Early Education and Development

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How Early Digital Experience Shapes Young Brains

During 0-12 Years: A Scoping Review

Dandan Wu, Xinyi Dong, Danqing Liu & Hui Li

To cite this article: Dandan Wu, Xinyi Dong, Danqing Liu & Hui Li (16 Nov 2023): How Early
Digital Experience Shapes Young Brains During 0-12 Years: A Scoping Review, Early Education
and Development, DOI: 10.1080/10409289.2023.2278117

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2023.2278117

Published online: 16 Nov 2023.

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EARLY EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2023.2278117

How Early Digital Experience Shapes Young Brains During 0-12

Years: A Scoping Review
Dandan Wua, Xinyi Dongb, Danqing Liub, and Hui Li a,b,c

a
Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong Kong; bShanghai Institute of Early
Childhood Education, Shanghai Normal University; cSchool of Education, Macquarie University

ABSTRACT
Research Findings: Early digital experience (e.g. screen time and digital use) is
believed to impact children’s brain development, functionally and structurally,
but this impact has not been systematically reviewed. In this scoping review,
we synthesized and evaluated 33 collected studies on children’s digital use
(ages 0–12) and their associated brain development published between
January 2000 and April 2023. The synthesis of the evidence revealed that (1)
digital experience does have positive and negative impacts on children’s
brains, structurally and functionally; (2) it could cause structural and functional
changes in children’s frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, brain
connectivity, and brain networks; and the most vulnerable area is the pre­
frontal cortex and its associated executive function, and (3) early digital
experience has both positive and negative impacts on children’s brain struc­
ture longitudinally. Practice or Policy: Educators and parents should be aware of
the potential effects of digital experience on children’s brain development and
provide appropriate guidance, mediation, and support for children’s digital
use. Policymakers should establish and implement evidence-based policies
and regulations to protect children’s digital well-being.

Digital devices are ubiquitous in young children’s daily lives and play a significant role in their early
learning and development (Cao & Li, 2023; Dong et al., 2020, 2022; Wang et al., 2023). However, the
impact of early digital experience on brain and behavioral development is controversial and has raised
public concerns (World Health Organization, 2019) and research interests (Browne et al., 2020;
Chassiakos et al., 2016; Kucirkova et al., 2018). The existing evidence has reported mixed and some­
times contradictory findings about its impact on executive function (EF), which refers to a set of
cognitive processes that support goal-oriented behavior and adaptive responses to novel situations
(Bustamante et al., 2023; Li et al., 2023). Some (Huber et al., 2018) suggested that active screen time (e.
g., using interactive apps) could enhance EF, whereas some (McHarg et al., 2020) found that passive
screen time (e.g., watching TV) could impair it. Furthermore, a recent meta-analysis of the existing
behavioral evidence by Bustamante et al. (2023) found no significant results about its impact on EF,
which challenges common sense and anecdotal evidence. These contradictory findings have jointly
demonstrated a critical research gap: most existing studies focused on EF with behavioral approaches,
lacking the impact on brain structure and brain function with neuroimaging evidence. This research
gap has left a significant knowledge gap, preventing us from understanding how digital use shapes
young brains and informing researchers, policymakers, and educators in their professional practice.
Therefore, a scoping review is needed to synthesize the neuroimaging evidence of the relation between
digital use and brain development in early childhood, taking into account the possible moderating

CONTACT Hui Li [email protected] Department of Early Childhood Education, The Education University of Hong Kong, 10 Lo
Ping Road, Tai Po, New Territories, Hong Kong SAR
© 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 D. WU ET AL.

effects of relevant characteristics. This review will address these fundamental questions and contribute
to theoretical development, practical improvement, and policymaking in this field.

Digital Experience in Early Childhood

Digital devices are pieces of electronic hardware that can communicate, display, generate, receive,
send, share, store, or process information with binary code. The family of digital devices is very
comprehensive and inclusive, including (but not limited to) (1) cameras, web cameras, and other video
devices; (2) microphones, earphones, and other audio devices; (3) phones, smartphones, and other
telecommunication devices; (4) laptops, PCs, pads, tablets, and other computer devices; (5) scanners,
printers, keyboards, and other PC peripherals; (6) smart watch, smart glasses, VR and other wearable
devices; (7) hard disks, USB drives, and other storage devices; (8) thermometer, sphygmomanometer,
and other digital measurements; and (9) robots, ChatGPT, and other educative and generative AI
devices. This unexhausted list is extending drastically today, and so is its usage and significance in
human learning and life, influencing children’s studies, entertainment, and social interactions. They
must learn to employ various digital devices, such as cameras, pads, laptops, scanners, and printers, to
read, observe, learn, and understand the world. This kind of experience of interacting with or engaging
with digital devices could be labeled “digital experience,” an essential part of young children’s early
learning and development experience (Harley et al., 2018; Kabali et al., 2015). In this study, all the
interactions/using experiences with any digital devices are regarded as “digital experiences”.
Digital devices enable children to access various digital activities, such as games, internet browsing,
and video watching, regardless of time and place (Ding & Li, 2023). This digital experience differs from
the traditional learning experience that does not involve digital devices and may have various
implications for child development. Some researchers have identified the following potential benefits
of digital experience for children: (1) it facilitates children’s autonomous learning; (2) it creates online
communities with diverse social interactions; (3) it develops children’s digital literacy skills that are
essential for future success; (4) it promotes children’s mental well-being when used in moderation; and
(5) it enhances children’s creativity and self-expression (Limone & Toto, 2021; Yadav & Chakraborty,
2021). In contrast, others have also pointed out the possible drawbacks of digital experience in
children’s daily life (Huda et al., 2017), such as the risk of “digital addiction,” as young children
(ages 0–6) are especially vulnerable to the negative effects of inappropriate digital experience (Ding &
Li, 2023). For example, Hermawati et al. (2018) found that infants who spent more than 3 hours per
day on screen-based activities had attention problems and hyperactivity symptoms. Undheim (2021)
conducted a literature review of the empirical studies published in the last decade to examine the
current trends and issues related to digital technology in early childhood education. Based on this
review, they recommended that digital technology should be integrated into pedagogical practice in
national early childhood curricula and teacher education programs. However, this literature review
concentrated on the decade spanning 2010 to 2020 and overlooked the seminal studies from this
millennium’s inaugural decade (2000–2010). There has been a lack of studies on this topic, thus
necessitating the exploration of evidence beyond the confines of the current decade to the initial era
when children encountered various digital devices. To bridge this knowledge gap, this scoping review
endeavors to broaden the temporal parameters to encompass 2000 to 2023, synthesizing the neuroi­
maging findings surrounding neuroplasticity during the formative periods.

Neuroplasticity in the Early Years

Neuroplasticity is well-known as the property and capacity of the neural networks in human brains to
change due to growth, experience, and environmental factors (Costandi, 2016). These changes may
involve functional and structural ones ranging from the micro level, such as the individual neuron and
neuronal circuit, to the macro level, such as the cortical region and neural network (see Ng et al., 2023).
For instance, functional plasticity, which refers to the brain’s ability to alter and adapt the functional
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 3

properties of neurons, can occur in four ways: homologous area adaptation, map expansion, cross-
model reassignment, and compensatory masquerade (Grafman, 2000). Structural plasticity refers to
the fact that the brain is malleable and can be changed in both circuit and network through learning
activities, environmental influences, and training (Davidson & McEwen, 2012; Fuchs & Flügge, 2014;
Goh & Park, 2009; Li et al., 2014; McEwen, 2018; Shaffer, 2016; Zhao & Li, 2010; Zimmerman et al.,
2020). Both functional and structural neuroplasticity could be regarded as activity-dependent plasti­
city, which arises from cognitive functions and personal experience, including early digital experience.
Corresponding to “structural plasticity” and “functional plasticity,” early experience can shape
brains structurally and functionally (Grafman, 2000). For instance, Li et al. (2014) systematically
reviewed the existing studies on second language learning and bilingual experience and found
structural brain changes in young children, including increased gray matter (GM) density and white
matter (WM) integrity. Moreover, even short-term language learning or training could cause struc­
tural changes in young children’s brains (Li et al., 2014). These empirical studies jointly implied that
daily experience could shape the brain in a certain way, which drove us to rethink the impact of digital
experience in early childhood. Recently, Bustamante et al. (2023) conducted the first meta-analytic
synthesis of existing evidence on the relation between overall screen time and EF in young children.
However, they found no significant association between them or any moderators. These null results on
the impact of digital experience on brain functions might not reflect the truth; instead, it might be
caused by a small sample size (as only 15 articles were found even with no time limitation of search)
and limited effect size (Bustamante et al., 2023). In addition, they only focused on the impact on EF
with primarily behavioral data, leaving the brain structures and functions unexplored. Accordingly,
there is a need to conduct a scoping review of the overall impact of digital experience on brain
development.

The Current Study

The rapid development and widespread use of digital technology have raised global concerns about the
potential effects of digital experience on young children’s cognitive and brain development. Some
scholars have argued that digital experience changes the way children process information and alters
their brain structures and functions (Helsper & Eynon, 2010; Prensky, 2001). Previous studies using
behavioral measures have reported both positive and negative impacts of digital experience on
children’s cognitive outcomes and behaviors, such as EF, attention-deficit symptoms, emotional and
social intelligence, and technology addiction (Bustamante et al., 2023; Korte, 2020; Li et al., 2021; Small
et al., 2020). However, there is a lack of systematic review of the neuroimaging evidence on how early
digital experience affects the brain development of children, especially those aged 0–12 years, a
sensitive period of high neural plasticity and rapid growth of executive attention (Best et al., 2009;
Conway & Stifter, 2012; Horowitz-Kraus et al., 2016; Zelazo & Carlson, 2012). This sensitive period for
neuroplasticity is a window of time when the brain is more responsive to environmental experiences
and can undergo significant changes in its structure and function. For example, the sensitive period for
visual development is 0–8 years, while that for language acquisition is 0–12 years (Gabard-Durnam &
McLaughlin, 2020). Therefore, this study aimed to synthesize the existing neuroimaging evidence on
the impact of early digital experience on young brains during the 0–12 years to fully understand the
brain’s plasticity. Moreover, the “early” digital exposures, generally pertaining to those obtained
during the preschool years (ages 0–6), may have a prolonged effect that could span a few years until
early adolescence (Aged 10–12). As a result, in this research, we have expanded the age criterion to
include ages 0–12.
Accordingly, we conducted a scoping review, which is a suitable method to explore the breadth,
extent, and nature of the available research on this emerging and controversial topic and identify the
knowledge gaps and research needs in this field. This scoping review will not only systematically
categorize and summarize the findings according to the types of digital activities, outcomes of interest,
methods used, and populations studied but also provide new insights and implications for parents,
4 D. WU ET AL.

educators, and other stakeholders who are concerned about children’s digital use and suggest future
directions for integrating neuroimaging technology into early childhood studies. The following
research questions guided this study:

(1) Whether or not there is an impact of digital experience on children’s brain structures and
functions? If yes, is it a positive or a negative effect?
(2) What brain areas are affected by the digital experience?
(3) Is the impact of digital experience short-term or long-term?

Method
This study has adopted the framework of a scoping review proposed by Arksey and O’Malley
(2005): 1) identifying the research question, 2) identifying the relevant studies, 3) studying the
selection, 4) charting the data; and 5) collating, summarizing and reporting results. Through
these five stages, this study was expected to identify the types of neural technologies being used
in the investigation of the relevant studies, the categories of the impact of digital use on
children’s brains (structural vs. functional; positive vs. negative), the affected brain areas being
focused among the existing literature; as well as the length of time of which the specific kind of
impact lasts.

Identifying Relevant Studies

Two search strategies were used to identify the relevant studies: a database search and a hand
search. First, the database search was conducted with Google Scholar, Scopus, Web of Science,
ProQuest, PubMed, and EBSCO Host to search and identify electronic resources. This search
covered the period between January 2000 to April 2023. Next, the first author conducted a hand
search to find the references not found through the database searches. This manual process
inspects and identifies more relevant studies by checking the reference lists of identified articles
and documents. This 2-step search aimed to thoroughly identify all the research articles on
“digital use/experience on children’s brain development” published in the first two decades of
this millennium.

Literature Search Strategy

The following search terms with two Boolean operators (“AND” and “OR”) were used in the database
search: (“digital devices” OR “screen use” OR”screen time” OR “television” OR “computer” OR
“laptop” OR “tablet” OR “smartphone” OR “video games” OR “online games” OR “E-reader” OR
“artificial intelligent devices” OR “virtual reality devices” OR “technology”) AND (“children” OR “pre-
schooler” OR “preschool-aged” OR “infant” OR “toddler” OR “kindergartner” OR “early childhood”)
AND (a set of brain functional and structural terms such as “executive function” OR “inhibitory
control” OR “working memory” OR “white matter area” OR “gray matter area”).
During the database search, 2621 records with related topics were identified. After removing 1078
duplicated items, 1422 articles remained after this search stage (see Figure 1: PRISMA Flow Diagram).
The first author and the team screened all the records to assess eligibility. Accordingly, 26 articles were
confirmed to meet the criteria. And the follow-up hand search identified another seven related journal
articles. Finally, 33 potential articles were identified for this scoping review.

Selecting Studies
For this scoping review, we used a set of criteria to ensure that only full-text, peer-reviewed journal
articles were included. Table 1 presents the inclusion and exclusion criteria adopted in this study:
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 5

Figure 1. PRISMA flow diagram of literature search and data charting.

Based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the first and last authors screened the defined 1422
papers, respectively. Title and Abstract screening led to the exclusion of 57 articles, with 1307
remaining. Age criteria led to the exclusion of 110 articles, Children with SEN criteria led to 692
exclusions of findings, no digital use criteria led to 45 exclusion of results, and no impact on brain
criteria led to 460 exclusions, with 26 remaining. By hand-searching the reference list, seven additional
articles were included, resulting in 33 articles included at the end. The two screeners agreed on 33 out
of 33 of the paper screenings, and no disagreement was found. Therefore, the reliability of this paper
screening was 100%, which means perfect agreement on the screening result.
After this step, the 33 remaining articles were assessed for eligibility. Full-text article screening was
conducted independently by each of the four authors, and disagreements were resolved through Zoom
meeting discussions among the four authors. As a result, 33 articles were finalized for inclusion in the
review. The entire process of selecting the relevant studies is detailed in the Prisma Flow diagram in
Figure 1.
6 D. WU ET AL.

Table 1. Inclusion/Exclusion criteria.

Criterion Inclusion Exclusion
Scope of research Empirical studies ● Not empirical studies
● Secondary data analysis
● Literature reviews, editorials, position statements,
perspectives
Type of Peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles Not Peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles
documents
Language English Other languages other than English
Educational level Children age from 0–12 years old ● No age mentioned in the article
● Children age over 12 years old
● Children with special need
Period January, 2000-March, 2023 Prior to 2000 and after 2022
Research topic The impact of digital use on children’s ● Articles that did not focus on the impact on children’s brain
brain ● Results only present behavior results

Charting the Data

Two processes drove the action of charting the selected data. Firstly, for each selected study, the
following information was extracted: author(s), title, year of publication, journal title, country,
participants’ characteristics (gender, age, sample size), school settings, research design, data collection
method(s), type of neuroimaging technology, type of digital experience investigated in the study, the
measure used to assess the construct(s), the specific task (s) (applied in functional studies), the studied
outcomes of brain development, and a summary of the results. Two synthesized summaries of all this
information are presented in Tables 2 and 3. Secondly, the authors thematically analyze and summar­
ize the articles on the impact of digital experience on children’s brain development with a focus on
functional and structural changes. The second and the third authors initially extracted the information
listed above and passed it on to the two other authors. The four authors had regular online discussion
meetings to share their opinions on the data extraction, resolve conflicts, and agree on the results.

Collating, Summarizing, and Reporting the Results

An analytic framework or thematic construction is essential for mapping the strategies and themes found in
studies identified for a scoping review (Arksey & O’Malley, 2005). Based on the thematical analysis
described above, four themes of concern were identified in the 33 articles in this scoping study: (1)
demographic information of the studies (countries, participants, research designs, neuroimaging technol­
ogies); (2) digital experience impacts the function of young children’s brains; (3) digital experience impacts
the structure of young children’s brains. Most articles reported only one of the two types of impacts
(functional or structural), and (4) whether the impact is longitudinal. Any conflicts over theme classification
were resolved through a group discussion between the authors of this review until an agreement was
reached.

Results
Demographic Information of the Studies
Altogether, 33 articles met the inclusion criteria of this study (see Tables 2 and 3). All the studies were
published in the past 18 years (and the first was published in 2005), with four-fifths (84%) published in the
past decade (2010-present). This subsection presents a descriptive overview of the demographic information
of these studies.

Countries
Most studies (14 out of 33; 42.42%) were conducted in the United States. Eight were in Europe
(24.24%): two from Germany, two from Spain, two from Israel, two from the Netherlands, and one
Table 2. Demographic information of the 33 studies reviewed.

Sample Participants’ Details

Author/year (Country) Tech size Age (Months) % Male Race Normal SES
Matsuda and Hiraki (2006) fNIRS 13 84–168 77% 100% Japanese 100% right-handed N/A
(Japan)
Baumgartner et al. (2006) EEG 12 100.8–128.4 42% 100% German 100% right-handed; No N/A
(German) neurological or psychiatric
disease, prior head trauma,
sensory impairment, or
subjective cognitive impairment
Shimada and Hiraki (2006) NIRS 13 6–7 38% 100% Japanese 69% right-handed; 23% both hands N/A
(Japan) nearly equally; 8% left-handed
Han et al. (2007) fMRI 10 120 50% 100% Japanese 100% right-handed; No N/A
(China) neurological or psychiatric
history participated, color blind;
Normal or corrected-to-normal
vision
Murray et al. (2006) fMRI 8 108–156 63% N/A No known behavioral disturbances N/A
(USA)
Cantlon et al. (2013) fMRI 27 51.6–129.6 41% N/A N/A N/A
(USA)
Takeuchi et al. (2013) MRI 276 (CS) 67.2–220.8 48% (CS) 51%(Long) 100% Japanese 100% right-handed; No history of N/A
(Japan) 216 malignant tumors or head
(Long) traumas involving loss of
consciousness
Mondéjar et al. (2016) EEG 12 96–144 50% N/A No cognitive issue N/A
(Spain)
Takeuchi et al. (2016) MRI 240 (CS) 68.4–220.8(CS) 100.8– 48% (CS) 50% (Long) 100% Japanese N/A N/A
(Japan) 189 255.6 (Long)
(Long)
Pujol et al. (2016) MRI 260 84–123.6 52% 100% Spanish N/A N/A
(Spain)
Bergen et al. (2017) EEG 22 (S1) 84–144 50% (S1) 68% (S2) N/A N/A High- and middle SES with college
(USA) 22(S2) educated parents (S1); from
families with more diverse
backgrounds in communities
surrounding the university (S2).
Li et al. (2017) fNIRS 72 48–72 47% 100% Chinese N/A From middle SES families with most
(China) parents working at a university
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

and annual income equivalent to

US $20,000 to $40,000.
(Continued)
7
 8

Table 2. (Continued).

Sample Participants’ Details

Author/year (Country) Tech size Age (Months) % Male Race Normal SES
Horowitz-Kraus and Hutton MRI 19 96–144 58% 100% Caucasian Within the normal range of From average SES households with
D. WU ET AL.

(2017) nonverbal intelligence with no a median income of $42 000

(USA) history of neurological,
emotional or attention disorders
Baker et al. (2018) fMRI 10 88.8–102 N/A The majority of 10% received special education 30% qualified for free/reduced
(USA) students services lunch at school
were
Caucasian
Hutton et al. (2018) fMRI 27 50–66 56% N/A No prematurity before 38 weeks, N/A
(USA) developmental delay, head
trauma, bilingual/non-English
speaking household,
kindergarten attendance, and
standard contra-indications to
MRI
Takeuchi et al. (2018) MRI 284 (CS) 68.4–220.8 (CS) 49% (CS) N/A Normal intelligence value, including N/A
(Japan) 223 100.8–255.6 (Long) 52% (Long) IQ < 80
(Long)
Paulus et al. (2019) MRI 4277 108–120 53% 60% White, 9% N/A Diversified parental educational
(USA) Black, 19% levels
Hispanic, 2%
Asian, 10%
Other
Twait et al. (2019) EEG 32 48–72 60% 100% Hebrew 100% right-handed; Normal or Middle-class
(Israel) corrected-to-normal vision in
both eyes, normal hearing, and
had a normal neurological and
developmental history
Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. EEG 36 84.6 69% N/A N/A From two primary schools located
(2019) in a semi-rural county of England
(England)
Li et al. (2019) fNIRS 16 71.14–85.94 (child) 63% (child) 47% (adult) N/A N/A N/A
(China) (child) 228.59–286.47 (adult)
19
(adult)
(Continued)
Table 2. (Continued).

Sample Participants’ Details

Author/year (Country) Tech size Age (Months) % Male Race Normal SES
Hutton et al. (2020) DTI 47 46.8–61.8 43% N/A Living in a household of native Annual household income: 17% 0-
(USA) English speakers, born at least 36 25K,6% 25K-50K, 13% 50K-100K,
weeks’ gestation without a 23% 100K-150K, 19% over 150K
history of neurodevelopmental Maternal educational level:
disorder conferring risk of 7% Below High School, 15%
language delays, no Some college/associate degree,
contraindications to MRI, such as 40% College graduate, 38%
metal implants Above college
Zivan et al. (2019) EEG 30 57.04–70.48 53% N/A Normal developmental history Middle-class
(Israel) without a history of attention
difficulties
Rodriguez-Ayllon et al. (2019) DTI 2352 9.54–10.70 50% 67% Dutch, 8% N/A Maternal education: 8% Low, 27%
(Netherlands) Other Medium, 65% High
Western, 25%
Non-Western
Li et al. (2020) fNIRS 20 48–72 45% 100% Chinese N/A From an urban Children’s Learning
(China) Centernormal
Wetzel et al. (2021) EEG 37 81.6–109.2 54% 100% German 97% right-handed, 1% left-handed; N/A
(German) No medication affecting the
central nervous system,
neurological disorders, hearing
disorders, or attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder
Li et al. (2021) fNIRS 38 48–75.6 55% 100% Chinese 100% right-handed N/A
(China)
Chaarani et al. (2022) fMRI 2217 108–120 37% N/A SST sample: 90% right-handed, 10% N/A
(USA) left-handed
n-Back sample: 89% right-
handed, 11% left-handed
Hutton et al. (2022) MRI 52 37–63 44% N/A No prior or current kindergarten Annual household income: 13% 0-
(USA) attendance; No documented 25K,17% 25K-50K, 29% 50K-
history of head trauma with loss 100K, 21% 100K-150K, 9% Above
of consciousness or 150K Maternal educational level:
neurodevelopmental condition 8% High School or Less, 17%
likely to confer cognitive delay Some College, 42% College
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

graduate, 33% More than college

(Continued)
9
 10

Table 2. (Continued).

Sample Participants’ Details

Author/year (Country) Tech size Age (Months) % Male Race Normal SES
Zhao et al. (2022) MRI 9738 108–120 52% 67% White, 14% N/A Family income: 28% 0-50K, 29%
(USA) Black, 17% 50K-100K, 43% Above 100K
Other/Mixed, Maternal educational level: 4%
D. WU ET AL.

2% Asian Below High Diploma, 8%

HSDiploma/GED, 25% Some
College, 27% Bachelor, 43% Post
Graduate Degree
Lewin et al. (2023) EEG 20 45.6–121.2 65% N/A A monolingual speaker of English; Average parental education: 4-year
(USA) no history of stuttering, college degree
stutterno, and neurological Average Household income:70K-
disease or injury, speech, 80K
language, or hearing disorder
had normal or corrected-to-
normal vision and hearing
Law et al. (2023) EEG 157 12–108 54% 50% Chinese, N/A Maternal education: 32% High
(Singapore) 34% school and below, 39%
Malay,15% Diplomas/certificates, 29%
Indian University and above Monthly
household income: 23% Below
2K, 25% 2K-4K, 26% 4K-6K, 27%
over 6K
Chen et al. (2023) fMRI 3891 108–131 47% 71% White, 11% N/A Total conbiner family income: 8%
(USA) African 25K, 11% 25K-50K, 26% 50K-
American 2% 100K, 34% 100K-200K, 13%
Asian, 4% Above 20K, 7% unknown
Others, 11% Parental Education: 4% Below
Multiracial High school diploma, 9% High
population school diploma, 29% Some
college or associate degree, 32%
Bachelor’s degree, 26% Post
graduate degree
Zhao et al. (2023) MRI 5166 108–120 54% 70% White, 12% N/A Parental highest education level:
(USA) Black, 2% 11% Up to HS graduation/GED,
Asian, 16% 26% Some College, 27%
Other/Mixed Bachelor’s Degree, 35% Post-
Graduate Degree Household
income: 25% 0K-50K, 28% 50K-
100K, 40% Above 100K
Note. CS = Cross-sectional; DTI = Diffusion Tensor Imaging; EEG = Electroencephalogram; fMRI = Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging; fNIRS = Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; Long =
Longitudinal; MRI = Magnetic Resonance Imaging; NIRS = Near-Infrared Spectroscopy; = Study 1; S2 = Study 2.
Table 3. Technological information of the 33 studies reviewed.
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Matsuda & Experiment Games two commercially available video games, functional Negative impact: Face data exclusions due to motion
Hiraki, 2006 namely Video game playing commonly leads to artifacts; Lack of comprehension of
(Japan) Super Smash Bros. Melee (Nintendo Co. a reduction in DPFC activity compared experimental instructions
Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) and Tetris (Success to the resting state, regardless of age,
Co. Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) encompassing both adults and children
beyond infancy stages.
Baumgartner et Experiment Screen-Based five different roller coaster simulations functional Mixed Impact: Unanswered neurophysiological questions
al. (2006) Media Use Strong spatial presence experiences in on spatial presence
(German) an arousing and noninteractive VR world
are associated with markedly increased
activity in parietal/occipital areas of the
brain together with decreased activity in
frontal structures involved in the
executive system of the brain;
Autonomic somatic reactions are
increased along with activation in brain
structures known to be involved in the
somatic and visceral representation of
the body state and emotion processing.
Shimada and Experiment Screen-Based a female demonstrator manipulating an functional Negative Impact: NIRS data acquisition limitation;
Hiraki (2006) Media Use attractive noncommercial toy (when the The sensorimotor activity was more uncertainty statistical analyses; did not
(Japan) demonstrator tapped lateral parts of a pronounced in response to an action of use better NIRS wavelengths; exist
box, a gadget installed inside the box others than to object movement in the contamination of the motor activity
sprung out) presented either through a live setting, while it was not observed in
TV monitor or were live the TV setting.
Han et al. (2007) Experiment Virtual Visual movie clips depicted human beings in real functional Positive Impact: Lack of functional role of MPFC activation
(China) Scenes visual scenes; cartoon clips depicted Cartoon clips elicited activation in the in children watching cartoon clips
artificial characters in virtual visual bilateral MT and posterior STS, bilateral
scenes superior parietal lobule, and MPFC.
Murray et al. Experiment Screen-Based the televised violent functional a small sample focusing only on one type
(2006) Media Use videotape segments of violence; lack of a matched
(USA) nonviolent comparison task; did not
consider additional factors influencing
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

the brain response to TV violence

(Continued)
11
 12

Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
D. WU ET AL.

Cantlon et al. Experiment Screen-Based a single 20.3-min montage of clips from functional Mixed Impact:
(2013) Media Use children’s educational television shows The right IPS appears to be more mature
(USA) Sesame Street video than the left IPS in children. In early
childhood the IPS responds in a content-
specific manner to numerical
information presented naturalistically
and that both the amplitude and
temporal pattern of the neural response
are related to children’s school-based
math performance.
Takeuchi et al. Survey Video a self-report questionnaire of the structural Mixed Impact: inconclusive functional relevance of certain
(2013) Viewing duration of TV or video viewing Cross-sectional and longitudinal areas
(Japan) and analyses indicate increased rGMV in the
Editing frontopolar and medial prefrontal areas;
Cross-sectional analyses show increased
rGMV and rWMV in areas of the visual
cortex.
Longitudinal analyses suggest increased
rGMV in the hypothalamus/septum and
sensorimotor areas.
Both cross-sectional and longitudinal
analyses indicate a decrease in VIQ.
Mondéjar et al. Experiment Games an adaptation of the Trail Making Test functional Positive Impact: lack of the long-term effects of
(2016) (TMT); High activation in the frontal area in the videogames on executive function (EF)
(Spain) the interference test. An adaptation of videogame phase of evaluation. evaluation; did not focus on utilizing
the well-known test of Stroop(1935); the Greater significance is given to the supervised learning techniques and
Washers test, an adaptation of the activation of theta waves when the expanding the participant population
Tower of Hanoi (TOH). player is demanded to give a new
answer in the frontal activation and in a
generalized way in most users. The
activation in terms of beta waves when
remembering a necessary answer to
continue in the game in the frontal area
and in some point on an occipital level.
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Takeuchi et al. Survey Games a self-report questionnaire of the duration structural Negative Impact: not an intervention study; did not gather
(2016) of VGP during weekdays Longer VGP is associated with greater data on socioemotional measures and
(Japan) MD in extensive regions and lower specific effects of certain types of
verbal intelligence, both cross- videogames
sectionally and longitudinally. A higher
PIQ was associated with lower MD in
extensive regions in the brain, and
higher FSIQ and VIQ were both
associated with lower MD in the left
thalamus, left hippocampus, left
putamen, left insula, left Heschl gyrus
and associated white matter bundles.
Pujol et al. Both Games a parent-reported questionnaire of both Mixed Impact: limited coverage of all domains; did not
(2016) indicating which games were most In the gaming group, the weekly time assess the formal reliability and accuracy
(Spain) frequently played in spent gaming was steadily associated of parent-reported digital game time;
the previous year; Difficulties with higher scores. Video gaming was lack of the long-term effect and analyses
Questionnaire (SDQ) of child behavioral associated with higher functional stratified by game content or type
problems; A neighbor- connectivity in the putamen and
hood socioeconomic status vulnerability caudate nucleus maps. In the cognitive
index; child version of the Attentional domain, video game use was associated
Network Test(ANT) with faster motor response to visual
stimulation. Video gamers did not
demonstrate more problematic
behavior than nongamers. At a neural
level, structural and functional brain
changes associated with gaming use
were most evident with respect to basal
ganglia circuitry.
(Continued)
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT
13
 14
D. WU ET AL.

Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Bergen et al. Experiment Games a simplified computer program that functional Positive Impact: lack of the effects of video game play on
(2017) required the performance of two During the choice condition compared brain wave activation
(USA) different types of responses for the to the color condition, there were larger
“space visitors” (correct color responses N2 and P3 amplitudes in the parietal
or imaginative choice responses) lobe (Pz), indicating increased neural
activity related to decision-making.
The age of the child played a significant
role, with younger children showing
more frontal lobe activity during mixed
choice conditions, suggesting higher
cognitive load and difficulty with set
shifting. Older children exhibited a more
positive inflection in the parietal lobe,
indicating greater allocation of mental
resources to decision-making. There
were developmental differences in how
children responded to the two
educational game conditions,
highlighting variations in cognitive
processes and strategies employed
during gameplay.
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Li et al. (2017) Experiment Games & study materials included a fantastical game functional Positive Impact: did not yoke participants in video and
(China) Video Dr. Panda in Space, which was played on Viewing fantastical events consumed game conditions to control for
Viewing an iPad; more cognitive resources and resulted in differences; lack of the role of presence
and Go-No-Go task disruption of inhibitory control. In in touch screen and smaller mobile
Editing contrast, there was no such disruptive devices; lack of the long-term effect
effect after participants interacted and
touched fantastical events via a touch
screen device. Viewing real events did
not have a negative effect on their
inhibitory control compared to
interacting with them. The posttest
increase in children’s Coxy-Hb for
viewing but not interacting suggests
that there may be a compensation
mechanism when interacting with
fantastical events. Both the form and
content of mobile devices can produce
effects on children’s cognitive skills.
Horowitz-Kraus Both Screen-Based a parent-reported screen time activities functional Negative Impact: did not explore the effects of screen time
and Hutton Media Use questionnaire; the Test of Nonverbal Time spent reading was positively and reading environments, and
(2017) Intelligence; a vocabulary task from the correlated with higher functional interrelationships with the
(USA) Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test(PPVT); connectivity between the seed area and neurodevelopment
the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of left-sided language, visual and cognitive
Cognitive Abilities control regions. Reported screen-time
hours were negatively correlated with
functional connectivity between the
visual word form area and the regions
related to cognitive control such as the
right Brodmann areas. Higher reported
screen time was correlated with
decreased functional connectivity
between the visual word form area and
the regions related to language and
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

cognitive control.
(Continued)
15
 16

Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
D. WU ET AL.

Author/year Method of Digital Type of

(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Baker et al. Experiment Screen-Based three digital math apps on iPads: functional Negative Impact: a small sample size; lack of generalizability
(2018) Media Use Montessori Numbers: Base-10 Blocks Increases in cortical activation would be
(USA) (100–999), Motion Math: Zoom (levels 2 identified in regions of the brain
+), corresponding to the left and right
and LetsTans Kids. intraparietal sulci. This pattern of activity
was observed for all three digital math
apps, but it was not present during rest.
The left and right regions of the parietal
lobe, which were consistently active
during math play, were not active
during rest. Regions of the PFC would be
active during each digital math app
while maintaining minimal activity
during rest. fNIRS is capable of
identifying reductions in PFC activity
when children stop playing with the
apps.
Hutton et al. Experiment Screen-Based three different children’s storybooks were functional Negative Impact: may not apply to other styles stories; exist
(2018) Media Use presented without interruption in three For illustration relative to audio, FC was MRI technological constraints; limited to
(USA) formats decreased within the language network five functional networks
and increased between visual, DMN, and
cerebellar networks, suggesting
decreased strain on the language
network afforded by pictures and visual
imagery. Between-network connectivity
was decreased for all networks for
animation relative to the other formats,
particularly illustration, suggesting a
bias toward visual perception at the
expense of network integration.
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Takeuchi et al. Survey Internet and WAIS-III; WISC-III; a self-report structural Negative Impact: not an intervention study
(2018) Pad Use questionnaire of the frequency of Cross-sectional rGMV/rWMV analysis:
(Japan) internet use The frequency of internet use did not
significantly correlate with rGMV or
rWMV of any of the brain areas.
Longitudinal rGMV/rWMV analysis:
The frequency of internet use in the pre-
experiment showed a significant
negative correlation with the change in
rGMV/rWMV of a widespread anatomical
cluster. A higher frequency of internet
use was associated with decreased
verbal intelligence and smaller volume
increases in widespread brain areas after
a few years.
Paulus et al. Survey Screen-Based a youth-report screen media activity structural Mixed Impact: did not allow drawing causal inferences;
(2019) Media Use questionnaire; a parent-reported CBCL; a Those individuals with higher SMA- did not use a higher resolution
(USA) youth performance NIH Toolbox related GFA 1 and GFA 4 scores had approach; lack of better control of these
significantly higher externalization variables; did not consider engagement
scores; With higher SMA-related GFA 4 in other recreational activities or school-
scored lower on fluid abilities; With related screen media activity
higher SMA-related GFA 1 and higher
SMA-related GFA 4 had lower
crystallized abilities. Those individuals
with higher SMA-related GFA 2 had
higher fluid abilities and showed better
performance on crystallized abilities.
(Continued)
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT
17
 18

Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
D. WU ET AL.

Author/year Method of Digital Type of

(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Twait et al. Experiment Screen-Based attention Network Task functional Positive Impact: did not collect neurobiological measures
(2019) Media Use Children in the dialogic reading also before the intervention; lack of a control
(Israel) demonstrated lower differences group
between P300 and N200 amplitudes for
congruent compared to incongruent
stimuli in the attention network task
paradigm, indicating improved
orienting attention and executive-
control abilities in this group. These
abilities were measured in the
electroencephalogram testing. The
dialogic reading group also showed
improved executive control via N200,
although this did not reach significance,
compared to the screen-based group.
Higher accuracy rates for both
incongruent and congruent conditions
were observed for the dialogic reading
compared to the screen group.
Kostyrka- Experiment Video Go-no-Go functional Negative Impact: lack of a control group; experimental
Allchorne et Viewing A comparison of N2 waveforms shown videos may have reduced the ecological
al. (2019) and in Figure 2 suggests that the amplitude validity
(England) Editing difference is confined to the fast-paced
group.
The significant interaction shows that
the correct-wrong difference in P3
latency was reliably more positive in the
fast-paced group than in the slow-paced
group. Watching fast-paced videos has
short-term consequences for the neural
responses, resulted in weaker inhibition.
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Li et al. (2019) Experiment Virtual Visual a reality judgment task functional Mixed Impact: did not investigate additional social-brain
(China) Scenes The fNIRS data also revealed higher areas; did not explore the different
prefrontal activations in children than in neural bases of children and adults; a
adults while watching and judging the small age-range sample
reality of events, especially in the mPFC
and rPFC.When judging the real events
or the events performed by real
characters, the children showed higher
prefrontal activations. Positive
correlations were revealed between
children’s mPFC activations and their
judgment accuracy on RR events.
Hutton et al. Survey Screen-Based a parent-reported ScreenQ35 survey; EVT- structural Negative Impact: did not use objective measures
(2020) Media Use 2; CTOPP-2; GRTR Increased use of screen-based media in
(USA) the context of the AAP guidelines was
associated with lower microstructural
integrity of brain white matter tracts
that support language, executive
functions, and emergent literacy skills,
controlling for child age and household
income. Screen use was also associated
with lower scores on corresponding
behavioral measures, controlling for
age.
Zivan et al. Both Screen-Based a parent-reported Conners and BRIEF; the functional Negative Impact: lack of EEG data before the intervention
(2019) Media Use Naming subtest and the Matrix task The EEG functional connectivity of the
(Israel) from the WPPSI; Sky Search and Score theta band compared to the beta band,
subtests, from the TEA-Ch battery a pattern that was previously found to
be related to attention deficits. In
contrast to passive attendance to the
screen, children listening to stories told
by the interactive experimenter
engaged the children using eye contact
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

and gestures prompting them to stay

alert.
(Continued)
19
 20

Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Rodriguez- Survey Screen-Based a parent-reported Screen time structural No Impact: did not allow drawing causal inferences;
D. WU ET AL.

Ayllon et al. Media Use questionnaire No association was found between did not consider other environmental
(2019) individual or aggregate screen time confounders; did not use objective
(Netherlands) variables and global DTI metrics. measures
Li et al. (2020) Experiment Virtual Visual animated shows with frequent fantastical functional Negative Impact: lack of a control group; differences
(China) Scenes events It indicated that viewing frequent between the two stimulus videos
fantastical events led to overloaded
processing, which in turn impaired
Chinese preschoolers’ EF task
performance.
Wetzel et al. Experiment Internet and play the game Memory either with a functional Positive Impact: did not disentangle potential influencing
(2021) Pad Use human opponent in reality or with a Results demonstrate increased activity factors; cannot rule out that the absence
(German) virtual opponent on a tablet PC and to on the level of the auditory cortex in vs. presence of the experimenter
ignore a task-irrelevant sound sequence response to task-irrelevant sounds when between conditions influenced the
children play with a tablet PC compared results
to playing the same game with a human
partner. It indicates enhanced
processing of all sound types
independent from their novelty.
Li et al. (2021) Both Internet and DCCS Tasks; HLEP developed from HLEI functional Negative Impact: fNIRS data acquisition limitation; a small
(China) Pad Use Researchers tend to suggest that this sample size; did not consider gender as
“heavy-user” activation pattern might a variable; lack of longitudinal data
be abnormal and very likely unhealthy,
demonstrating the negative impact of
tablet use on young children’s executive
function.
Chaarani et al. Both Games a child self-report Screen time functional Positive Impact: did not consider game genre as a
(2022) questionnaire; The VGs performed better on both fMRI moderating variable; did not allow
(USA) stop signal task (SST); tasks compared with the NVGs. drawing causal inferences
n-back task Although the CBCL scores were elevated
in children who play video games for 3
or more hours a day, the results raise the
intriguing possibility that video gaming
may provide a cognitive training
experience with measurable
neurocognitive effects.
(Continued)
Table 3. (Continued).
Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Hutton et al. Survey Screen-Based EVT-2; CTOPP-2, rapid object naming structural Negative Impact: a sample with largely of higher income and
(2022) Media Use subscale; PIPA; GRTR The overall CT is expected to have maternal education; did not discern
(USA) largely peaked, though not yet in mechanisms; lack of a range of
higher-order areas. Despite limited cognitive-behavioral measures at the
statistical power, particularly when formative age
controlling for maternal education,
significant (ROI-based) and/or
marginally significant (whole-brain)
associations were identified between
higher screen-based media use and
lesser CT involving both primary and
higher-order areas.
Zhao et al. Survey Screen-Based a youth self-report SMA questionnaire structural No Impact: lack of longitudinal data; lack of direct
(2022) Media Use The JIVE analyses identified one joint measurement of types, patterns of SMA,
(USA) component that was characterized by a sleep activity and performance on
covariation pattern common across cognitive tasks
surface areas and GM volumes in key
brain regions comprising a previously
described thalamus-PFC-brainstem
circuit. The identified joint component
was associated with total screen time
and externalizing behaviors but not with
total sleep problems, internalizing
behaviors, and crystalized intelligence.
Lewin et al. Both Screen-Based all Daily Screentime questionnaires; functional Negative Impact: did not allow drawing causal inferences;
(2023) Media Use Go/No-Go task Children with greater screen time lack of longitudinal data; did not use
(USA) exhibit less robust neural processes for objective measures of children’s screen
inhibitory control. use
Law et al. Both Screen-Based a parent-reported Screen time functional Negative Impact: did not use objective measures of
(2023) Media Use questionnaire; Increased screen time in infancy is children’s screen use; did not include
(Singapore) NEPSY-II: naming inhibition, shifting, associated with impairments in contextual influences
and working memory; cognitive processes critical for health,
a teacher-reported CBCL & BRIEF-2 academic achievement, and future work
EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT

success.
(Continued)
21
 22

Table 3. (Continued).
D. WU ET AL.

Research Design Research Results

Collection Type of
Author/year Method of Digital Type of
(Country) Data Experience Assessment(measure/specific task) Impact Outcomes Limitations
Chen et al. Survey Screen-Based a child self-report Screen time functional Negative Impact: lack of access to the processed inhibitory
(2023) Media Use questionnaire; The longer screen activity is associated task-based cortical network to
(USA) a parent-reported Sports and Activities; with a delayed development of the subcortical regions data
Involvement Questionnaire; inhibitory control system in the brain
SAP scores; and longer screen exposure may amplify
BAS scores provided by the ABCD the negative effect of reward sensitivity
dataset on ICN development. It showed a
negative change in the frontostriatal
connectivity in individuals with
relatively increased daily screen time.
The delaying effect of screen exposure
on the development of ICN is a general
phenomenon that exists in children
during preadolescence.
Zhao et al. Survey Screen-Based a parent-reported CBCL; structural Negative Impact: did not consider different screen
(2023) Media Use a self-reported SMA questionnaire Compared to individuals with low- modalities beyond total screen use and
(USA) frequency and moderate-frequency additional potential influences; lack of
SMA, those with high-frequency SMA Age-dependent effects; lack of
demonstrated a slower expansion in longitudinal data; did not understand
subcortical regions. This global the brain correlates of gender difference
structural co-development pattern
provided a proxy measure of
imbalanced brain structural
development (mainly in GMV and
cortical thickness) among cortical and
subcortical regions.
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 23

40

15 30

Number
10 20
Number

5 10

0 0
SA

er a

rl a l
n

n
an

ng nd

e
En ds
he ae
n

or
pa

ai

00
0

00
hi

a
U

r
Sp

ap

00
s
Ja

gl
C

60
I

0
G

10
1-
1-
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et

0-
0
N

0
30

60
Figure 2. Country and sample size.

from England. Altogether, 11 studies were from Asia-Pacific areas (33.33%): five from China, five from
Japan, and one from Singapore (Figure 2).

Participants
A total of 30,100 participants were included in these studies, ranging from infants aged six months
(Study #3) to adults aged 23.87 years old (Study #20 includes both children and adults). Most of them
were cross-sectional studies (29/33; 87.88%) and focused on children aged from 6 to 286.47 months.
Four studies (Studies #7, 9, 16, 20) collected longitudinal imaging data from children (aged 64.8 to

20 10

15 8
Number

Number

6
10
4
5
2

0 0
h
y
t
en

fN I
S

S
I
G

TI
ve

ot

R
R

IR

IR
EE

D
fM
M
rim

B
r

N
Su
pe
Ex

Figure 3. Design and technologies.

24 D. WU ET AL.

220.8 months) and adults. About 87.88% of the studies had a sample size between 1–3000, 9.09% had
around 3001–6000 participants, and 3.03% had a large sample between 6000–10000 (see Figure 2).

Research Designs
Figure 3 shows that 16 studies adopted the experimental design, 10 were survey studies, and the other
seven included both experiment and survey studies.

Neuroimaging Technologies
Figure 3 lists the neuroimaging technologies used by the 33 studies. In particular, nine studies adopted
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), seven employed Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI),
nine used Electroencephalogram (EEG), five took Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS), one
reported Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS), and two deployed Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI).
Technically, NIRS and fNIRS share the same neuroimaging technology, the term “NIRS” was used
in the early times, and then it was replaced by fNIRS to emphasize functional scans. In this study, we
followed the authors’ choice of terms to maintain the original meaning of their studies’ nature.

Digital Media
The primary digital media were screen-based media use (51.51%), followed by Games (21.21%),
Virtual Visual Scenes (12.12%), Video Viewing and Editing (9.09%), Internet and Pad Use (6.06%).

Digital Experience Impacts the Function of Young Children’s Brains

About 23 studies reported the impact of digital experiences on the function of children’s brains.
Among them, six studies reported positive effects, 15 studies demonstrated negative ones, and two
reported mixed results. Figure 4 presents the neuroimaging findings of the impact of digital experience
on brain functions.

Figure 4. Neuroimaging findings of the impact of digital experience on brain functions. Note. Red represents the positive impact,
blue reflects the negative impact, and purple refers to the mixed impact. The authors created with MedPeer (www.medpeer.cn).
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 25

Positive Impact
The EEG/ERP Evidence. Two EEG/ERP studies also reported the training and priming effects of
digital experience on children’s brain function. In particular, Study #8 (Mondéjar et al., 2016) found
that the frontal lobe (EF) was very active in the game phase, indicating that the brain relies more on the
skills located in the frontal lobe. They also noticed that theta waves, related to new learning, increased
in the frontal lobe and most users when they had to use a different game mechanic. Beta waves, which
are related to memory recall, also increased in the frontal lobe and some parts of the back of the brain
when they had to remember an answer to continue in the game. Study # 11 (Bergen et al., 2017)
explored the impact of video game play on brain development by comparing how younger and older
children responded to two educational game conditions: mixed and single. They found that younger
children had more brain activity in the frontal lobe, which is related to attention, when they played the
mixed game. This means that they had to pay more attention to the mixed game. This shows a
developmental difference in how children react to different educational game conditions.

The fNIRS Evidence. Study #12 (Li et al., 2017) found that viewing fantastical events elicited higher
activation in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, which indicated increased cognitive demand and impaired
inhibitory control. However, this effect was attenuated when children touched fantastical events on a touch-
screen device, suggesting that tactile feedback reduced the cognitive load. This study showed that the content
and modality of mobile media could have differential impacts on children’s executive functions.

The fMRI Evidence. Three fMRI studies reported digital use’s positive training or priming effects on
children’s brain function. In particular, Study #4 (Han et al., 2007) reported that cartoon clips elicited
activation in the bilateral middle temporal cortex (MT) and posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS),
bilateral superior parietal lobule, and medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC). Study #5 (Murray et al., 2006)
revealed that TV violence viewing activated a network of regions implicated in attention, arousal, and
salience; engaged a phylogenetically old brain system involved in the detection of fear or threat in the
environment; was associated with activation of limbic and neocortical systems likely involved in the episodic
encoding and retrieval of the environmental context associated with such threat; and was associated with
activation of premotor regions possibly involved in the programming of motor plans (fight or flight).
Recently, Chaarani et al. (2022) (#27) evaluated the effects of video gaming on children’s fMRI performance
and behavior. They found that the video game group performed better on two fMRI tasks than the non-
video game group, suggesting the cognitive benefits of video gaming. However, this study has not explored
the connection between these behavioral problems and brain development, warranting further neuroima­
ging studies.

Negative Impact
The EEG/ERP Evidence. Six EEG/ERP studies reported the negative effects of digital experiences
on children’s brain function. In particular, Twait et al. (2019) (Study #18) compared the effects
of screen media and dialogic reading on children’s orienting attention and executive-control
abilities. They found that the dialogic reading group showed enhanced EEG measures of these
abilities, while the screen group did not. Meanwhile, Kostyrka-Allchorne et al. (2019) (Study
#19) examined the impact of the editing pace of videos on children’s neural responses during
the Sustained Attention to Response Task (SART). They found that watching fast-paced videos
reduced the EEG amplitude of the no-go trials, indicating weaker inhibition. Zivan et al. (2019)
(Study #22) found that the screen group had higher theta-band connectivity than beta-band
connectivity, which was associated with attention deficits. In contrast, the story group without
screen experience did not show this difference, indicating that interactive storytelling enhanced
attentional engagement. Wetzel et al. (2021) (Study #25) analyzed the event-related potentials
(ERPs) of children who played a card game with a virtual or a human opponent on a tablet PC.
They found that playing with a virtual opponent increased the amplitude of the P3a component,
which reflected increased processing of task-irrelevant auditory stimuli. Playing with a human
26 D. WU ET AL.

opponent did not show this effect, suggesting that social interaction reduced distraction. Lewin
et al. (2023) (#30) examined the relationship between child screen time and neural processes for
inhibitory control. They found that after controlling for age, increased screen time was asso­
ciated with reduced P2 and P3 amplitudes elicited by No-Go trials, indicating less robust
inhibition. Law et al. (2023) (#31) investigated the association between infant screen use and
cortical EEG activity before Age 2. They found that increased screen time in infancy was
associated with impairments in cognitive processes critical for health, academic achievement,
and future work success.

The fNIRS evidence. About five NIRS/fNIRS studies revealed the negative impact of digital experi­
ence on children’s brain function. In particular, Study #1 (Matsuda & Hiraki, 2006) reported a
significant reduction of oxygenated hemoglobin (HbO) concentration changes in the dorsal prefrontal
cortex (DPFC) during the onset of video game playing and a rapid restoration upon termination.
Video game playing tended to suppress DPFC activity relative to the resting state, and adults and
children older than infants shared this effect. Study #3 (Shimada & Hiraki, 2006) found that the
infant’s motor areas, activated during their actions, were also engaged when observing the actions of
others. These findings suggested different processing of body movements in these two contexts (live or
TV), demonstrating that sensorimotor activity was more pronounced in response to the actions of
others in the live setting but not in the TV setting. Li et al. (2019) (Study #20) measured the fNIRS
activation of children and adults who watched and judged the reality of events on a screen. Children
showed decreased prefrontal activation over time, especially in the dorsolateral, lateral, and right
prefrontal cortex, while adults showed a stable activation pattern. Li et al. (2020) (Study #24) assessed
the fNIRS activation of preschoolers who viewed frequent or infrequent fantastical events on a screen
and performed an executive function (EF) task. They found that the frequent fantasy group had an
increase in prefrontal activation over time, which reflected cognitive overload and impaired EF
performance. Li et al. (2021) (Study #26) compared the fNIRS activation and EF performance of
heavy and non-users of tablet devices. They found that the non-users performed better on the
Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) task and had higher activation in the prefrontal cortex (BA
9), which indicated normal and healthy brain functioning. The heavy-users performed worse on the
DCCS task and had lower activation in BA 9, which indicated abnormal and unhealthy brain
functioning.

The fMRI Evidence. Four MRI/fMRI studies revealed the negative impact of digital experience on
children’s brain function, including functional connectivity. In particular, Study #13 (Horowitz-Kraus
& Hutton, 2017) found that screen time was related to lower connectivity between the seed area and
regions related to language and cognitive control. Higher reported screen time was correlated with
decreased functional connectivity between the visual word form area and the regions related to
language and cognitive control. Study # 14 (Baker et al., 2018) examined the cortical activity patterns
of preschool-age children who engaged with digital math apps on a touch-screen device using fNIRS.
The results showed that animation reduced the connectivity among different brain networks, espe­
cially compared to illustration. In contrast, illustration may be more effective in facilitating language
development and learning at this age. Study #15 (Hutton et al., 2018) found that between-network
connectivity was decreased for all networks for animation rather than illustration. This finding
suggests substantial differences in functional brain network connectivity for animated and more
traditional story formats in preschool-age children, reinforcing the appeal of illustrated storybooks
at this age to provide efficient scaffolding for language. Chen et al. (2023) (#32) found that longer
screen exposure time was associated with the underdevelopment of the inhibitory control system.
They suggested that long-term prolonged daily screen exposure may negatively affect children’s
cognitive development.
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 27

Mixed Impact
Using EEG, Study #2 (Baumgartner et al., 2006) found that high spatial presence experiences in an
arousing and noninteractive VR world were linked to both enhanced activity in parietal/occipital
regions of the brain and reduced activity in frontal regions involved in the executive system of the
brain. Moreover, they observed increased autonomic somatic responses and activation in brain
regions implicated in the somatic and visceral representation of the body state and emotion proces­
sing. In addition, Study # 6 (Cantlon et al., 2013) investigated the neural processes evoked by
naturalistic educational television viewing using fMRI. They found that the right IPS was more mature
than the left IPS in children, based on both natural viewing and traditional paradigm data. They
concluded that the IPS (especially in the right hemisphere) responded in a content-specific manner to
numerical information presented naturalistically and that the neural response’s amplitude and tem­
poral pattern were related to children’s school-based math performance.

Digital Experience Impacts the Structure of Young Children’s Brains

About nine studies reported the impact of digital experiences on the structure of young children’s
brains. Two studies reported no impact, five demonstrated negative ones, and two reported mixed
results. No studies reported any positive impact. Figure 5 presents the neuroimaging findings of the
impact of digital experience on brain structures.

No Impact
Contrary to the majority of the studies, two studies did not find any evidence of digital experience
affecting brain structure. Specifically, Study #23 (Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019) reported no significant
correlations between any of the screen time variables and global Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI)
metrics, indicating that screen time did not have a noticeable impact on the brain’s structural integrity
as measured by DTI. Similarly, Study #29 (Zhao et al., 2022) demonstrated a consistent pattern of
structural covariation across different developmental stages related to high-quantity screen media

Figure 5. Neuroimaging findings of the impact of digital experience on brain structures. Note. Blue reflects the negative impact,
purple refers to the mixed impact, and green marks the null results. The authors created with MedPeer (www.medpeer.cn).
28 D. WU ET AL.

activity and externalizing behaviors. Moreover, this joint component was linked to total screen time
and externalizing behaviors but not to total sleep problems, internalizing behaviors, or crystallized
intelligence.

Negative Impact
The MRI Evidence. Four studies provided MRI evidence to demonstrate the negative impact of
digital experience on the structure of children’s brains. In particular, Study #9 (Takeuchi et al.,
2016) found that more extended Video Game Play (VGP) was associated with greater diffusion
tensor imaging mean diffusivity (MD) in extensive regions and lower verbal intelligence, both
cross-sectionally and longitudinally. A higher Performance IQ was associated with lower MD in
extensive regions in the brain, and higher full-scale IQ (FSIQ) and Verbal IQ (VIQ) were both
associated with lower MD in the left thalamus, left hippocampus, left putamen, left insula, left
Heschl gyrus and associated white matter bundles. Study #16 (Takeuchi et al., 2018) reported a
longitudinal finding that a higher frequency of internet use in the pre-experiment showed a
significant negative correlation with changes in rGMV and rWMV in widespread anatomical
clusters. These clusters included extensive bilateral perisylvian areas, the bilateral temporal pole,
the bilateral cerebellum, bilateral medial temporal lobe structures (hippocampus and amygdala),
bilateral basal ganglia structures, the bilateral inferior temporal lobe, the thalamus, the bilateral
orbitofrontal gyrus and lateral prefrontal cortex, the insula, and the left lingual gyrus. The negative
correlation extended to the white matter area adjacent to the gray matter cluster and cingulate
areas. Study #28 (Hutton et al., 2022) suggested that higher media use is associated with
differences in Cortical Thickness (CT) in both primary visual and higher-order association
areas. The findings indicate that media use may have a measurable impact on brain structure,
particularly in regions involved in visual processing and higher-order cognitive functions. Study
#33 (Zhao et al., 2023) revealed an imbalanced impact in that individuals with high-frequency
screen-media activity (SMA) demonstrated a slower expansion in subcortical regions, such as the
brainstem and left putamen, compared to individuals with low-frequency and moderate-frequency
SMA. This global structural co-development pattern suggested an imbalanced brain structural
development, particularly in GMV and cortical thickness, among cortical and subcortical regions.

The DTI Evidence. Study #21 (Hutton et al., 2020) found that increased screen-based media use was
associated with lower microstructural integrity of brain white matter tracts that support language,
executive functions, and emergent literacy skills after controlling for child age and household income.
Screen use was also associated with lower scores on corresponding behavioral measures after control­
ling for age.

Mixed Impact
The impact of digital experience on children’s brain structure was mixed in two studies. Specifically,
Study #7 (Takeuchi et al., 2013) found beneficial and detrimental effects. On the positive side, TV
viewing was associated with (a) increased regional gray matter volume (rGMV) of the frontopolar and
medial prefrontal areas in both cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses; (b) enhanced rGMV/rWMV
(regional white matter volume) of areas in the visual cortex in cross-sectional analyses; (c) enlarged
rGMV of the hypothalamus/septum and sensorimotor areas in longitudinal analyses. On the negative
side, TV viewing was correlated with reduced verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) in both cross-sectional
and longitudinal analyses. Furthermore, Study #17 (Paulus et al., 2019) indicated that screen media
activity (SMA) accounted for 37% of the variance in structural brain indices such as cortical thickness,
sulcal depth, and gray matter volume. The finding supported the idea of SMA-related maturational
coupling or structural correlation networks in the brain and provided evidence that individual
differences in these networks had mixed implications for psychopathology and cognitive performance.
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 29

Prompt Effects vs. Long-Term Influences

This scoping review found that most of the reviewed studies reported digital experience’ prompt
effects or short-term influences on brain functions (see Figure 6); only four studies (Studies #7, 9, 16,
20) provided longitudinal evidence to demonstrate its long-term impact on brain structures (see
Figure 7). In addition, study #10 (Pujol et al., 2016) conducted a one-year longitudinal study to
evaluate the impact of video gaming on brain structure and function. At the behavioral level, they
found that video gamers, overall, did not demonstrate more problematic behavior than non-gamers.
In particular, the survey study indicated that weekly gaming time was steadily associated with conduct
problems, peer conflicts, and reduced prosocial abilities. At the cognitive level, video game use was
associated with faster motor response to visual stimulation. At the neural level, they found structural
and functional brain changes associated with gaming use evident concerning basal ganglia circuitry.
Positively, video gaming was associated with higher functional connectivity in the putamen and
caudate nucleus maps. These findings jointly indicate that the digital experience’s impact could be
short-term and long-term.

Discussion
This scoping review has provided a preliminary summary of the impact of digital experience on
children’s developing brains, drawn from 33 journal articles identified as meeting the inclusion criteria
outlined in the method section. This section will discuss these findings and elaborate on their
implications for future studies, practical improvement, and policymaking.

Whether Digital Experience Can Shape Young Minds

First, this scoping review found that 23 studies reported the impact on children’s brain functions: six positive
effects, 15 negative impacts, and two mixed results. In particular, six EEG/ERP (Kostyrka-Allchorne et al.,
2019; Law et al., 2023; Lewin et al., 2023; Twait et al., 2019; Wetzel et al., 2021; Zivan et al., 2019), five fNIRS

Figure 6. Neuroimaging findings of the short-term impact of digital experience. Note. Red represents the positive impact, blue
reflects the negative impact, and purple refers to the mixed impact. The authors created with MedPeer (www.medpeer.cn).
30 D. WU ET AL.

Figure 7. Neuroimaging findings of the longitudinal impact of digital experience. Note. Red represents the positive impact, blue
reflects the negative impact, purple refers to the mixed impact, and green marks the null results. The authors created with MedPeer
(www.medpeer.cn).

(Li et al., 2019, 2020, 2021; Matsuda & Hiraki, 2006; Shimada & Hiraki, 2006), and four fMRI (Baker et al.,
2018; Chen et al., 2023; Horowitz-Kraus & Hutton, 2017; Hutton et al., 2020) reported the negative effects of
digital experiences on children’s brain function, which includes functional connectivity, cognitive and
language processing, and executive function. In contrast, two EEG/ERP studies (Bergen et al., 2017;
Mondéjar et al., 2016), one fNIRS study (Li et al., 2017), and three fMRI studies (Chaarani et al., 2022;
Han et al., 2007; Murray et al., 2006) reported the positive and training effects of digital experience on
children’s brain function. In addition, two studies (Baumgartner et al., 2006; Cantlon et al., 2013) reported
both positive and negative effects. These findings jointly indicate that early digital experience can positively
and negatively shape children’s brain function, with more negative than positive effects. This result
demonstrates two directions of functional plasticity of young brains: positive and negative adaptation to
respond to the digital experience. However, the underlying neuromechanisms are still unclear and deserve
further studies.
Second, this scoping review found that nine studies reported the impact of digital experiences on
the structure of young children’s brains: two reported no impact, five suggested negative, and two
presented mixed results. In particular, two studies (Rodriguez-Ayllon et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2022)
reported no noticeable impact on the brain’s structural integrity. This null result might be related to a
Type II error, which means not rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false. This error could be caused
by the problematic research design or methods. For example, the areas of interest in these studies
might not include the real affected brain areas, or the experimental tasks might have failed to activate
the target brain areas. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to verify this “null” finding. In contrast,
four MRI studies (Hutton et al., 2022; Takeuchi et al., 2016, 2018; Zhao et al., 2023) and one DTI study
(Hutton et al., 2020) found a negative impact. In addition, two studies (Paulus et al., 2019; Takeuchi et
al., 2013) found both positive and negative effects, but no studies purely reported positive impacts.
Therefore, we can conclude that digital experience has basically negative positive impacts on the
structure of children’s brains. This result implies that structural plasticity is primarily a negative
response to the early digital experience, which also deserves further investigation.
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 31

Last but not least, one study (Pujol et al., 2016) reported both structural and functional influences of
digital experience. This one-year longitudinal study aims to evaluate the long-term impact of video
gaming play (VGP) on brain structure and function with behavioral and neuroimaging evidence. The
VGP experience can enhance children’s response speed to visual stimulation, resulting in structural
and functional changes in basal ganglia circuitry. This training effect of the VGP experience is
evidenced by the higher functional connectivity in the putamen and caudate nucleus maps. In
conclusion, this evidence supports the positive and negative effects of digital experience on the
structural and functional development of children’s brains, demonstrating both structural and func­
tional plasticity.

Which Brain Area(s) and Functions are Affected

First, this scoping review found that altogether 15 studies (Baker et al., 2018; Baumgartner et al., 2006;
Bergen et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2023; Kostyrka-Allchorne et al., 2019; Law et al., 2023; Lewin et al.,
2023; Li et al., 2017, 2019, 2020, 2021; Matsuda & Hiraki, 2006; Mondéjar et al., 2016; Twait et al., 2019;
Zivan et al., 2019) reported the impact of digital experience on the function and structure of the frontal
lobe, especially the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the neural base of executive function. In particular, some
studies (Li et al., 2017, 2021; Matsuda & Hiraki, 2006) focused on the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex
(DPFC), which is the front part of the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex and includes lateral part of
Brodmann’s area 9 and 46. DPFC is involved in executive functions, such as working memory,
cognitive flexibility, planning, inhibition, and abstract reasoning (Li et al., 2021). Therefore, we can
conclude that early digital experience could primarily and significantly shape children’s PFC and
executive function, both positively and negatively.
Second, this scoping review found that some studies reported the impact of digital experience on
the parietal/temporal/occipital regions of the brain. In particular, Cantlon et al. (2013) found that the
math-related digital experience would impact the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) on the lateral surface of the
parietal lobe. IPS is extensively involved in perceptual-motor coordination, visual attention, proces­
sing symbolic numerical information, visuospatial working memory, and interpreting the intent of
others. In addition, Han et al. (2007) found that cartoon viewing experience would enhance the
activation of the bilateral middle temporal cortex (MT) and posterior superior temporal sulcus (STS),
bilateral superior parietal lobule, and medial prefrontal cortex (MPFC): And Baumgartner et al. (2006)
found that high spatial presence experiences in VR world would enhance the activation of parietal/
occipital regions of the brain. Recently, Hutton et al. (2022) reported that higher media use could cause
Cortical Thickness (CT) differences in occipital regions. Therefore, we can conclude that early digital
experience could shape children’s parietal/temporal/occipital lobes structurally and functionally.
Third, this scoping review also found that digital experience could shape brain connectivity and
networks structurally and functionally. In particular, Hutton and his colleagues (Horowitz-Kraus &
Hutton, 2017; Hutton et al., 2020, Study #15, #21) found that screen time was related to lower
connectivity between the seed area and other regions. They could cause structural and functional
changes in language, visual, and cerebellar networks. Paulus et al. (2019) reported similar findings.
Meanwhile, Takeuchi and his colleagues (Takeuchi et al., 2013, 2016, 2018) found that media
experience would cause long-term structural changes in the brain networks, including bilateral
perisylvian areas, the bilateral temporal pole, the bilateral cerebellum, bilateral medial temporal lobe
structures (hippocampus and amygdala), bilateral basal ganglia structures, the bilateral inferior
temporal lobe, the thalamus, the bilateral orbitofrontal gyrus and lateral prefrontal cortex, the insula,
and the left lingual gyrus. Pujol et al. (2016) reported similar findings. Recently, Zhao et al. (2023)
found that screen-media experience would cause a slower expansion in subcortical regions, such as the
brainstem and left putamen.
In conclusion, the synthesized evidence supports that digital experience could cause structural and
functional changes in children’s frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, brain connectivity, and
brain networks.
32 D. WU ET AL.

Whether Short-Term or Longitudinal

This scoping review found that most of the reviewed studies reported digital experience’ prompt
effects or short-term influences on brain functions; only four studies (Studies #7, 9, 16, 20) provided
longitudinal evidence to demonstrate its long-term impact on brain structures. The leading team is
Takeuchi and his colleagues, who conducted at least three longitudinal studies to explore the long-
term impact of TV viewing, Video Game playing, and Internet use, respectively. First, Takeuchi et al.
(2013) found that TV viewing could cause increased regional gray matter volume of the frontopolar
and medial prefrontal areas and the hypothalamus/septum and sensorimotor areas. However, TV
viewing would also produce reduced verbal intelligence quotient (IQ) longitudinally. Later, Takeuchi
et al. (2016) found that Video Game playing experience would cause greater diffusion tensor imaging
mean diffusivity (MD) in extensive regions and lower verbal intelligence, longitudinally. Last,
Takeuchi et al. (2018) found that frequent Internet use could cause a significant negative effect on
gray and white matter volumes in extensive bilateral perisylvian areas, the bilateral temporal pole, the
bilateral cerebellum, bilateral medial temporal lobe structures (hippocampus and amygdala), bilateral
basal ganglia structures, the bilateral inferior temporal lobe, the thalamus, the bilateral orbitofrontal
gyrus and lateral prefrontal cortex, the insula, and the left lingual gyrus. Meanwhile, Pujol et al. (2016)
evaluated the 1-year long-term impact of video gaming on brain structure and function. They found
structural and functional brain changes associated with gaming use concerning basal ganglia circuitry.
And the positive impact is that video gaming was associated with higher functional connectivity in the
putamen and caudate nucleus maps. Synthesizing these longitudinal findings, we can conclude that
digital experience has both positive and negative impacts on children’s brains longitudinally. But,
more longitudinal neuroimaging studies are needed to consolidate this conclusion.

Conclusions, Limitations, and Implications

In summary, this scoping review has achieved three major conclusions. First, digital experience does
have positive and negative impacts on children’s brains, structurally and functionally. Second, digital
experience could cause structural and functional changes in children’s frontal, parietal, temporal, and
occipital lobes, brain connectivity, and brain networks. And the most vulnerable area is the prefrontal
cortex and its associated executive function. Third, digital experience has positive and negative
impacts on children’s brain structure longitudinally.
However, this scoping review has three major limitations. First, only 33 studies were analyzed in
this scoping review. This small sample size might be because this topic is novel and emerging, and
research technologies are also evolving. We anticipate that there will be an exploration of research in
this area in the following years. Second, this scoping review only covered the academic journals
published in English, leaving those published in other languages, such as Chinese, French, and
German, unexamined. This is because we lack multilingual resources and time. Nevertheless, given
that English is the lingua franca of academic publications, the impact of this minor limitation is
limited. Third, without consolidated neuroimaging evidence through comparative studies, this scop­
ing review has not addressed the critical questions, such as whether it is the early digital use (for
example, screen time) or the cognitive processes (i.e., learning experience) that have driven the change
of brain function and structure, and whether there are different effects of digital equipment types and
the mode of use. As most studies reviewed use cross-sectional designs, causal inferences about the
effects of early digital experience on brain changes should be made with caution.
Nevertheless, the findings of this scoping review do have some implications for future directions.
First, more studies should examine the “dose effect” of digital experience. The existing studies adopted
different measures of TV viewing, Video Game playing, and Internet use experience to understand
their impact on brain development, currently and longitudinally. However, they neglected the
relationship between the dose of this experience and the magnitude of the biological change it caused.
A dose-effect study could demonstrate how the response of a population varies with different levels of
 EARLY EDUCATION & DEVELOPMENT 33

exposure or doses to the digital experience. Future studies could employ logistic regression to model
the dose-effect relationship and estimate parameters such as potency, efficacy, and threshold. Second,
there should be more studies on the longitudinal impact on brain functions. Four studies (Studies #7,
9, 16, 20) just reported the long-term impact on children’s brain structure, and one study (Li et al.,
2021) indicated that heavy Pad use would damage young children’s brain function, such as EF. These
findings imply that digital experience might have a long-term impact on brain functions, which
deserves future consolidating evidence. Third, there should be more brain network studies on the
impact of digital experience on brain structures and functions, as the existing findings indicated that
the impact could be holistic and comprehensive. Given that the EEG-NIRS-MRI coupling technologies
are evolving rapidly and more brain network indices are emerging, we anticipate that there will be
more brain network studies to explore how the digital experience shapes the whole brain currently and
longitudinally.
Last but not least, The conclusions drawn from this investigation contain significant implications
for practical improvement and policymaking. Foremost, it should be recognized by both educators
and caregivers that children’s cognitive development may be influenced by their digital experiences. As
such, they should supply suitable guidance, involvement, and backing for children’s digital use.
Limiting their screen time is an effective but confronting way, more innovative, friendly, and practical
strategies could be developed and implemented. Secondly, it is imperative for those in positions of
policy-making to develop and execute policies grounded in empirical evidence to safeguard and
enhance brain development in children as they navigate the digital era. This could also involve
offering resources and incentives for the creation and examination of digital interventions aimed at
bolstering brain growth in children, a topic widely deserving of further investigation.

Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Hui Li http://orcid.org/0000-0001-9355-1116

Author Contributions
Conceptualization: D.W. and H.L.; Methodology: D.W. and H.L.; Data analysis: D.W., X.D., and D.L.; Tables and
Figures: X.D. and D.L.; Writing: D.W., H.L., X.D., and D.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.

Data availability statement

Data will be provided by the authors upon a written request.

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