s
economy and society.
5 Before the Industrial Revolution,
80 per cent of people lived and
worked on the land. How had this
average life expectancy was short. Illness was common • modern towns and cities – great industrial and trend changed by 1850?
because of poor hygiene, bad or non-existent sewage commercial cities like London and Manchester grew
systems, and polluted water supplies. as people moved to towns and cities to work at the Evaluate and create
British society was divided into strict social classes new factories, mills and metal foundries. Before the 6 Historians still argue about why Britain
according to wealth and position based on birth. The Industrial Revolution, 80 per cent of the population became such a powerhouse of the
aristocratic (noble) families made up only one per cent lived in the countryside and only 20 per cent in Industrial Revolution, while other
of the population but controlled about 15 per cent cities. Industrialisation reversed this pattern. European countries were slower to
of Britain’s wealth. Noble gentlemen did not involve By 1850, 80 per cent of people in Britain were modernise. The Netherlands and
themselves in farming, trades or professions. Instead, living in a major city or town and only 20 per cent France were two other countries
they invested much of their wealth in land. remained on the land. that might have had an Industrial
There is no single event that marks the beginning • new sources of power – the development of steam Revolution first. Conduct some
of the Industrial Revolution in Britain, but the power and electricity transformed the manufacturing, Internet research to identify some of
Source 3 This painting from 1831, The Progress of Steam, A View in
industries that first experienced it were connected agricultural transport and communications industries, Regent Park 1831, humorously shows suggested replacements for horse- the reasons why this didn’t happen.
with the production of iron, coal, cotton and wool. having a major impact on people’s everyday lives. drawn carriages.

250 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 251
 8.3 Why the Industrial Revolution
began in Britain
One of the key factors that led to the start of the superior naval strength ensured that it succeeded
Industrial Revolution in Britain was its authority and in becoming the dominant imperial power, despite Source 2 Britain relied
wealth as an empire. the loss of many of its American colonies in the heavily on a strong navy
and experienced fleets of
American War of Independence in 1865. merchant trading ships.
By 1900, the British Empire had expanded to cover
Rise of the British Empire around a quarter of the Earth’s surface and ruled over a Other factors
The expansion of the British Empire took place in quarter of the world’s population (see Source 1). Many of
Britain’s colonies provided the raw materials, workforce In addition to the power of the British Empire, England – such as banking, investment and insurance
two phases:

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(in the form of slaves) and customers needed to drive the historians have proposed a range of reasons why Britain – expanded to support and protect that trade. Britain’s
• the first phase was the establishment of the
Industrial Revolution. Britain controlled more colonies, was the first country to experience the Industrial banking sector was more advanced and modern than
earliest British colonies in North America in the
and therefore had access to more raw materials than Revolution and why it became the world's leading those of other European countries. There was a ready
1600s. Over the next 200 years Britain, France,
any other country, including sugar from Australia and economic and industrial power for a time. The answer supply of capital (money) available at very low rates of
Spain, the Dutch and Portuguese all laid claims to

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the West Indies, wool from Australia and New Zealand, lies in a combination of factors related to Britain’s interest. This meant that money was available to start
new territories around the world, including the
cotton and tea from India, rubber from Malaya, gold history, geography and culture. Some of these are up new businesses and pay for experiments to develop
Americas, Asia, Africa and the Pacific.
from Australia and South Africa, coffee from Jamaica discussed briefly below: new inventions. Two of the key inventions of the
• the second phase was linked to a series of wars Industrial Revolution, the steamship and the telegraph,
and Africa, wheat from Australia and Canada, and • Britain’s coal supplies – Britain was fortunate to have
fought between the European powers in the 18th were important in helping Britain administer their
timber from the vast pine forests of Canada. large supplies of coal, a vital fuel for the steam power
century and early part of the 19th century. Britain’s colonies around the world.
that drove the Industrial Revolution. None of the
other European powers had such large quantities of
WORLD: BRITISH EMPIRE 1900 accessible coal.
• naval power and trading power – as an island nation,
Check your learning 8.3

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AR C T IC O CEAN
Britain had always relied on skilled sailors, a strong
Remember and understand
navy and experienced fleets of merchant ships. Its
largest merchant trading company was the East India 1 List the main changes that took place across
Company (EIC). At its peak, the EIC rivalled many Britain between 1750 and 1850.
UNITED 2 Why were large coal deposits in Britain so
KINGDOM CANADA smaller European powers in terms of wealth and
& IRELAND
D AT LA NT IC
influence.
• individual freedom and the capitalist spirit – unlike
many of the other European powers, there was
significant during the Industrial Revolution?
3 What was the name of the largest British merchant
trading company?
OCEA N
a greater measure of individual and intellectual 4 List three colonies under British rule and the
EGYPT PAC IF IC
INDIAN BAHAMAS freedom in Britain. These freedoms provided a fertile raw materials they provided to fuel the growth
EMPIRE O CEAN BR. HONDURAS ground for those willing to try new methods and of industries in Britain during the Industrial
NIGERIA BR.WEST INDIES
UGANDA BR. GUIANA
take risks. In other parts of Europe, government Revolution?
MALDIVES restrictions and less individual freedom limited
BR. EAST AFRICA
INDIAN
SOLOMON ISLANDS opportunity. Apply and analyse
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
OCEA N • stable government – before the start of the Industrial 5 What percentage of the Earth’s surface was under
AUSTRALIAN Revolution, Britain had enjoyed a prolonged period British rule by 1900?
COLONIES
without much political or social conflict, compared 6 Use Source 1 and your own research online to
CAPE COLONY LEGEND to many other countries in Europe. This sense
The British Empire NEW ZEALAND answer the following:
in 1900 of stability and order encouraged the growth of
0 2000 4000 km FALKLAND IS a By 1900, 25 per cent of the world’s total
business.
population was ruled by the British. How many
• superior banking system and capital for investment people was this?
Source 1  Source: Oxford University Press
– increased trade meant that financial services in

252 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 253
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.4 Developments in agriculture Improved farm machinery

and methods
keyconcept: Empathy
The effects of the enclosures
By the early to mid-1800s, new farming machinery
By applying the key concept of empathy, historians
was in use. There were new mechanical drills for
planting seed, reaping machines for harvesting crops are able to understand the effects of the enclosures
From the mid-1600s, changes in farming and that were enclosed by hedges or stone walls. This meant (see Source 2) and threshing machines to separate the from the point of view of all those involved. While
agriculture across Britain paved the way for the that local famers could no longer graze their animals valuable grain from the stalks of wheat and barley many wealthy landowners saw the enclosures as a
Industrial Revolution. Many historians believe that or farm the land (see Source 1). Other land, which until plants. These machines made farming more efficient way of increasing in productivity and profits, many
without these changes industrialisation would not then had been known as ‘waste land’, was also enclosed. and increased the profits that could be earned from thousands of ordinary farmers in Britain saw them
have been possible from 1750 onwards. The changes By 1790, three-quarters of all farming land in Britain the land. Each year, the amount of land that could be as the destruction of their way of life. The enclosures
that took place in agriculture were brought about by was enclosed by wealthy landlords. These landlords prepared, farmed and harvested in a season increased. denied them access to the lands that had supported
demands for more food to support Britain’s growing then rented this land to tenant farmers. By the 1840s, fertilisers were widely used, once again their families for centuries and in many cases their
population. Collectively, these changes are referred to The process caused a great deal of social unrest as raising the productivity of the land. property was destroyed. Some landlords permitted
as the Agricultural Revolution. many poor people were forced off the land they had Along with improvements in crop production came their tenants to dismantle their houses and take the
During the Agricultural Revolution, forests were farmed free of charge for generations. Many flooded into improvements in animal breeding and rearing. From the wood away to build elsewhere. Others simply burned
cleared, grazing pastures were turned over to crop the cities and became part of the new industrial working late 1700s onwards, the agriculturalist Robert Bakewell the homes and property of their tenants.

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growing, and low-lying marshes were drained to grow classes, while others sought new lives abroad. began selective breeding of livestock on his property. Between 1775 and 1850, over 25 000 Scots were
even more crops. Small plots of farmland He developed a new breed of quick-fattening sheep with forced from their homes in the Highlands of Scotland
were consolidated into larger, more efficient fields
under the enclosures. As a result, over 100 years Britain
Crop rotation finer wool and tastier meat, called the New Leicester. by landowners wanting to enclose the land. This
Bakewell also bred cattle for beef production. His ideas process became known as the ‘Highland Clearances’.

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increased its farmlands by 30 per cent. Despite the hardship it caused for many poor farmers, produced stronger animals that were noted for their These farmers were left homeless and without the
For the first time, agriculture became a business. the new commercial approach to farming led to larger size and better quality. ability to grow their own food (see Source 3).
Instead of just growing food to eat, farms began improved management of the crops. For centuries,
Source 3
producing surplus amounts of food with the goal of farmers had practised a process known as crop rotation,
which involved leaving a field fallow (unused) for Their wretchedness was so great that [they] …
selling it for profit. Landowners
a period in order to avoid were obliged to subsist upon broth made of
began investing more money
exhausting the soil. However, nettles, thickened with a little oatmeal. Those
in better livestock, fences and
in 1730 a landowner by the who had cattle [resorted to] bleeding them
farming equipment. They also
moved to growing high-yield name of Charles Townshend and mixing the blood with oatmeal, which they

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crops such as wheat and barley. introduced a new method of afterwards cut into slices and fried.
Improved farming techniques crop rotation on his farm that James Loch, The Sutherland Improvements, 1820
and equipment led to increases became known as the ‘four- For more information on the key concept of empathy
in crop production. For example, field system’. He grew wheat Source 2 Cyrus McCormick’s reaping machine of 1831 refer to page XX of ‘The history toolkit’.
the amount of wheat produced in the first field, barley in the led to huge improvements in how grain was harvested.
in Britain increased by 75 per
cent between 1700 and 1800.
D second, root vegetables (such
as carrots and turnips) in the
third and clover in the fourth. Check your learning 8.4
Each season, the crops were
The enclosures rotated (shifted around), which Remember and understand Evaluate and create
More than 4000 Enclosure meant that no field was left 1 What did the ‘enclosure’ of land mean? 6 The Enclosure Acts resulted in improvements in
Acts (laws) were passed by fallow and the soil in each field 2 Approximately how many Acts did the British the farming industry, but it also led to a number
the British Parliament during was kept high in minerals and parliament pass that related to enclosure in the of social problems for farmers who had previously
the Agricultural Revolution. nutrients (like nitrogen). Wheat 1800s and 1900s? had free access to land. With a partner, write and
These Acts transferred areas and barley were harvested for role-play a conversation between a landowner who
3 What innovation led to Charles Townshend’s
of common land that had humans, while the fallow period has benefited from the Enclosure Acts and a farmer
nickname Turnip Townshend? Why was this
previously been worked by was now replaced by clover, who has lost both land and income as a result of
innovation important?
small groups of local farmers which could be used for grazing the Enclosure Acts. In this conversation, ensure
animals. The development of 4 What was Robert Bakewell known for?
into the hands of private each person describes and explains the effect the
landowners. These smaller the four-field system earned Apply and analyse Enclosure Acts have had on their lives and livelihood.
areas of land were then joined Charles Townshend the
5 Write a short paragraph explaining how new
together to create large farms Source 1 Stone walls like these were built to nickname Turnip Townshend.
enclose what was once common land. machinery affected the harvesting of crops.

254 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 255
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.5 Developments in cotton, BRITAIN: TEXTILE PRODUCTION AND COALFIELDS,

EARLY 19TH CENTURY

wool and iron production

LEGEND
Coalfield
Textile production
Canal
Navigable river
Railway

Some of the most important developments and

innovations of the Industrial Revolution took place Glasgow Edinburgh
in the production of cotton, wool, coal and iron.
However, arguably the most important ‘invention’ Source 2 Crompton’s mule
Newcastle
of the Industrial Revolution was not a single item of
equipment or technology at all. Instead, it was a way of or cotton yarns. However, it still required a skilled
producing goods on a large scale using many workers weaver to operate. These spinning mules were
and specialised machinery on one site. This method of developed further so they could be operated by Leeds

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production became known as the factory system. unskilled workers. Steam power was later applied Manchester
Liverpool Sheffield
to the spinning mules for use in cotton-spinning

The factory system factories.

By the middle of the 1760s, Britain had become Birmingham
Before the introduction of the factory system,

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the centre of cotton production, importing raw
manufacturing often took place in small workshops cotton from India and the United States. The raw
or in local workers’ cottages (hence the term ‘cottage N
cotton went to the mills where machines were used Cardiff Bristol London
industries’). Local trades and crafts people such as to spin the raw cotton into yarn, and then weave the
blacksmiths, wheelwrights (wheel makers), cartwrights yarn into cloth. The very first mills were powered 0 150 km Brighton
Exeter
(cart makers), potters, millers and weavers used their by waterwheels, so they needed to be located close
skills, muscle power or water power to largely hand-make to strong-flowing rivers and streams. After the
items. In contrast, the factory system brought together development of steam power, mill owners were able
Source 1 Arkwright’s water frame Source 3 
0270_SAL_BAH3 Industrial
Source: Oxford Britain
University Press
large numbers of workers in a single site or factory. to build mills in cities – closer to a constant supply 1800s
7-10-11

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Few of these workers were skilled because most of the This was especially useful for very wide looms. Weavers of workers and potential customers.
manufacturing was done by machines. Instead, the could produce cloth much more quickly, increasing the As a result of these developments, over time the
many workers performed tasks that were repetitive and demand for spun yarn. skills of traditional weavers (see Source 4) were no
required little skill. The machines were powered at first longer needed. Weavers were replaced by workers
by water with waterwheels, then by steam and next by The spinning jenny who were only required to feed the raw cotton or
electricity. The factory system itself was made possible
by a combination of the technological innovations and
knowledge that emerged during this period.
D
The spinning jenny, a machine invented by James
Hargreaves in 1765, helped increase the supply of yarn. It
could spin eight threads at once, whereas the traditional
cotton yarn into machines. Many mill owners,
keen for increased profits, wanted their machines
running all of the time. This meant long working
hours – up to 16-hour working days – and shift work
spinning wheel could only spin one thread at a time.
Cotton and wool production for labourers. Because mill workers did not need to
be skilled, women and young children became part
The first factories of the Industrial Revolution were The water frame
of the workforce as they were cheaper to employ.
cotton mills. Inventions such as the flying shuttle, The water frame, invented by Richard Arkwright in
Overall, conditions for workers during the first
spinning jenny, water frame (Source 1) and Crompton’s 1768, was a spinning frame that improved on James
decades of the Industrial Revolution were poor.
mule (Source 2) in Britain paved the way for the mass Hargreaves’ invention, as it could be powered by a
Brutally long hours for low pay, in badly lit and
production of cotton and wool. waterwheel and produce yarns of any type.
uncomfortable conditions became commonplace.
Although harsh working conditions for the men,
The flying shuttle Crompton’s mule women and children working in factories and
The flying shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1733, Crompton’s mule was invented in 1779 by Samuel mines were common, there were also exceptions.
introduced a more efficient way of weaving on hand- Crompton by combining the spinning jenny’s carriage For example, at the cotton mills operated by Robert
looms. It only required one weaver to shoot the yarn and the water frame’s rollers. It allowed a single power Owen in New Lanark in Scotland, the children of Source 4 Weavers originally worked from their homes, using their
from one side of the width of the loom to the other. source to spin multiple machines, and worked with wool workers were well cared for and educated. own looms, rather than in factories.

256 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 257
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

Iron production giant panes of glass. By this time, British pig-iron

production was 2.25 million tonnes, 18 times as much
The development of the
Before the Industrial Revolution, iron producers had as in 1796. Similarly, the French put iron to use in 1889 steam engine
to heat (smelt) the iron ore (rock) to extract the raw building Gustave Eiffel’s famous tower (see Source 6).
The invention of the steam engine revolutionised
metal or ‘pig iron’ from it. Generating the necessary The Eiffel Tower is an iron lattice structure created as
manufacturing and transport, and was later used to
heat to smelt the iron ore required charcoal, but the centrepiece of the 1889 World’s Fair in Paris. It is
generate electricity. Coal supplies were vital to fuel the
making charcoal was time-consuming and demanded 324 metres tall – as high as an 81-storey building – and
Industrial Revolution, and the ever-increasing demand
large quantities of wood. Because of this, wood remained the tallest structure in the world until 1930.
for coal led to the opening of new mines and the
supplies across Britain were dwindling. In 1709,
deepening of older mines. The digging of deeper mines
Abraham Darby, an iron producer at Coalbrookdale
in turn required better pumping systems to keep water
in Derbyshire, England (see Source 5), found a way to
from flooding lower levels. Two inventors, Thomas
bake coal to make a substance known as coke. Coke
Savery (around 1698) and Thomas Newcomen (around
was a new, smokeless fuel that burned much hotter
1710) developed early steam engines to pump water
than ordinary coal. Quickly, coke replaced charcoal
from mines.
as the fuel used to smelt iron ore. Iron foundries were
established near coalfields (rather than forests), and the While repairing a Newcomen steam engine,
iron and coal industries became strongly linked. engineer James Watt realised that he could greatly
increase its efficiency. Watt did not invent the steam
Other innovations also made the smelting process

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engine but in 1769, he developed an improved version
more efficient. In 1784, iron producer Henry Cort was
that was more practical and powerful. In 1775, Watt
able to combine two processes, known as ‘puddling’
formed a partnership with Matthew Boulton to
and ‘rolling’, which made the large-scale production
manufacture the new steam engines (see Source 8).
of pig iron possible. The amount of pig iron smelted

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Over the next 25 years, their firm manufactured almost
in Britain rose from 25 000 tonnes in 1728 to 60 000
500 steam engines. They were used not only in the
tonnes in 1788. By 1796, Britain was producing was
mining industry, but also in cotton-spinning factories,
125 000 tonnes.
flour mills, breweries and sugar cane crushing mills
As production increased, new uses were found for
around the country. Source 8 James Watt’s steam engine for pumping water
iron. Iron utensils such as knives and forks became from mines
common, as did iron pots and pans for household
kitchens. Iron was also used as a building material
in factories and houses, transforming the design of
buildings. For example, in 1851, London’s Crystal
Check your learning 8.5

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Palace had a roof and walls made of iron frames and Source 6 The Eiffel Tower under construction, 1889
Remember and understand 8 Why was James Watt’s invention so important at this
1 What were some of the problems with using charcoal time in history?
in the process of extracting iron from iron ore? 9 In your opinion, which of the four inventions
2 What is coke, and what difference did it make to the discussed was the most important for the textile
D iron-making process?
3 Name some of the new uses and products that
industry in Britain? Justify your response.

Evaluate and create

developed from the availability of mass-produced 10 Create a poster which shows how new inventions
iron. transformed the textile industry during the Industrial
4 What was one of the major reasons for the increase Revolution. Make sure you include labelled diagrams
in demand for coal during the 1700s? or illustrations.
5 List three effects of the increased demand for coal 11 Imagine you are an 80-year-old weaver in the late
during the 1700s and early 1800s. 1700s. Write a short account of how your life and
6 Why was the cotton industry regarded as a ‘cottage work practices have changed over your lifetime
industry’ prior to the Industrial Revolution? because of new inventions in the textile industry.
Apply and analyse
7 Explain why the iron production and coal-mining
industries became so closely linked during the
Industrial Revolution.
Source 5 Coalbrookdale ironworks operating at night, 1801 Source 7 Foundry workers using a large steam hammer to
shape red-hot iron, Manchester, England, 1832

258 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 259
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.6 Developments
developed to replace the easily damaged
paddle-wheels of the early steam ships. By
1838, ships were crossing the Atlantic Ocean

in transport
driven purely by steam power. In 1843, the
great British engineer Isambard Kingdom
Brunel (see the Significant Individual section
on pages XX–XX) launched the SS Great
Britain, the first iron-hulled steamship with
a screw propeller designed to cross oceans.
Steamships quickly began to replace sailing
At the start of the Industrial Revolution,
ships as the preferred means of ocean-
transport in Britain was slow and costly,
going transport. Although their cargo space
regardless of whether people travelled by
was reduced by the large amount of space
road, river or sea. From 1750 onwards,
required for storing coal, they were faster
growing numbers of wealthy merchants
and more reliable.
and industrialists started demanding
quicker and cheaper forms of transport
to move coal to their factories, ship their
The internal combustion engine

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products to markets and speed up travel While the steam engine was useful for
between cities. As a result, a number of factories, trains and ships, it was too large
new inventions and improvements were to use in smaller businesses and smaller
made in the area of transport. vehicles. In 1859, Belgian engineer Etienne Source 3 The world’s first motorcycle built by Gottlieb Daimler, 1855
Lenoir developed an engine that sucked

AF
Source 1 The original Stephenson’s ‘Rocket’ locomotive,
from 1829, now housed at the Science Museum in London
New inventions coal gas and air into a cylinder, where it
was ignited by a spark, pushing down a
Steam locomotives Steamships metal piston that turned a wheel. This
invention became the basis for the internal
The first steam locomotive was built by English The first commercial steamship was developed by an combustion engine – the same engine that is
engineer Richard Trevithick in 1801. Unlike American named Robert Fulton in 1807. Like the steam used in all modern cars and engines.
modern locomotives, it was driven on roads locomotive, the steamship went through many different
German engineers Gottlieb Daimler
rather than rails. In 1804, Trevithick was the designs and improvements over the next 100 years.
and Wilhelm Maybach experimented with
first person to drive a steam locomotive on the For example, the more resilient screw-propellers were

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an engine that used a new fuel, which later
rails of a tramway.
became known as gasoline or petrol. Daimler
The first locomotive built first used it in 1885 to power a wooden bike
and used for commercial called the Daimler Reitwagen (see Source 3).
purposes was known as A year later, another German designer and
the Stephenson’s Rocket.
It was invented by George
Stephenson (see Source 1)
in 1829 and remains one
D engineer named Karl Benz patented the
world’s first petrol-powered car known as the
Benz Patent-Motorwagen (see Source 4).
As internal combustion engines became
of the most famous steam
more reliable and powerful, cars became
locomotives. From this point
more and more common. At first, private cars
on, the designs of steam
were painstakingly built by hand. Their high
locomotives became more
cost meant they became the toys of the very
sophisticated. They also
rich. It was not until 1908 that Henry Ford Source 4 The first Mercedes Benz motorcar, 1886
became far more powerful
made the dream of owning a car possible for
and capable of reaching
the common man. He did this by adapting The internal combustion engine also allowed for the
greater speeds.
the factory system to create an affordable car development of an engine that would be light yet strong
known as the Ford Model T. By using an assembly- enough to power flying machines. American brothers
line technique with a sequence of specialised Wilbur and Orville Wright used a petrol engine
workers who repeated the same task on a series of connected to two propellers fitted onto a wooden glider
components, he was able to produce cars much to fly for 59 seconds in 1903. Powered flight was to
Source 2 The launch of SS more cheaply and quickly. develop rapidly, triggered by World War I.
Great Britain in Bristol in 1843

260 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 261
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

Other transport improvements and innovations Initially, barges pulled by horses walking beside
canals transported crops from the country the city and
As new modes of transport became available, demand Railways added a whole new phase to the Industrial manufactured goods from the city back to the country.
for new and improved roads, bridges, canals, and Revolution. In 1830, a new track linking the Manchester The canals were also used to move coal and other heavy
railway lines grew rapidly. cotton industry to the port of Liverpool opened to goods, replacing the slower method of coastal shipping.
transport goods for export. This was the first railway to As the high price of coal was mainly due to the costs of
Improved roads and bridges link two major cities. Throughout the 1830s and 1840s, moving it (rather than mining it), new canals caused
In the early 1700s, most roads in Britain were built the building of rail tracks and strong, iron bridges for new the price of coal to drop by half. The new lower price
and maintained by local inhabitants who carried out train routes meant that iron production doubled at this fed even faster growth in cotton mills. Cheaper coal
repairs only when absolutely necessary. This meant time. transport also dropped the price of cotton weaving,
that most roads outside London were in very poor Development of railways in Britain grew rapidly, with increasing the profits for mill owners.
condition. A few roads were managed by turnpike trusts permission for the construction of 438 new lines granted
by Parliament between 1844 and 1846. More workers Source 8 The Forth Railway Bridge in east Scotland under
– agencies that collected fees from travellers in return
construction. By the time of its completion in 1890, it was the
were needed in the iron factories to meet railway orders,
for keeping the roads in good condition (see Source 7).
and another 200 000 men were employed, just for laying
longest bridge of its kind. Check your learning 8.6
By the early 1800s, pressure from industrialists such
as Josiah Wedgwood (ceramics), John Wilkinson (iron) railway tracks. By 1848, over 40 million train journeys
Just like roads, these new railway lines required Remember and understand
and Matthew Boulton (coin minting) led to a dramatic were made in Britain.
Before the Industrial Revolution, the journey from strong, reliable bridges that could carry locomotives and 1 How did developments in the use of canals lead to

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increase in the number of turnpike trusts. By the 1830s
London to Edinburgh – just over 640 kilometres – took their cargo across wide rivers and gorges. The designs a drop in coal prices?
there were more than 1000 such trusts. As a result, roads
between 10 and 12 days by horse-drawn coach. By 1836, of iron bridges – already being used to carry cars and 2 Use the information provided to answer the
improved and travel times decreased.
the travel time had dropped to just under two days by other small vehicles – were modified so they would be following:
As roads improved, demand for more reliable and
train. By 1850 – when all of Britain was linked by rail – strong enough to carry much larger, heavier loads over a How were roads maintained in Britain before
convenient ways of crossing rivers grew. In 1779,

AF
this had dropped to around 12 hours (see Source 5). larger distances (see Source 8). The surge in demand for the Industrial Revolution?
Abraham Darby began building the world’s first cast-iron
these types of railway bridges in turn led to increased
bridge to link a small mining town with nearby factories Travel for holidays became more common and some b What led to better upkeep of roads during the
demand for iron production.
in the town of Coalbrookdale. A toll was charged for commodities became more readily available. These early 1800s?
using the bridge which became known as the Iron Bridge included fresh flowers and milk, delivered to London on c Where and when was the world’s first railway line
early morning ‘milk trains’ from Cornwall and Devon
Canals built?
(see Source 6). The bridge became famous in 1795 when it
remained standing after a major flood. After that, many in the south-west. Over 100 canals were dug across Britain from 1760 to 3 What commodities became more easily available
more bridges were built using iron rather than stone. 1820, linking the major rivers and creating a transport
Source 5 Changes in travel times (in hours) between London as a result of improvements to the railway network
network for the transportation of food and freight. One
and other key cities, 1836 and 1850 in Britain?
Railways of the longest canals was the Liverpool to Leeds canal at

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CITY 1836 1850 4 How were ships powered prior to steam power?
204 kilometres long. Work on it was begun in 1770 and
The world’s first railway line was built in 1825 between Edinburgh 43 12.5
the coalfields in Darlington and the seaport of Stockton
finished in 1816. Apply and analyse
Liverpool 24 6.6
in north-east England. It combined two innovations – Exeter 18 4.75 5 What evidence is there in Source 2 to suggest
the steam engine (formerly used to pump water from Birmingham 11 3 that the launch of the SS Great Britain was a
mines) and rail-mounted mining trucks (formerly pulled
by horses).
Brighton
D 6 1.25 significant historical event? In groups, construct a
list of modern events that you believe to be equally
significant. Discuss your lists as a class and decide
which characteristics or impacts of both events
make them significant.
6 Why was steam power regarded as ‘more reliable’
than earlier forms of transport? What role did it
play in furthering the Industrial Revolution?

Evaluate and create

7 Conduct some additional online research in order
to design a poster advertising the advantages and
benefits of one of the following inventions:
• the Stephenson’s Rocket
Source 6 This bridge in the town of Ironbridge, England, Source 7 An artist’s impression of Tyburn Turnpike in London • the Daimler Reitwagen
designed by Thomas Pritchard and built by Abraham Darby in in 1813 showing the toll house and a toll being collected from Source 9 Canals, such as this one in Leeds, played an • Benz Patent-Motorwagen.
1779, is the world’s first iron structure. a horseman passing through the gate. important role linking mills with the sources of their raw materials.

262 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 263
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.7 Significant individual: A new kind of ship

Before the Great Western Railway was complete, Brunel

Isambard Kingdom Brunel

announced that he had a vision of an even greater
project – the construction of a steam-powered ship that
would allow passengers to continue their journey all
the way from the English coast to New York. In 1838,
his paddle steamer the SS Great Western, made of wood
but reinforced with iron, crossed the Atlantic in 15 days.
By 1843, Brunel’s ship the SS Great Britain was the first
Isambard Kingdom Brunel was a British engineer,
truly ‘modern’ ship, built entirely of iron, and with a
builder and inventor who lived during the Industrial Source 3 Clifton Suspension Bridge, as it stands today in Bristol
six-bladed screw propeller instead of a paddle wheel. Late
Revolution. During his lifetime, Brunel worked on the
in his life, Brunel began work on the SS Great Eastern (see
first-ever tunnel under the River Thames; engineered match other lines in the country. He was nearly killed
Source 2), the largest steamship built before the 20th
the Great Western Railway, along with all its bridges during the construction of the Thames Tunnel and,
century. It was designed for the long return journey to
and tunnels; and designed the world's first iron- although the SS Great Eastern was the largest ship ever
India and Australia without refuelling, as it was believed
hulled, steam-powered and propeller-driven ship. For built at the time, it ran over budget and struggled to
at this time that there was no coal in Australia.
these reasons he is often described as one of the most make a profit once launched. Also Brunel did not live to

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significant individuals in British history. see some of his most famous monuments. Neither the
Brunel’s legacy Clifton Suspension Bridge nor the SS Great Eastern were
Early life Brunel hoped to retire to Brunel Manor, a house and
completed until after his death.
garden that he had designed himself to enjoy in his old Despite this, Brunel’s achievements were so long-
Brunel was born in 1806 in the town of Portsmouth

AF
age. However, he died from a stroke in 1859, and did not lasting that many of them are still in use today. The
in south-east England. His father was a French civil Thames Tunnel is part of the London railway network,
live to see it finished. Brunel is remembered as one of the
engineer who taught him technical drawing and and dozens of Brunel’s British bridges are not only still
pioneers of the Industrial Revolution, although history
observational techniques from the age of four. When standing, but also carrying modern trains and traffic.
largely remembers his successes, not his failures. Many
Brunel was 15, his father was sent to prison for failing
Victorian critics hated his noisy trains, and thought
to pay debts of more than £5000. After three months,
however, the British government ended up paying off
his bridges were eyesores. His proposed ‘broad gauge’ Check your learning 8.7
rail size, although more efficient and comfortable for
his debts to keep him from offering his engineering
passengers, was eventually phased out because it did not Remember and understand
skills to the Russians.

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Although Brunel received a traditional education, 1 What did Brunel train as before taking a job with
his main hobby was building model boats. After his father’s firm?
completing an apprenticeship as a clockmaker in 2 Why did the British government bail Brunel’s father
France, Brunel returned to Britain, where he worked Source 1 Isambard Kingdom Brunel, in front of the launching out of prison?
with his father on a ground-breaking engineering chains of the SS Great Eastern, c. 1850 3 What two design innovations set the SS Great
project – the Thames Tunnel – a railway line under
the river. This project was plagued by accidents and
challenging engineering problems, but eventually
D
might be embarrassed or shackled by recording or
Britain apart from earlier ships?
4 Which of his creations have stood the test of time?
resulted in success. It also provided many opportunities registering as law the prejudices or errors of today.’ Apply and analyse
for Brunel to develop his skills. At the age of 27, Brunel was appointed the chief
5 Conduct some research to discover why Brunel’s
engineer for the Great Western Railway, whose tracks
first steamship was called the SS Great Western.
Bridges and railways eventually stretched 230 kilometres from London to
Exeter. Brunel surveyed the route himself in order to 6 What evidence is there to suggest that things did
Although there was strong competition from other ensure the trains would have the smoothest passage. not always go Brunel’s way?
engineers, the young Brunel’s plans for the Clifton He also designed numerous iron bridges to carry the Evaluate and create
Suspension Bridge (see Source 3) in south-west England trains, as well as massive iron-supported train sheds
7 Isambard Kingdom Brunel was a brilliant engineer
beat all other contenders. Brunel replaced old- and buildings, such as the vast Paddington station in
fashioned designs with a modern look. He believed that
who designed and built ships, bridges and tunnels.
London. Brunel was personally involved in the design
innovation and experimentation was important and of the railway itself, claiming that the ‘standard gauge’
Conduct some research to find out more about
would be welcome: ‘I am opposed to the laying down of was a relic from the days when rails were only used for Brunel and create a PowerPoint (or other kind of
rules or conditions to be observed in the construction mining carts, and that better speeds could be obtained visual display with words and images) presentation
of bridges lest the progress of improvement tomorrow by using wider rails. Source 2 The SS Great Eastern steamship, designed by to inform others about his work and influence.
Isambard Kingdom Brunel

264 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 265
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.8 Expansion of factories keyconcept: Continuity and change

The assembly line
and mass production Henry Ford (1863–1947) was an American
industrialist who introduced the concept of
the assembly line for mass production of
consumer goods. Although it has changed
significantly because of advances in
Progress and developments from the 1850s brought There were some obvious benefits. The overall standard technology, it is still used in many factories
about advances in engineering and machine tools. of living improved, and salaries increased from £25 in 1750 today. The assembly line adapted the factory
Machinery both shortened the time required to to £44 in 1860. However, the new production methods system to a new purpose with a sequence of
make a product and reduced the number of people also created new problems, leaving many skilled cottage specialised workers repeating the same task
that were necessary for its production. Workers were workers jobless, and encouraging a factory system that only on a series of components. The Ford Model T
needed to look after the machines, but they did not valued large-scale production at low cost. Furthermore, the (1908) was the first affordable automobile.
need to be as skilled. Instead, production became role of the worker became closely linked to ensuring that It was initially available in grey, green, blue or
focussed on producing large volumes of machine- the machinery produced a certain quantity of goods or red. By 1914, Ford had famously insisted on

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made goods at far lower prices – a system known as material rather than ensuring it was of a certain quality. a new policy, that his car should be available
mass production. Employment was offered to women and children because in ‘any colour … so long as it is black’.
Cotton became Britain’s chief export, replacing they could be paid less. Factories became notorious for
Source 3 The assembly-line production of the Ford Model T, as seen
wool. British cotton goods accounted for 5 per cent of poor safety conditions and harsh working environments. Source 2 here in a photo from the early 20th century, made automobile ownership

AF
all national income. People such as Richard Arkwright, Until parliamentary reform began to regulate these I will build a car for the great multitude. more than a dream for many.
the inventor of the water frame in 1768, had predicted working conditions, workers had to endure long hours It will be large enough for the family but
that production would become centralised, with all and mindless repetitive tasks, unsanitary work areas, and small enough for the individual to run Ford was unusual for his time, in that he promoted
workers in the process being housed in one location. conditions in which they either froze or roasted depending and care for. It will be constructed of the high wages for workers and low prices for consumer
Many production centres turned into factory towns, on the season of the year. best materials, by the best men to be hired, goods. This approach would become known as
with housing for the workers located close to the mill. Portrayals of the period often show the workers as after the simplest designs that modern Fordism. This, he believed, would allow ordinary people,
Manchester was one of the largest, with a population if they themselves were machines or part of machines engineering can devise. But it will be so low not just those who were well off, to take part in what he
that grew from 25 000 to 300 000 between 1777 churning out their products in gloomy, smoke-ridden in price that no man making a good salary imagined would be the peace-enhancing qualities of
and 1851. environments. will be unable to own one and enjoy with his consumerism.

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family the blessing of hours of pleasure in For more information on the key concept of
God’s great open spaces. continuity and change refer to page XX of ‘The history
D Henry Ford, My Life and Work, 1922 toolkit’.

Check your learning 8.8

Remember and understand Apply and analyse
1 Why were women and children popular choices as 5 Write a short paragraph explaining how
factory workers? industrialisation led to the creation of ‘factory towns’.
2 Why did workers need less skill to work in factories 6 Using the information provided as your own research,
in the Industrial Revolution? define the term ‘Fordism’ in your own words.
3 What were two of the benefits of new production
Evaluate and create
methods and two of the drawbacks?
7 Imagine you are a worker in an 18th-century factory.
4 What innovation allowed Henry Ford to manufacture
Write a short account of a typical day in your life,
the first truly affordable automobile?
making sure you highlight the advantages and
disadvantages of factory work in those times.

Source 1 An illustration of power-loom weaving in a textile factory, 1834

266 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 267
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.9 The spread of the USA

After the birth of the United States of America following

Industrial Revolution
the War of Independence, American industry began
to grow rapidly, especially in the north east of the
USA. By 1900, the USA had a larger percentage of
world manufacturing than Britain. The USA was rich
in natural resources and as settlements expanded into
the western regions of the country, more and more
of these raw materials became available to American
The Industrial Revolution in Britain marked a major
manufacturers. American inventors and inventions
turning point in human history. Almost every aspect of
proved to be as important as any in Britain in moving
daily life was influenced in some way. At around 1850,
the world into the modern era.
a whole series of new developments in technology led Source 3 The settlement of Sydney, c. 1870
to even greater technological and economic progress.
Many historians describe the period from 1850 to 1914 Japan as steamship travel along the coast and major rivers.
as the Second Industrial Revolution. The discovery Wealth from the discovery of gold gave the Australian
By 1868, Japan had been effectively cut off from
of electricity offered yet another source of power for colonies opportunities to develop new railways and
Western influences for 260 years, after the shogun

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industry and further changes in lifestyle (see Source 1). take advantage of new technologies such as the electric
(military leader) expelled all Christian missionaries from
It also led to new forms of communication, such as the telegraph and electric lighting.
the country and closed the borders to all foreigners. The
telegraph and the telephone.
arrival of American warships in the 1850s led to the Despite these advances, Australia’s industrial
Recognising the potential for earning money from development was in many ways hectic and unplanned.
Meiji Restoration – a period in Japanese history when

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new inventions and markets, investors gave strong This became apparent after Federation in 1901, when
the emperor was returned to power as the figurehead
financial support to the new technologies. Although Source 1 With the discovery and harnessing of electricity,
of a new, modern government, and trade with the West the new country was found to have three different rail
Britain attempted to stop the spread of industrial people quickly found ways to use it that made their lives easier.
increased dramatically. Initially, large quantities of gauges, which made it impossible to transport goods
knowledge beyond its borders, it was not successful. across state borders without changing trains. In addition
rest of Europe grew as it built blast furnaces (furnaces goods were imported from Europe and the Americas.
Ideas, machines and designs were soon copied abroad. to this, the states had conflicting ideas about industry
for melting ore to produce metals such as iron) and Over time, however, Japan became the first country
Britain began to regard technology itself as a new (and its development or protection) and disagreed about
developed railways to transport goods. in Asia to become industrialised, as it swiftly adopted
export. Manufacturing spread across Europe and then tariffs (taxes) and their use.
Western ideas and inventions. Japanese goods became
into other parts of the world. France’s development was slower. France had a
highly sought after overseas, particularly tea, silk, cotton
primarily agricultural economy until much later in the
fabrics and buttons. Japan also imitated the West in its
Check your learning 8.9

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1800s. In coastal areas such as Normandy, however, the
Europe textile industries modernised in reaction to competition
adoption of an aggressive policy of overseas expansion,
seizing territory in China and Korea in the late 19th
One of the first countries abroad to be affected by from Britain and Belgium. Remember and understand
century.
the industrial developments in Great Britain was Germany had large deposits of coal and iron 1 List some of the countries that were affected by
Belgium. Belgium was similar to Great Britain in many ore, and these were quickly exploited using the new the Industrial Revolution after Britain.
Australia
ways, with a strong textile trade and many potential
investors. It also benefited from the large reserves of
coal as a source of energy. Belgium’s iron exports to the
D
technologies. Between 1870 and the start of World
War I in 1914, Germany developed at such a rate that
its manufacturing output outstripped Britain’s.
The British decision to establish a penal colony in
Australia in 1788 was largely an attempt to solve some
Apply and analyse
2 Write a short paragraph comparing and
of the problems faced by Great Britain that were a contrasting the ‘first’ Industrial Revolution in the
consequence of the Industrial Revolution. Rising prison 1750s and the ‘second’ Industrial Revolution 100
populations were the result of increased crime rates in years later.
the new factory towns and among unemployed farm 3 Explain how the Industrial Revolution differed in
labourers. It was thought that this problem could be Britain and one other European country.
resolved by transporting criminals to a distant land. 4 Name three areas in which Japan’s modernisation
By 1813, a steam mill was operating in Sydney, followed a Western model, and name the countries
major roads had been constructed to transport goods from which it copied.
to and from the seaports and a strong pastoral (stock-
raising) industry had developed inland. By the mid- Evaluate and create
1830s, Australia had also become a colonial destination 5 What evidence was there in 1901 that the
for free British migrants. As other colonies were development of Australia had been hectic and
settled, the development of transport links increased. unplanned?
Source 2 France’s emergence as an ‘industrial’ country, with industries such as large-scale coal mining, came later than Britain’s. Railways were in use in Australia by the 1850s, as well

268 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 269
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8.10 Later developments

Power stations were first
built as a source of power for
electric lighting. Developed

in technology and science

through the work of Joseph
Swan, an Englishman, and
Thomas Edison, an American,
they produced ‘Ediswan’ bulbs
to light houses and streets.
Power stations initially
used steam engines to turn the
Chemistry Electricity dynamos to generate electricity.
In 1884, Charles Parsons
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, scientific thought In 1791, Italian scientist Luigi Galvani discovered that
invented the steam turbine,
worked on the theory that four basic elements – fire, he could make a dead frog’s legs twitch if he struck them
which allowed for a greater
earth, water and air – were the components of all things. with a spark. His fellow experimenter Alessandro Volta
speed of rotation by forcing
Scientists began to extend this with the first creation recognised the potential of Galvani’s discovery, and
a blast of steam along a tube,
of a table of chemical elements in 1789. This marked developed a technology to store the energy (‘electricity’)
turning a rotor at great speed.
the beginnings of the modern periodic table. French in a cell or battery. This ability to store and use power was

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chemist Antoine Lavoisier identified 23 elements. He to be successfully developed over the following few years, Factories driven by
named different chemical compounds made by the creating a new energy source. electricity were cleaner and
combination of these chemical elements and developed safer, as they did not require
In the 1880s, electric power stations were built.
a system that recognised the weight of atoms. the large belts used to drive
These stations offered an alternative to steam engines
machinery like those in steam-

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During the 1800s, other scientists broke down for driving machines and to gas for lighting. Electricity Source 3 An 1887 woodcut showing an early power station
powered stations. Newer
over 70 000 chemical compounds, often in search of was not the work of one person or nation. The English
industries mainly used this new power source, and, By 1866, this transatlantic cable allowed rapid
new materials for inventions or for improvements to scientist Michael Faraday produced the first continuous
unlike coal-powered industries, they could be located communication between Britain and the USA. The
existing materials. In the process, they discovered flow of electric current. His work in electromagnetic
anywhere, as long as there were power lines to carry the telegraph helped to bind together the distant parts of
how to make petroleum, vulcanised rubber, Portland induction (see Source 2) was the basis for dynamos and
electric current. In some areas water was used to drive the British Empire and was an important part of the
cement and synthetic dyes. Polish–French researcher other electric motors. He produced current by rotating
the electric turbines (hydroelectric power), so factories development of Australia. From 1858, the Australian capital
Marie Curie (see Source 1) isolated the element radium a coil between the two poles of a horseshoe magnet. A
could be built in areas such as Scotland where there was cities were all linked by telegraph. The Australian overland
and coined the term ‘radioactivity’, which would dynamo turned the mechanical power needed to rotate
limited coal. telegraph from Darwin to Port Augusta in South Australia
become a controversial source of power after the the coil into electric current. This current could then
was completed in 1872. This, together with new undersea

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Industrial Revolution. drive a machine by using the energy. Wires were strung around Britain to carry power to
factories and homes. Power grids were created to share cables, provided an instant communication channel
the electricity produced and to service high demand areas between Australia, Britain and Europe for the first time.
such as cities. A reliable supply of electricity meant that
factories no longer relied on a supply of coal to power
D them. As a result, they were free to move away from coal
mines in the north and west of Britain closer to cities in
the south like London.
Check your learning 8.10
Remember and understand
1 In what year was the modern periodic table first
Communications developed?
The discovery of electricity helped to develop an 2 Which scientist was responsible for the discovery
invention that revolutionised mass communications of the element radium?
– the telegraph. The telegraph allowed text messages
Apply and analyse
to be transmitted long distances without the need to
physically deliver a letter. Telegraphs were sent using
3 Describe some of the advantages of the first
a coded system of sounds to represent the alphabet. electric power stations.
For example, Morse code used short electrical impulses 4 Why was the development of the battery so
(dots) and slightly longer ones (dashes) to spell out the important for users of electricity?
letters of messages. 5 How did the growth of electricity-powered
In 1851, London and Paris were linked by an factories lead to a general movement of population
Source 1 Physicist and chemist Marie Curie Source 2 Faraday’s electromagnetic induction experiment, 1882 undersea cable and by 1858, the first transatlantic cable from the north to the south?
in her laboratory was laid, stretching from Europe to North America.

270 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 271
 8A What developments and innovations led to the Industrial Revolution?

8A: rich task

Step 1 Design your presentation • One thing at a time! At any moment, what is on
the screen should be the thing you are talking
Inventions of the
• Plan your presentation carefully so it has a clear
beginning, middle and end. about. Your audience will quickly read every slide
• Make sure you present the content in clear, concise as soon as it’s displayed. If there are four points
Industrial Revolution Source 2 The flying shuttle allowed the thread to be shot
back and forth across a wider weaving bed, producing much
wider lengths of cloth, much faster.
dot-point form, not as large slabs of text.
• Don’t fill up your PowerPoint with lots of random
on the slide, they’ll have read all four points while
you are still talking about the first point. Plan your
During the Industrial Revolution, new pictures that are not related to the content. Make presentation so just one new point is displayed at
technologies and inventions transformed the sure each visual is accompanied by a caption that any given moment. Navigate to the next point only
when you are ready to talk about that next point.
way that people lived and worked. Major explains why it is relevant to the presentation.
• Speak clearly – not too fast, not too slow. Vary your
changes in farming, mining, agriculture, • A common mistake is to have objects and text
moving on the screen in a way that just distracts tone and pitch to make your presentation more
communication and manufacturing changed
the audience. Use graphics, sounds, video, interesting.
almost all aspects of life.
animations and transitions only if they add value to • Make eye contact with different members of your
the point being made, not just because you think audience. Do not just look down at your cue cards.
they will look or sound good.
Apply the skill

T
• Use a design that ensures your audience can
In this chapter, you have learned about many significant 1 Research, prepare and present an audiovisual
clearly see and read the slides. Make sure there is
inventions from The Industrial Revolution such as the flying presentation about three significant inventions
enough contrast between the text colour and the
shuttle, the spinning jenny, the steam engine, the internal- created during the Industrial Revolution that were not
background colour on the slide, and make sure
combustion engine, electricity and the telegraph. These

AF
your font size is large enough. discussed in this section. Use the following questions
are only a few of the many inventions and discoveries that to structure your presentation:
Step 2 Deliver your presentation
changed the way people lived and worked at the time. a Who invented it?
Others include the sewing machine, the telephone, the • When delivering a PowerPoint presentation to an
audience, you should do more than just stand up b When was it invented?
light bulb, the phonograph, the circular saw, the battery,
and read out the text on each slide. Instead, talk c How did it work?
the typewriter and even the first revolver. All of these
in a way that develops and expands on the points d Why was it significant?
inventions contributed to the modern world in some way.
on each slide. Carefully plan in advance what you 2 Your presentation should be well researched and
are going to say during each slide. Record this plan based on relevant and reliable sources. For detailed

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on cue cards, and refer to these cards during your information on this skill, refer to page XX of ‘The history
speech to remind you what to say. toolkit’.
Source 3 George Stephenson’s locomotive Blucher was the
first successful steam-powered train. It was completed and
tested on the Cillingwood Railway on 25 July 1814.
D
skilldrill: Historical significance
Extend your understanding
As you listen to the presentations of your classmates, Give each classmate your completed peer
complete the peer assessment proforma below. Ask your assessment. Collect the peer assessments that
Creating and delivering an audiovisual teacher to photocopy several copies so that you can your classmates completed as they listened to your
complete one for each presentation you listen to. presentation. Read their feedback, and then complete
presentation a short self-assessment by responding to the following
You have probably created several PowerPoint Name of presenter: Name of person questions:
presentations already. You may have also tried out completing peer
assessment: • What did I do well in terms of my PowerPoint design?
some other audiovisual presentation software, such as
Component of What did the What could the • What could I improve in terms of my PowerPoint
Prezi, which is freely available on the Internet. Whichever presentation: presenter do well presenter improve
program you choose, it is important to use it effectively, design?
in this regard? upon in this regard?
and avoid some common problems of these types of PowerPoint design: • What did I do well in terms of my oral presentation?
presentations. Use the following steps to help you avoid Oral presentation: • What could I improve in terms of my oral presentation?
Source 1 A reconstruction of James Watt’s steam engine these issues.

272 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 273
 8B How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of men, women and children?

8.11 Working conditions

Children’s pay was well below that of adults – often
about 20 per cent of the full adult wage. Wages for children
were sometimes paid in the form of vouchers that could
only be used at stores owned by the factory owner. There,
the children could use them to purchase clothing or basic
foods such as flour. This system allowed the factory owner
While it cannot be denied that the Industrial Long working days took their toll on families, and to avoid paying wages in cash and helped them to make
Revolution improved living standards of most people children were dragged into working life with little extra profits on sales.
across Britain, these improvements came at a high price. opportunity for education. Even with long hours and low pay, children could still
The obvious winners were the industrialists, the people The phrase ‘dark satanic mills’ was first used by the earn more in the factory towns than in the country. Over
who owned the mills, the factories and the mines. The English poet William Blake in 1808. It was frequently time, social reforms raised the minimum age, shortened
new middle class also benefited from technological used in the 19th century to refer to the miserable Source 3 An artist’s impression of a group of mill workers in the working day, increased wages and introduced some
advances, making their lives more comfortable. Manchester, London Illustrated News, 1840 form of education.
working conditions of labourers in Britain. Many
However, many more people were forced to give up writers of the time were appalled by the plight of poor Child labour in factories also declined as complex
their traditional rural lifestyle for a life in one of the people whose work seemed endless and unrewarding, machinery became more difficult for children to handle.
new industrial cities – working long hours and living in and whose lives were cut short by poverty, disease and In other areas, such as mining, their use as labourers
cramped and unsanitary conditions. injury. One of these concerned individuals, Friedrich was limited or barred. It is hard for us now to imagine

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Engels, a German industrialist and philosopher, wrote their lifestyles or the conditions in which these children
Britain’s ‘dark satanic mills’ extensively about this situation (see Source 2). worked. Source 5 comes from evidence given to a British
government inquiry into child labour in factories in 1833.
The working conditions and experiences of men, Source 2
women and children during the Industrial Revolution … a mass of children work the whole week Source 5

AF
varied from person to person and from one industry through in the mills or at home, and therefore I work at Mr Wilson’s mill. I think the youngest child
to the other. The proportion of people in Britain cannot attend school. The evening schools, is about seven. I daresay there are 20 under 9 years.
working in manufacturing in 1801 was estimated at supposed to be attended by children who are It is about half past five by our clock at home when we
40 per cent. By 1871, this had risen to 60 per cent. employed during the day, are almost abandoned go in … We come out at seven by the mill. We never
Many people across Britain were still employed in or attended without benefit. It is asking too stop to take our meals, except at dinner.
agriculture, construction, domestic service or smaller much, that young workers who have been using William Crookes is overlooker in our room. He is
workshops, and their working lives remained largely themselves up twelve hours in the day, should Source 4 Children working in factories were frequently cross-tempered sometimes. He does not beat me; he
exploited and injured.
unchanged. However, life was very different for those in go to school from eight to ten at night. And beats the little children if they do not do their work
the factories and who struggled to survive on low wages those who try it usually fall asleep, as is testified right … I have sometimes seen the little children

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and were forced to work in harsh conditions, as owners by hundreds of witnesses in the Children’s Children often started work at the age of four or five. drop asleep or so, but not lately. If they are catched
operated for a time without any government regulation. Employment Commission’s Report. Sunday Their jobs were often simple, but physically demanding and asleep they get the strap. They are always very tired
Factory and mine owners often cut corners with schools have been founded, it is true, but they, dangerous. They included collecting dropped fluff from at night … I can read a little; I can’t write. I used to
safety and conditions in the pursuit of higher profits. too, are most scantily supplied with teachers, underneath the weaving machines or acting as helpers in go to school before I went to the mill …
and can be of use to those only who have already coal mines. In many cases, child workers were orphans
This included enforcing long working hours and using
cheaper labour in the form of women and children.
D
learnt something in the day schools. The interval
from one Sunday to the next is too long for an
ignorant child to remember in the second sitting
provided to the factories or mills by the local authorities.
Evidence from a young textile worker, Factory Inquiry
Commission, Great Britain, Parliamentary Papers, 1833

what it learned in the first, a week before. Check your learning 8.11
Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class
in England in 1844
Remember and understand Evaluate and create
1 Why did women and children make up a large part 3 Summarise Friedrich Engels’ findings in Source 2
Child labour of the industrial working population in the early years about the condition of the working class in England.
of the Industrial Revolution? 4 Why might a writer such as Friedrich Engels be biased
When the Industrial Revolution began, children were in his view? Carry out some research into his political
seen as ideal employees. They were small enough to fit Apply and analyse
beliefs and show how they might have influenced
between the new machinery, they were cheap to employ 2 In Source 5, what do you believe the young worker his writing.
and their families were grateful for the extra income. is trying to say about working conditions in the
5 Write a newspaper report in the role of a 19th-
At the time, there was no real concern about their factory and the treatment of other child workers?
century reporter investigating child labour in a cotton
education being affected as education was not compulsory.
mill. Describe what the children’s work day is like
Source 1 A 19th-century engraving showing copper Most working-class families could not afford to send their
foundries in Swansea, Great Britain children to school anyway. and make recommendations for reform.

274 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 275
 8B How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of men, women and children?

8.12 Living conditions

Source 3 Conditions for British social classes during the 1800s

Living conditions for the aristocracy Living conditions for the middle class Living conditions for poor
(nobility)
• Birth mattered more than income. The poor • Many middle-class people aspired to join • Working class people lived in
and lazy cousin of a duke would be acceptable the upper classes. Wealthy middle-class cramped houses in city slums
in high society over a millionaire industrialist businessmen would socialise with the and had no access to running
In the 1750s, before the Industrial Revolution began, from a lower class. aristocracy. Some donated large sums of water or sewerage systems.
only 15 per cent of the population of Great Britain lived • Some lords had large country houses, and money to be granted a knighthood. • Crime in the slums was rife
in towns or cities. By 1850, the urban population had town houses in London. They were waited on • Middle-class people lived in houses in the and overcrowding led to the
by servants. suburbs and commuted to work in the city. spread of many diseases.
risen to 50 per cent. By 1880 it had risen again to 80 per
• During the 1800s, members of the aristocracy Even the poorest middle-class home would • At the start of the 19th
cent. This process of urbanisation was due to changes in have a servant.
dominated all levels of government. century, few poor people
farming practices, production methods and the lure of • Many middle-class Victorian women enjoyed received an education.
• A young aristocratic lady who was eligible for
new jobs in the factory towns. Between 1801 and 1871, marriage would ‘come out’ as a debutante, shopping – the first department store opened in In 1880, a new law made
the proportion of the British population working in when she was presented to Queen Victoria. London in 1863. primary school compulsory
manufacturing rose from 40 per cent to 66 per cent. All of On this special occasion she wore a white • Over time, some middle-class women for all children.

these changes had dramatic effects on how people lived. dress and a headdress. sought a university education. They also • Working-class leisure
• Boys of the nobility had governesses and became involved in the women’s suffragette activities included playing or
nannies, then attended elite schools. Girls movement. watching football, bicycling
Conditions for the rich and poor clubs, reading the newspaper

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were mostly educated at home then prepared • Many middle-class boys went to grammar
for marriage. Some girls went to boarding schools. Girls increasingly went to school, but and attending the music hall.
Huge differences between the living conditions of the school. By the late 1800s, a small number were still expected to find a husband and learn
rich and poor in Britain existed long before the start of were able to go to university. how to run a home.
the Industrial Revolution. Prior to 1750, Britain’s feudal

AF
history and strict class system dictated how people Source 1 There were enormous differences between the As urban areas grew, new technologies were applied
lived and where they worked. From 1750 onwards, living conditions of the rich and poor in Britain prior to the in building, even in workers’ housing. Planned, drained Check your learning 8.12
rapid changes in technology and society gave birth Industrial Revolution.
and uncluttered new urban settlements replaced slums.
to a new social class (known as the ‘middle class’). Public transport allowed workers to live further away Remember and understand
common. There was no proper sewerage, no fresh water
Despite this change, the Industrial Revolution was from their work places. Cities began to develop suburbs. 1 Why did people move from rural areas to the
and little or no garbage disposal. In Liverpool in 1865,
initially responsible for widening the gap between rich In 1863, the first part of London’s underground railway
40 per cent of young children died in such conditions, towns and cities during the Industrial Revolution?
industrialists and poor factory workers even further. network opened, linking suburban trains to the city
and the average life expectancy was just 29 years. Birth 2 Where did most unskilled workers live in Britain
Some key facts about living conditions for different centre. By the 1870s, the ability to create skyscrapers
rates were low, but population continued to grow due to during the Industrial Revolution and in what sort of
social classes in the 1800s are included in Source 3. allowed for even denser retail and office areas in city

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the constant flow of people from the countryside. Those conditions?
On top of the social hierarchy were the aristocracy. centres, where land was more expensive.
who endured such conditions often turned to alcohol 3 Why did the population of factory cities continue to
These people included people of royal blood – dukes, Better street lighting helped transform the atmosphere
and other drugs to help them cope with the harsh grow, despite low birth rates?
earls, lords and barons – with strong family traditions of the cities at night, encouraging leisure activities later
conditions. Crime was widespread, particularly in the
and reputations. They were often land owners who lived in the day and after dark, as people felt safer. Apply and analyse
slums of the larger cities such as London (see Source 2).
off rental income and led privileged lives as members of
‘high society’ who lived in manors and stately homes.
They possessed enormous wealth, land and political
influence. In this world, good breeding and a title were
Source 2
D
… the social order makes family life almost
4 What was the average life expectancy in Liverpool
in 1865? Did people tend to actually die at this
age, or was there another factor that lowered life
impossible for the worker. In a comfortless, filthy
seen as more important than wealth – this was assumed. expectancy?
house, hardly good enough for mere nightly shelter,
The middle classes included factory owners, 5 Write a paragraph describing how, after a bad
ill-furnished, often neither rain-tight nor warm,
industrialists, doctors and lawyers whose generous a foul atmosphere filling rooms overcrowded with
start, the Industrial Revolution started to improve
incomes allowed them to establish their homes on the human beings, no domestic comfort is possible. living conditions for city dwellers.
outskirts of the new towns and cities where the air was The husband works the whole day through, Evaluate and create
clean and there was more space for larger homes. These perhaps the wife also and the elder children, all
areas grew as a result of new railway lines that allowed 6 Using the statistics provided and information
in different places; they meet night and morning
the rich to commute from home to work in the city. gathered on the Internet, create three graphs that
only, all under perpetual temptation to drink; what
By contrast, the majority of the working class illustrate the key changes in urban populations that
family life is possible under such conditions? Yet
lived closer to the factories, in slum areas with poor the working-man cannot escape from the family,
took place in Britain from 1750 to 1880.
sanitation. Houses were built back-to-back to save space. must live in the family, and the consequence is a
New apartment blocks were also built quickly and perpetual succession of family troubles …
cheaply to meet demand. There were very few building Source 4 An artist’s impression of poor people in Whitechapel,
Friedrich Engels, The Condition of the Working-Class
or fire regulations so accidents and house fires were in England in 1844
a London slum

276 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 277
 8B How did the Industrial Revolution affect the lives of men, women and children?

8B: rich task It was not until the 1830s when certain politicians,
concerned about the working conditions that had skilldrill: Historical sources as of evidence
Working conditions developed as a result of industrialisation, began introducing
laws to regulate the factories in terms of conditions like the Using information from a range of 2 Once you have completed the table, use the

for children during use of child labour and the length of the workday.
Each of the following sources provides different views
sources as evidence in a historical information you have gathered to write an historical
argument about the working conditions for children in
argument
the Industrial about the nature of working conditions for children during
the Industrial Revolution. The primary sources that historians use to form opinions
the early 19th century, using the plan provided below.
• Title: What were conditions like for children in

Revolution
and arguments about the nature of working conditions Britain working in 19th-century factories?
Source 2 for children in the early 19th-century factories tell
Q: Explain what you had to do. • Introduction: The Industrial Revolution led to a
different stories. It is the job of historians to analyse these massive increase in … (introduce the context of
Many of the early textile factory owners A: When the frames are full, they have to stop the frame, and
sources, identify what evidence they provide to support
take the flyers off, and take the full bobbins off, and carry them your piece and the focus on the working conditions
employed large numbers of children. Children or refute (not support) particular arguments, and come to of children within that context).
on to the roller, and then put the empty ones on.
were seen as good workers because they Q: Suppose you slowed down a little, what would they do?
a conclusion about their usefulness and reliability. • Paragraph 1: Some sources say … (explain which
were paid less, and were small enough to A: Strap us. The girls had black marks on their skin many a time,
It is important to: sources indicate that conditions were bad. Give
crawl under the machines to repair broken and their parents dare not come in about it, they were afraid of • identify who created each source and the reason why examples of some of the bad conditions).

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threads. They were often forced to do this losing their work. it was created • Paragraph 2: However, other sources say …
when the machines were operating, and Q: What part of the mill did you work in? • identify any potential bias (explain which sources indicate that conditions
many children were injured as a result. The A: In the card-room. It was very dusty. The dust got up my lungs, were acceptable or necessary. Give examples of
• write your argument, using the sources as evidence
I got so bad in health. When I pulled the baskets all heaped some of the arguments provided).

AF
factory owners paid overseers to make sure up, the basket pulled my shoulder out of its place and my ribs • explain why each particular source supports your
the children worked as hard as they could. have grown over it. I am now deformed. argument • Paragraph 3: We have to be careful about which
The more work the children did, the more the sources we use because … (explain the problems
An extract from an interview with Elizabeth Bentley, who • give reasons why you consider the sources that do
with some of the sources in terms of reliability and
overseers were paid. began working in factories at the age of six. The interview was not support your argument to be not as important or
conducted as part of a parliamentary inquiry into conditions in bias).
as valid.
the textile factories in 1832. • Conclusion: Overall, the evidence suggests …
Source 3 Apply the skill (summarise the evidence and give your informed
I have visited many factories, both in Manchester and the surrounding districts, opinion about the nature of working conditions for
1 Examine Sources 2–4 carefully and complete a copy
during a period of several months and I never saw a single instance of corporal children in this period).

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punishment inflicted on a child. The children seemed to be always cheerful of the table below in your notebook.
and alert, taking pleasure in using their muscles. The work of these lively elves
Source 2 Source 3 Source 4
seemed to resemble a sport. Conscious of their skill, they were delighted to Extend your understanding
show it off to any stranger. At the end of the day’s work they showed no sign What evidence does this
of being exhausted. source provide about
conditions in factories 1 Some important people were strongly opposed to the

Source 4
D
An extract from ‘The Philosophy of Manufactures’, 1835, by Dr Andrew Ure.
Dr Ure was a supporter of the new industries.
for children during the
Industrial Revolution?
Who wrote or created it?
use of child labour in factories during the Industrial
Revolution. Eventually, Parliament passed several Acts
that attempted to impose regulations that would lead
… In such an establishment [i.e. a factory] … between 700 to 1400 persons,
of all ages and both sexes, almost all working by the piece, and earning wages to improved conditions for children. Use the Internet
Why was the source
of every amount between two shillings and 40 shillings a week, are engaged to find out about this legislation, and complete a new
created?
in producing one ultimate effect, which is dependent on their combined table in your notebook:
Is the source reliable?
exertions. Any stoppage, even any irregularity in one department, deranges
the whole. A strict and almost superstitious discipline is necessary to keep this Name of Act Year it was How did it How
vast instrument going for a single day. Now how, ask the mill-owners, could introduced attempt to effective
improve was it?
this discipline be kept up, if the sub-inspectors were at liberty to walk over our
conditions
establishments at all hours; listen to the complaints and jealousies of all our for children?
servants, and at their instigation [urging] summon us as criminals before the
magistrates?
An extract from a letter of complaint by Nassau Senior, a factory owner,
Source 1 This photograph, taken in 1908, to Parliament after the Factory Act of 1833 was introduced to give some
shows a young barefoot girl standing next to a
protection to child workers. He believed that the Act would allow government
spinning frame in her workplace, a North Carolina
inspectors to interfere with the smooth running of cotton factories.
cotton mill.

278 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 279
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

8.13 Short-term impacts

of the Industrial Revolution
Between the 1750s and 1914, Britain, the USA and most countries in Europe
transformed into industrial societies. New technologies and production
methods changed societies in positive and negative ways in both the short and
long term. Growth in the development of cities, changes in living and working
conditions and the introduction of new laws became apparent fairly quickly.
Other changes took place over much longer periods and were not initially
obvious. Indeed, many argue that we are only now beginning to see many of
the long-term effects of the Industrial Revolution.

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Population growth and urban planning
One of the most obvious short-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution Source 2 ‘A peep at the lights in Pall Mall’ is a satirical look
at people’s reactions to the new invention of gas-burning Historians and economists agree that standards of

AF
was the dramatic increase in world population. In 1750, the population of streetlights in London in 1807. living did improve in the 19th century, although they
England and Wales was around 5.5 million people. By 1900, this figure was
disagree about the timing of its benefits to the working
around 32.5 million. Throughout Great Britain and the rest of Europe, there
was a mass movement of people from the rural areas to the growing cities. Improvements in living standards class. For example, were large improvements in the lives
of working-class people evident in the early or mid-
In 1801, only 17 per cent of the population of Europe lived in the cities.
There were other positive consequences of the Industrial 1800s? Some studies have shown that workers’ incomes
By 1891, this had grown to 54 per cent. In Britain, the growth cities were
Revolution on the lives of many people. grew rapidly from the 1820s. However, others contest
Leeds, Manchester and Birmingham, as well as London. After terrible initial
• Improvements in agriculture throughout the period of whether this indicator of improvement balanced out
problems with disease caused by poor or non-existent sanitation, city reform
the Industrial Revolution reduced the risk of famine the negative consequences of the Industrial Revolution,
began with the introduction of some urban planning. Over time, conditions
through crop failure. Increased food production also such as the harsh working conditions, high rents and

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in the urban slums of factory towns and cities improved. The tenements
meant that people could afford better food in larger crowded living conditions, and pollution.
(overcrowded rooming houses) were pulled down and replaced with new
quantities, which in turn helped them stay healthier.
urban settlements, with positive consequences for residents. For example:
• Sport was encouraged in ‘leisure time’ in order to
• residents in new housing, who previously had no running water and shared
keep workers healthy. Sport and recreation became Check your learning 8.13
an outside toilet, now had access to running water, central heating and
more important as working hours reduced during
improved sewerage systems (see Source 1) that included their own toilets.
Health conditions improved and there were fewer outbreaks of disease.
• planned, drained, and uncluttered and open spaces were created for sport
D the 19th century.
• Mass entertainment, such as theatres and spectator
sports, developed alongside newspapers and
Remember and understand
1 Identify the ways in which cities began to change in
the second half of the 19th century.
and entertainment.
magazines for people of all classes. Literature was no 2 Explain why sport and entertainment became more
• gas-powered (see Source 2), and then electric, street lighting helped
longer just for the wealthy and learned. popular in this period.
transform the atmosphere of the cities at night, reducing the gloomy,
• The development of railways meant that travel
dangerous streets and encouraging leisure activities after dark, such as
times were speedier. It also meant that travel for
Apply and analyse
visits to theatres and music halls.
leisure was affordable, even for the working classes. 3 Using Source 2 outline the ways in which the introduction
• cities began to develop suburbs (outlying communities) and new public of street lighting changed people’s way of life.
• Mass-produced consumer goods, such as clothing
transport systems allowed workers to live further away from the factories
and crockery, became more affordable.
in which they worked. First there were horse-drawn trams and then Evaluate and create
came cable trams or electric trolley systems. The opening of London’s • The use of the telegraph and telephone meant that
4 In two columns, list the positive and negative aspects
underground railway network in 1863 encouraged more people to use news could quickly be reported from around the
of the Industrial Revolution for working-class Britons
public transport to move between their homes in the suburbs and work. world. Industrialists, merchants and ordinary people
benefited from these more immediate ways of
in the 19th century. Decide whether it was a positive
As the population increased, so did the transport capacity and new lines Source 1 The building of a London or negative development for the working class, giving
were developed to service growing areas. communicating, as well as from faster postal times
sewer, 1845 reasons for your decision.
from improved road and rail networks.

280 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 281
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

8.14 The emergence of socialism Poor Laws and the

rise of Chartism
and trade unions In 1834, the British Parliament
attempted to deal with changing
social and economic conditions by
reforming the 233-year-old Poor Law.
The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834
decreed that any poor or homeless
Urbanisation brought with it new social classes and In his influential book, Capital: A Critique of person requiring assistance from the
social divisions. Investors (entrepreneurs) could earn Political Economy (1867), German philosopher Karl state (except for the old and sick) had
vast fortunes. Their luxurious lifestyles and homes Marx suggested that the Industrial Revolution to enter a government workhouse.
reflected their new status, a world removed from the was driven by an economic system known as These institutions kept people off the
poverty-stricken conditions of many of their employees. capitalism. Marx argued that capitalism was based streets but often fed their residents
Many workers found it hard to adapt to their new on the exploitation of the workers by the owners poorly, worked them extremely hard
lives in the city. Some embittered workers began to of land, factories, railways and roads, shops and and broke up families.
demand better conditions and political rights. The banks for profit. For capitalism to work, it relied on Widespread discontent over the

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result was a rising interest in social revolution, with an ‘army’ of urban workers who would work for less Poor Law Amendment Act reminded
philosophers and activists such as Karl Marx and than the value of their labour. Later theorists would many people that they had little
Friedrich Engels gaining a following among the build on Marx’s work to promote alternative systems say in government. Reform bills in
working classes. that they argued would deliver a fairer distribution 1832 had extended the right to vote,

AF
of wealth. but only to about 600 000 out of 3 Source 2 An illustration of a Chartist meeting in 1848
These ideas were the beginning of socialism. million men over the age of 21. At
They laid the foundations for the welfare state this time, all members of parliament were required to
(under which the state took responsibility for all Source 3 The Chartist claims
own property, which limited the number of men who
its subjects, rich or poor) and also for communism could afford to stand for office. In 1838, a group of The six points of the People’s Charter
(under which the state attempted to abolish reformists published a People’s Charter written as a bill
ownership of private property). 1 A VOTE for every man twenty-one years of age, of
that could be presented to Parliament, demanding a
sound mind, and not undergoing punishment for
better life for people through the use of parliamentary
crime.
Luddites change (see Source 3).

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The movement in support of the People’s Charter 2 THE SECRET BALLOT—To protect the elector in the
The first violent reaction to the Industrial Revolution became known as Chartism. It spread through Great exercise of his vote.
occurred in Britain in 1811, when factory owners and Britain and in June 1837, Chartists held a general 3 NO PROPERTY QUALIFICATION for members of
manufacturers in Nottingham received threatening meeting at the British Coffee House in Cockspur Street, Parliament—thus enabling the constituencies to
letters signed by ‘General Ned Ludd and the Army London. One faction wanted to use peaceful persuasion return the man of their choice, be he rich or poor.
D
of Redressers’. In protest at wage reductions and job
losses caused by the adoption of stocking frames
and automated looms in textile mills, former
while another suggested physical force, even revolt.
The House of Commons rejected the Chartist petition,
even though it had 1.2 million signatures. The Chartists
4 PAYMENT OF MEMBERS, thus enabling an honest
tradesman, working man, or other person, to serve
weavers attacked factories, smashed machines and a constituency, when taken from his business to
suggested that a general strike be called on 12 August attend to the interests of the country.
killed the owner of one cotton mill. In response,
but then called it off. Other groups were involved in
the British Parliament made it a capital offence 5 EQUAL CONSTITUENCIES, securing the same amount
destroying factory machinery and in strikes, often
(a crime punishable by death) to destroy machines. of representation for the same number of electors,
clashing with police and soldiers. By 1840, over 500
Twenty-three Luddites (as the protestors became instead of allowing small constituencies to swamp the
Chartists had been put in prison.
known) were executed in 1812 and many more were votes of larger ones.
A second petition was drawn up in 1842 and
transported to Australia as punishment. 6 ANNUAL PARLIAMENTS, thus presenting the most
presented to Parliament in May, this time with over
The Luddites were stamped out, but their effectual check to bribery and intimidation, since
3 million names. Again it was rejected by Parliament.
actions showed that there was a need for political though a constituency might be bought once in
A third petition was drawn up in 1848, when
action that would benefit workers and improve the seven years (even with the ballot), no purse could buy
revolutions in Europe encouraged a revival of the
conditions that they were forced to accept. a constituency (under a system of universal suffrage)
Chartist ideas. This petition was signed by two million
people but again it was ignored. As a result, many in each ensuing twelve-month; and since members,
Source 1 An illustration showing Karl Marx (seated) and Chartists gave up on Britain and emigrated to other when elected for a year only, would not be able to
Friedrich Engels countries such as the USA, Italy and Australia. defy and betray their constituents as now.

282 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 283
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

Emergence of modern lifestyles were pulled down, and open spaces were created for
sport and entertainment. Sport was encouraged in
Robert Owen was not the only factory owner who came ‘leisure time’ in order to keep workers healthy.
to see that happier workers would work harder. Titus Increased leisure time led to other changes. Mass
Salt, an industrialist and politician from the English entertainment, such as theatres and spectator sport,
town of Bradford began experimenting with the idea developed alongside newspapers and magazines for
of providing well-built homes with drainage for his people of all classes – not just literature for the well
employees, as well as a local hospital, public baths, educated.
churches and schools. Compulsory education for children eventually grew
In France, workers were allowed to gradually buy the into educational opportunities for other workers, with
cottages in which they lived. These workers’ cities also Mechanics’ Institutes offering courses in technology
had schools, hospitals and baths. Similar ‘cities’ were and self-improvement. Eventually, these broadened to
developed in other European nations. offer other subjects, including literacy and arithmetic.
Improving health conditions led to fewer outbreaks Improvements in agricultural production gave people
of disease and more efficient workers. Even the harshest better diets and reduced the risk of famine through crop
of mill owners began to clear slums. Cesspools were failure. Workers could now afford more and better food
Source 4 An artist’s impression of Robert Owen’s cotton
mill at New Lanark in 1818. Unlike many industrialists at the removed, tenements (overcrowded rooming houses) that, in turn, helped them stay even healthier.
The Factory Acts

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time, Owen supported the rights of workers at his mills and
established one of the largest trade unions.
The Factory Acts were inspired by complaints about
the employment of child labourers, who worked
Emergence of trade unions long days in appalling conditions. In 1802 and 1819,

AF
Over time, workers found ways of banding together British politician and industrialist Robert Peel was
to protect their interests. Skilled workers realised that instrumental in passing laws that restricted the hours
they needed to protect their jobs and incomes (in that children had to work. Unfortunately, many mill
case of illness or injury) so they would not become owners had influence over local judges, so these laws
victims of the Poor Laws. As a result, many formed were not enforced. By 1830, most of the 250 000 mill
Friendly Societies. Workers each paid a weekly workers in Britain were still under the age of 18.
subscription to their Friendly Society that would In a push to reduce the working day to ten hours,
social reformer Lord Ashley succeeded in making it Source 5 Young
provide them with a small income during illness,
American boys working
an old-age pension, or money for a funeral when illegal for children under the age of nine to work at

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as mine helpers,
they died. all. Those under 13 could work only a 48-hour week c. 1900, before the
Some industries developed trade clubs, which and, those aged 14–18, a 69-hour week. In addition, introduction of child
all children were to receive two hours of schooling per labour laws in the USA
quickly developed into unions that fought for
common aims, such as higher wages. A union’s main week, and inspectors were appointed to enforce the
new rules.
weapon against employers and industrialists was Check your learning 8.14
the threat of work stoppages known as strikes. The
Combination Acts of 1799 and 1800 banned workers
in Britain from meeting to demand increased wages
D
In 1840, the Royal Commission on Children’s
Employment discovered that women and children were
expected to carry loads of coal of up to 150 kilograms
Remember and understand want to abolish the property qualification for
Members?
1 What did Karl Marx think was the driving force
or shorter working hours. If caught, the punishment either on their shoulders or dragged behind them 6 Explain how workers benefited from joining Friendly
behind the Industrial Revolution?
for this crime was three months in jail. through narrow, low passages. A Mines Act was passed Societies.
2 Look at the first point of the People’s Charter in
After protests and debate, trade unions in 1842, banning all females as well as boys younger
than ten from working underground. Other European Source 3. What large group was left out of their Evaluate and create
were legalised in 1825, swiftly leading to the
countries introduced similar laws: in France in 1841 and demands for voting rights?
establishment of groups such as the National 7 Many people today who avoid using computers
Association for the Protection of Labour, with over in Prussia in 1839, laws limited the working hours of 3 In your own words define the term ‘Luddite’. or new technology are called ‘Luddites’. Given
100 000 members. The largest union was the Grand people under the age of 16 and banned the employment 4 Prior to 1825, what was the legal punishment if what you have learned, describe how the original
National Consolidated Trades Union, established in of children under nine in mines and factories. workers gathered to discuss demands for higher ‘Luddites’ differ from modern-day ‘Luddites’.
1833 by a mill owner, Robert Owen. Unlike many In 1847, women in factories were restricted to a wages? 8 Create a poster advertising a Chartist meeting.
other mill owners, Owen supported the welfare of ten-hour day, which effectively reduced many of the Include the six proposals shown in Source 3 on your
men’s hours as well. The final major change for this
Apply and analyse
his workers. He abolished child labour in his mills poster, ensuring that you explain each proposal in
(for those under the age of 10), provided schooling period came in 1874, when a maximum of 56 hours’ 5 Read Source 3. In your own words, explain what a
your own words so that they can be understood by
and good housing. He also paid good wages, work a week was introduced – ten hours a day from ‘property qualification’ was. Why did the Chartists
young people today.
including sick pay. Monday to Friday, and six hours on Saturdays.

284 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 285
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

8.15 Long-term impacts Environmental impacts

One of the most significant long-term impacts of the

of the Industrial Revolution

Industrial Revolution is related to the environment. New
sources of air and water pollution were introduced that we
are only now beginning to acknowledge as directly linked
to 19th-century industrial processes. Coal burnt in the
production of steam power produced heavy layers of smog
that hung over the factory towns and cities. Evidence
of the effects of this pollution was found when modern
Although it is impossible to accurately identify a date on approximately 1 billion people. By 2027, this number
scientists tested hair samples from famous people such as
which the Industrial Revolution came to an end, many is estimated to exceed 8 billion. Many academics now
Isaac Newton and Napoleon Bonaparte. They discovered
historians argue that this coincided with the beginning argue that this number of people is unsustainable and is
high concentrations of lead and mercury.
of World War I in 1914. In the century since then, many placing the world’s resources at risk from overuse.
Today, not much has changed. The modern world is
of the long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution In the short-term, the advantages brought by the
still heavily dependent on fossil fuels such as coal and
have started to become apparent. Some of these long- Industrial Revolution – including higher standards of
oil. Not only do we use petroleum products in our cars,
term impacts are positive while others are negative. living, education, better food and medical treatment –
ships and planes, we also use them in the manufacture
only benefited the industrialised world. Other areas of the
of our iPads, smart phones, computers and similar

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Long-term population growth world – such as the colonies of major European powers
devices. The only difference is that these fuels we burn
– were left behind or exploited for their resources. Today,
and global inequality these countries are striving to bring themselves into line
to maintain our affluent lifestyles are running out.

with the first-world countries and former imperial powers

Although rapid population growth was one of the Air pollution

AF
that controlled them in the past. Source 2 The effects of industrialisation are seen in scenes such as
major short-term effects of the Industrial Revolution, The British were aware of the soot and dirt that hung this, where chemicals from a nearby chemical plant have killed the trees.
in the 100 years since then world population has In many ways, increased levels of global trade have
allowed the industrialised world to export many of the over their industrial towns, but they could not foresee
continued to rise. Today, this growth has slowed in the the long-term effects of their industry into the 21st
problems of the Industrial Revolution – long hours, poor example of the industrialised nations by becoming large
industrialised nations but continues to increase rapidly century. They did not realise fossil fuels such as coal and
working conditions, child labour – to developing countries. producers of pollution as they strive to improve the
in the developing world. In 1801, world population was oil could run out or have a global environmental impact. living conditions and wealth of their populations (see
The Industrial Revolution left humanity dependent on Source 3).
carbon fuels (such as petrol and gas). In recognition of By the mid 1900s, the effects of these changes to the
this, governments worldwide are encouraging the search Earth’s atmosphere were becoming apparent. In the 1960s,

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for greener energies through policies aimed at limiting a new environmental movement sought to stem the tide
carbon production or taxing those that produce it. of pollutants flowing into the planet’s ecosystem. It is now
The developing world and its growing economies, widely accepted that pollution has changed the Earth’s
D particularly those of India and China, have copied the climate and could lead to further unexpected changes.

Source 3 Today, modern China

follows the example set by Britain
in the 1800s.

Source 1 An abandoned 19th-century lead mine

286 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 287
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

Water pollution and sewage difficulties

The Industrial Revolution led to the building of many
factories, tanneries and industrial buildings along the
banks of the Thames. Waste from these industries,
along with the flow of the London cesspits, badly
polluted the river. By 1833, salmon could no longer be
found upstream from London Bridge. The Building Acts
of 1844 and 1847 improved sanitation in the city itself,
but only by dumping more sewage into the river.
The river was toxic to fish but was still used to
provide drinking water for people. This led to four
Source 4 Modern cleaning of the Thames; this device collects
serious outbreaks of cholera between 1831 and 1866. floating rubbish, such as plastic and wood.
Pollution continued as the city’s population grew
and more industries developed. This problem was not burned off. Large areas of land were damaged or poisoned
resolved until late in the 20th century. The first salmon by unknown or unrecognised chemicals dumped without
in 150 years returned to the Thames in 1974. any special care or consideration. The run-off from some
It was not until the 1960s, long after the Industrial of these chemicals often entered the water supply. Rivers,

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Revolution, that people truly came to recognise the creeks and underground water supplies were affected,
problems caused by industrial waste and ground while dangerous elements such as lead entered the food Source 6 A modern
contamination from new industries. Leftovers from chain through animals’ drinking the water or through example of the effects
production, by-products and waste were dumped or infected food. of deforestation in Haiti

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Deforestation and land clearance
keyconcept: Significance During the Industrial Revolution, forests were cleared create the housing areas around them where the workers
to an ever greater extent, at first for fuel and building could live. In many cases, the forests lost contained
‘Smellbourne’ materials, then to make space for new farmland. A old-growth trees that had stood for decades. These trees
In the 1850s, the majority of sewage and human waste rising population required more buildings; railways had held together soil on mountain slopes or soaked up
from houses across Melbourne was emptied into open required miles of wooden sleepers. Land was also rainwater. The loss of these trees led to landslides and to
drains that flowed into street channels. This waste mixed cleared to build the new factories and mills, and to floods downstream.

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with other waste from stables and industries making
these open street channels extremely smelly. As a result,
Melbourne was given the nickname ‘Smellbourne’. Check your learning 8.15
Although there was a collection system (waste
Remember and understand Apply and analyse
products collected from outhouses or ‘dunnies’ behind
city homes by ‘nightmen’) it was disorganised and often
resulted in the outbreak of diseases like typhoid.
D 1 In what ways did the Industrial Revolution encourage
an increase in overall world population?
2 Use the information provided to complete the
5 Write a paragraph describing some of the long-term
environmental effects of the Industrial Revolution.
6 Explain why the Industrial Revolution did not benefit
After hundreds of people died, the Melbourne and
Metropolitan Board of Works (MMBW) was established following tasks: developing countries such as India.
to build an underground sewerage system and a a Why was Melbourne nicknamed ‘Smellbourne’? 7 Over the centuries, what has been the relationship
treatment plant at Werribee. This treatment plant still b How did Melbourne resolve its difficulty with between industrialisation and outbreaks of serious
operates today. sewage? diseases and illnesses? Use examples from this text
The system was opened in February 1898, when the c Why is the Melbourne sewerage system still and from your own research to answer this question.
chairman of the MMBW, Mr Fitzgibbon, proudly stated, considered significant to this day? Provide examples to support your answer.
it ‘was not a question of how much the scheme was 3 What effect did industrialisation have on waterways
Evaluate and create
going to cost, but how much it was going to save in the such as the Thames?
8 Create a poster that advises people how to limit their
lives of the citizens’. 4 What were the unexpected consequences of the
pollution of waterways.
For more information on the key concept of removal of trees from some mountain areas?
9 Write a letter to the newspaper arguing the need to
significance refer to page XX of ‘The history toolkit’.
investigate alternative energy sources of industrial
Source 5 An engraving showing works on the new
sewerage scheme for Melbourne, 1892 and domestic power.

288 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 289
 8C What were the short- and long-term impacts of the Industrial Revolution?

8C: rich task Step 5 Draw the y-axis and mark your chosen intervals Apply the skill
skilldrill: Continuity and change with the appropriate numerical labels (e.g. 10 million,

Population growth
Using the information in Source 1, follow the steps outlined
20 million). above to create three bar graphs in your notebook which
Using graphs to communicate Step 6 Write an appropriate y-axis title beside the y-axis show:
in Britain during the historical information
Sometimes, complicated numerical information
and an appropriate x-axis title underneath the x-axis.
For example, when graphing the information in the
1 The difference in life expectancy of men and women in
Britain in 1750 and 1900.
Industrial Revolution presented in writing or in tables can be difficult to
understand. Historians need to be able to read and
first row of the table in Source 1, the y-axis title is
‘Population’ and the x-axis title is ‘Years’.
2 The difference in the number of babies that died at
birth in 1750 compared to 1900.
The Industrial Revolution meant the interpret this information and communicate it visually. Step 7 After looking closely at your data, draw each bar.
Graphs can be a very effective communication form 3 How many more people were living in towns in 1900
transformation of countries’ populations from If the value falls between two of your marked intervals
for historians. They can condense information, make compared to 1750.
being predominantly rural to being predominantly on the y-axis, approximate where the correct value
a point clearly and concisely, and show relationships would lie.
urban. In England, millions of people migrated and trends visually. Step 8 Each graph should be uniquely numbered, for
from farming areas to the cities springing up Bar graphs are very useful for showing how Extend your understanding
example, ‘Figure 1’. (Note that all other images such as
near the coal and iron fields. The population of something has changed over time. Use the following diagrams, pictures, photos and maps are also included
Manchester, England, grew from 25 000 in 1772 1 Conduct some independent Internet research

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steps when constructing a bar graph: in this numbering series.)
to 303 000 by 1850. Overall in Britain, the number Step 1 Decide upon a title for the bar graph. The
to find out why populations increased so rapidly
Step 9 Whether creating your own graph using
of cities with populations of 50 000 or more rose during the Industrial Revolution, both generally
title should say what the graph is about in a another source’s data, adapting their graph, or
from three in 1785 to 31 in 1860. By 1850, Britain and within cities. Using the information you have
very specific and concise way. For example, reproducing their graph as a whole, you must quote
gathered, write a historical explanation of 200

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had become the first nation in history to have a when graphing the information in the first row (cite) the source. Place the citation below the graph,
words describing the population boom and the
larger urban than rural population. of the table in Source 1, the title ‘Population of and precede it by either ‘Source:’ (for an exact
reasons why it occurred.
Britain between 1750 and 1900’ is more specific reproduction) or ‘Data source:’ (when you have
than the title ‘Population of Britain’, or the title modified the original).
Source 1 ‘Population between 1750 and 1900’. It is
Britain 1750 1900 also more concise than the title ‘The changing
Population 7 million 37 million population of Britain between the years 1750
People living in towns 13% 87% and 1900’.
Life expectancy Men: 31 years Men: 45 years
Step 2 Determine the labels for the x-axis (the

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Women: 33 years Women: 48 years
horizontal axis). The x-axis is usually used to
Deaths at birth Deaths at birth: 65% Deaths at birth: 15%
show items, categories or time periods. To
determine the labels, you need to consider the
42
data you are using to make your graph. For
35
D
example, when graphing the information in the
first row of the table in Source 1, we have put
two labels on the x-axis: 1750 and 1900.
Population (millions)

28
Step 3 Draw the x-axis and mark where the bars
21 will be.
Step 4 Determine the scale for the y-axis (the
14 vertical axis). The y-axis is usually used to show
the frequency of something happening or the
7 amount. Again, you need to consider the data
you are using to make your graph. (For example,
0 when graphing the information in the first row of
1750 1900
Year the table in Source 1, we have used a numerical
Population growth in Britain between 1750 and 1900 scale which goes from zero to 37 million). You
then need to choose an appropriate scale interval
Source 2 Graph showing population growth in Britain between
1750 and 1900. (e.g. 1 cm = 10 million). Source 3 Manchester’s population grew rapidly between 1772 and 1850.

290 oxford big ideas humanities and social sciences 9 western australian curriculum chapter 8 the industrial revolution 291