MATRIX ALGEBRA

A matrix is a chart of elements arranged in rows and columns.

A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers (or other mathematical objects), called the entries of
the matrix.

Matrices are subject to standard operations such as addition and multiplication. Most commonly,
a matrix over a field F is a rectangular array of elements of F. A real matrix and a complex
matrix are matrices whose entries are respectively real numbers or complex numbers. For
instance, this is a real matrix:

−0.3 0.6
A = 20.4 5.5
9.7 −6.2
And the example of a complex matrix is;

1 0
√2 −3
A= , A is the matrix over ℂ

Note;

The numbers, symbols, or expressions in the matrix are called its entries or its elements. The
horizontal and vertical lines of entries in a matrix are called rows and columns, respectively.

In general, the matrix is written as:

⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⋮ ⋮ ⋮
A=

⎝ ⎠
aij is the entry in the row i and column j. From the previous example,

1 0
√2 −3
A=

a21 = √2 , a13 = π, and a22 = i

More notations

A = Am×n = ( aij ) ; where m or i is the number of rows and n or j is the number of columns.

A ∈ Mm×n (ℂ)
Remarks

1) If there are many rows and columns, we separate the number of rows and columns with a
comma ( , ) sign e.g. a25,16
2) In this course all the entries will be ℝ / ℂ

Terminologies

Size; the size of a matrix is defined by the number of rows and columns it contains. It is denoted
as m×n where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns. For example, the matrix
A below is a 3×2 matrix

−0.3 0.6
A = 20.4 5.5
9.7 −6.2
Matrices with a single row are called row vectors, and those with a single column are
called column vectors.

A matrix with the same number of rows and columns is called a square matrix. This is written in
the form A = An×n OR Am×m

A matrix with an infinite number of rows or columns (or both) is called an infinite matrix.

In some contexts, it is useful to consider a matrix with no rows or no columns, called an empty
matrix.

Overview of a matrix size

Name Size Example Description

Row vector 1×n 3 7 2! A matrix with one row, sometimes used to

represent a vector

4
Column vector n×1 A matrix with one column, sometimes used to

1
represent a vector

Square matrix n×n A matrix with the same number of rows and
columns, sometimes used to represent a linear
 9 13 5
7 11 7
transformation from a vector space to itself, such

2 6 3
as reflection, rotation, or shearing.

A rectangular matrix

A matrix is said to be a rectangular matrix if the number of rows is not equal to the number of
columns. For example,

3 −1 0
A=# $
1
√

Diagonal matrix

A square matrix B = [bij] m × m is said to be a diagonal matrix if all its non-diagonal elements
are zero, that is a matrix B =[bij]m×m is said to be a diagonal matrix if bij = 0, when i ≠ j. For
example,

1 0
0 2
B=

3 0 0
B= 0 5 0
0 0 8

Scalar Matrix

A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if all the elements in its principal diagonal are
equal to some non-zero constant. A diagonal matrix is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal
elements are equal, that is, a square matrix B = [bij]n × n is said to be a scalar matrix if

• bij = 0, when i ≠ j
• bij = k, when i = j, for some constant k.
For example,

3 0 0
−1 0
A = 4!, , 0 3 0
0 −1
0 0 3

are scalar matrices of order 1, 2 and 3, respectively.

Zero or Null Matrix

A matrix is said to be zero matrix or null matrix if all its elements are zero.
For Example,

0 0 0
0 0
A = 0! ; B = ;C= 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0

Unit or Identity Matrix

Is a square matrix where the diagonal consist of ones and the other elements are all zeros. It is
also called as a Unit Matrix or Elementary matrix. It is represented as In or just I, where n
represents the size of the square matrix.

1 0
0 1
A=

1 0 0
B= 0 1 0
0 0 1

Equal Matrices:

Two matrices are said to be equal if: Both the matrices are of the same order i.e., they have the
same number of rows and columns A m × n = B m × n . If the elements of the first matrix are equal
to the corresponding elements in the second matrix a i j = b i j .

4 13
4 13 4 13 4 13
; M = −2 19
−2 19 −2 19 19 −2
0 −5
A= ;B= ;C=

A = B, A ≠ C & A ≠ M

Transpose of a Matrix Definition

The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging its rows into columns or columns into rows.
The transpose of the matrix is denoted by using the letter “T” in the superscript of the given
matrix. For example, if “A” is the given matrix, then the transpose of the matrix is represented by
A' or AT.

Example- Find the transpose of the given matrix

2 9 3
M= 3 6 2
4 5 1

2 3 4
MT = 9 6 5
3 2 1

Triangular matrix

In mathematics, a triangular matrix is a special kind of square matrix. A square matrix is called
lower triangular if all the entries above the main diagonal are zero. Similarly, a square matrix is
called upper triangular if all the entries below the main diagonal are zero.

a) Upper Triangular Matrix

A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal are zero is known as the upper
triangular matrix. For example,

3 5 7
A= 0 4 0
0 0 9
b) Lower Triangular Matrix
A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal are zero is known as the upper
triangular matrix. For example,

3 0 0
A= 0 4 0
5 7 9

Submatrix

A matrix obtained by deleting some of the rows and/or columns of a matrix is said to be a
submatrix of the given matrix. For example, from the following 3×3 matrix, we can construct a
2×2 submatrix by removing row 3 and column 2:
 1 2 3
1 3
A= 5 6 7 →
5 7
9 10 11

Orthogonal Matrix

When the product of one matrix with its transpose matrix gives the identity matrix value, then
that matrix is termed Orthogonal Matrix.

A square matrix with real numbers or values is termed as an orthogonal matrix if its transpose is
equal to the inverse matrix of it. In other words, the product of a square orthogonal matrix and its
transpose will always give an identity matrix.

Suppose A is the square matrix with real values, of order n × n. Also, let AT is the transpose
matrix of A. Then according to the definition:

If, AT=A-1 condition is satisfied, then

A ×AT = I

Where ‘I’ is the identity matrix of the order n × n. A-1 is the inverse of matrix A and ‘n’ denotes
the number of rows and columns.

Then we will call A as the orthogonal matrix.

Orthogonal Matrix Properties:

• The orthogonal matrix is always a symmetric matrix.

• All identity matrices are hence the orthogonal matrix.

• The product of two orthogonal matrices will also be an orthogonal matrix.

• The transpose of the orthogonal matrix will also be an orthogonal matrix.

• The determinant of the orthogonal matrix will always be +1 or -1.

• The eigenvalues of the orthogonal matrix will always be ±1.

How to find an orthogonal matrix?

Let given square matrix is A. To check for its orthogonality steps are:

1. Find the determinant of A. If, it is 1 then, matrix A may be the orthogonal matrix.

2. Find the inverse matrix of A i.e. A-1 as well transpose of A i.e. AT.

3. If AT×A-1 = I , then A will be orthogonal matrix, otherwise not.

4. Here I is the identity matrix of the same order.

Orthogonal matrix calculator is using the above-said procedure. This calculator is also useful to
get inverse of a matrix.

FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS

4 7
−9 9
Q.1: Let A = . Whether A is an orthogonal matrix or not?

Solution: Since |A| = 99 ≠ 1,

Thus matrix A is not possible to be an orthogonal matrix.

Q.2: What are Orthogonal Matrices?

Solution: Orthogonal matrices are the square matrices, which after multiplication with its
transpose matrix will give an identity matrix.

Q.3: What will be the value of determinant for the Orthogonal Matrix?

Solution: The value of the determinant of an orthogonal matrix must be ±1.

A Unitary Matrix

A Unitary Matrix is a form of a complex square matrix in which its conjugate transpose is also
its inverse. Therefore, for real matrices, unitary is the same as the orthogonal matrix. One
popular example is:

cos θ sin θ
− sin θ cos θ
A=

A symmetric matrix
A symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to its transpose. If A is a symmetric matrix,
then it satisfies the condition: A = AT. For example;

1 3 8
A = 3 8 −4
8 −4 6
a) How do you know if a matrix is symmetric?
To know if a matrix is symmetric, find the transpose of that matrix. If the transpose of that
matrix is equal to itself, it is a symmetric matrix.

PROPERTIES OF SYMMETRIC MATRICES

 Symmetric matrices have real eigenvalues.

 Symmetric matrices are always diagonalizable. In other words, all symmetric matrices are

3 0 0 3 0 0
diagonal. For example;

B= 0 5 0 ,B 0 5 0
0 0 8 0 0 8
T=

Skew-symmetric matrix

A skew symmetric matrix is a square matrix that is equal to the negative of its transpose matrix.
It is a square matrix whose transpose equals to its negative. It should satisfy the condition:
AT = – A. For example;

0 3
−3 0
A=

0 −3
3 0
AT =

0 3 0 −3
−3 0 3 0
-A = - =

QN: What is the difference between symmetric and skew-symmetric matrix?

The transpose of the symmetric matrix is equal to the original matrix while the transpose of skew
symmetric matrix is equal to negative of the original matrix.

Properties of Skew Symmetric Matrix

• When we add two skew-symmetric matrices then the resultant matrix is also skew-
symmetric.
• Scalar product of skew-symmetric matrix is also a skew-symmetric matrix.
• The diagonal of skew symmetric matrix consists of zero elements and therefore the sum of
elements in the main diagonals is equal to zero.
• When identity matrix is added to skew symmetric matrix then the resultant matrix is
invertible.
• The determinant of skew symmetric matrix is non-negative

Invertible Matrices
If A is a square matrix of order m, and if there exists another square matrix B of the same order
m, such that AB = BA = I, then B is called the inverse matrix of A and it is denoted by A–1.

SPECIAL MATRICES
a) Idempotent: Is a matrix which when multiplied by itself yields itself. i.e.
An = A
A2 = A

4 −1
A3 = A

12 −3
4 −1 4 −1 4 −1
Example: matrix A = is said to be idempotent i.e.

12 −3 12 −3 12 −3
A2 = =

1 0
0 1
Another example is

b) Nilpotent matrix: Is a square matrix such that the product of the matrix with itself is equal to

2 −1
a null matrix. i.e. if matrix A is a nilpotent matrix, then An = 0

4 −2
2 −1 2 −1 0 0
For example; find if the matrix A =

4 −2 4 −2 0 0
2
A = =

c) Periodic matrix; It is a square matrix that satisfies the relation Ak + 1 = A, for some positive
integer k. For example if k = 1 , then A2 = A and A is called idempotent.

1 −2 −6
Note: The period of the idempotent matrix is one.

Question: Find the period of matrix A = −3 2 9

2 0 −3
Solution
A square matrix `A` is called a periodic matrix, if An = A for some positive integer n.
 1 −2 −6 −5 −6 −6
If k = 1, then Ak + 1 = A2 = A = −3 2 9 9 10 9
2 0 −3 −4 −4 −3
=

−5 −6 −6 1 −2 −6
9 10 9 −3 2 9
−4 −4 −3 2 0 −3
If k = 2, then Ak + 1
= A3 = A2 × A = A = =

1 −2 −6
−3 2 9
2 0 −3
Here A3 = A, so A is a periodic matrix of period 2

d) Involuntary matrix: Is a square matrix that is its own inverse i.e. A2 = I where I is the inverse.

SINGULAR MATRIX
A singular matrix refers to a matrix whose determinant is zero. Furthermore, such a matrix has
no inverse. Students can learn more about the singular matrix here.

Properties of Singular Matrix

 The matrices are known to be singular if their determinant is equal to the zero. For example,
if we take a matrix A, whose elements of the first column are zero. Then the determinant, in
this case, is zero. Therefore, matrix A is a singular matrix.(The determinant of a singular
matrix is zero)

 A singular matrix is non-convertible in nature. What this means is that its inverse does not
exist. A non-invertible matrix is referred to as singular matrix, i.e. when the determinant of a
matrix is zero, we cannot find its inverse.

2 2 3 3
 Singular matrix is defined only for square matrices for example;

2 2 3 3
A= ,B=

 There will be no multiplicative inverse for this matrix

Q1: Which of the following statements is not true with regards to the singular matrix?

A. It cannot be multiplied with other matrices to achieve the identity matrix

B. This matrix is invertible
C. It refers to a matrix whose determinant is zero
D. It has no inverse
Answer: The correct answer is option B., which is “this matrix is invertible”. This is because it
is a non-singular matrix which is invertible. The other three options certainly apply to the
singular matrix.

MULTIPLICATION OF MATRICES
Just as two or more real numbers can be multiplied; it is possible to multiply two or
more matrices too. Multiplication of matrices generally falls into two categories, Scalar Matrix
Multiplication, in which a single number is multiplied with every other element of the matrix
and Vector Matrix Multiplication wherein an entire matrix is multiplied by another one.

When Do We Do Multiplication?
When the number of columns of the 1st matrix must equal the number of rows of the 2nd matrix.
In other words, to multiply an m × n matrix by an n × p matrix, the n’s must be the same, and the
result is an m × p matrix. That is: If we multiply a 2×3 matrix with a 3×1 matrix, the product
matrix is 2×1

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

1) Associative Law
The associative law for any three matrices A, B and C, we have (AB) C = A (BC), whenever both
sides of the equality are defined. Example:

1 3 1
and C = 3 4!
2 4 2
A= ,B=

21 28
30 40
(AB) C = A (BC) =

Therefore, LHS = RHS

2) Distributive Law
The distributive law for three matrices A, B and C.
• A (B + C) =AB + AC
• (A + B) C = AC + BC

3) Existence of Multiplicative Identities

The existence of multiplicative identity for every square matrix A, there exists an identity matrix
of same order such that IA = AI = A. Example:
 1 0 1 3 1 3
0 1 2 4 2 4
IA = = =A

1 3 1 0 1 3
2 4 0 1 2 4
AI = = =A

Therefore, LHS = RHS = A

Solved Examples for You

Question:

0 1
0 0
If A =

I is the unit matrix of order 2 and a,b are arbitrary constants then (aI + bA)2 is equal to

A. a2I + abA

B. a2I + 2abA

C. I2a + b2A

D. None of these

Solution:

0 1
0 0
A=

0 1 0 1
0 0 0 0
A2 =

A2 = 0

Now, consider (aI + bA)2 = (aI + bA) (aI + bA)

= a2I + abIA + baAI + b2A2

 = a2I + 2abA (∵A2 = O, ab = ba for real numbers)

Therefore, the answer is option B

Question. How can one multiply matrices together?

Answer.

• The multiplication of matrices can take place with the following steps:
• The number of columns in the first one must the number of rows in the second one.
• Now you must multiply the first matrix’s elements of each row by the elements belonging to
each column of the second matrix.
• Finally, add the products.

Question. Is it possible to multiply a 2×3 and 2×2 matrix?

Answer. Yes, multiplication of 2×3 and 2×2 matrix is certainly possible. Also, the result would be a
2×3 matrix.

Trial question

2 3 2 −2
4 0 −1 5
1. Find x and y if 2x + 3y = and 3x + 2y =

1
2. A = 1 3 2! and B = 2 Find
0

a) AB

b) BA

Scalar Matrix Multiplication

Scalar Matrix Multiplication, in which a single real number is multiplied with every other element
of the matrix and Vector Matrix Multiplication wherein an entire matrix is multiplied by another
one. In this topic, we will learn about the scalar multiplication of a matrix.

Let’s understand the method with an example. Fatima has doubled the production in all categories
of sweaters for both boys and girls of a certain school. Previously quantities (in standard units)
produced were (COLUMN ONE FOR BOYS AND COLUMN TWO FOR GIRLS)

80 60
75 65
90 85

Revised quantities produced are as given below:

80 60
2 · 75 65
90 85

2 × 80 2 × 60
2 × 75 2 × 65
2 × 90 2 × 85

This can be represented in the matrix form as

160 120
150 130
180 170

We observe that the new matrix is obtained by multiplying each element of the previous matrix
by 2

For example, given that,

10 6
4 3
A=

Let’s find 2A

10 6
4 3
2A = 2.

2 × 10 2×6 20 12
2×4 2×3 8 6
2A = =
QUESTION :

−3 −5
, A + B = 2I, Find B.
−6 0
If A =

1 2
−6 −3
A.

3 5
3 6
B.

5 5
6 2
C.

1 2
3 2
D.

Answer : A + B = 2I. Therefore,

−3 −5 1 0
−6 0 0 1
+B=2

2 0 −3 −5
0 2 −6 0
B= -

2 0 3 5 5 5
0 2 6 0 6 2
B= + =

C is the correct answer

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF MATRICES

One of the basic operations that can be performed on matrices is the addition and
subtraction operations. Just as we add and subtract two or more integers, two or more matrices
can also be added and subtracted in a similar fashion. This is known as Addition and subtraction
of Matrices.

/ 3 4
and B = 2 7
0 1 5 ℎ
If A =
 / 3 4 +3 /+4
+ 2 7=2 7
0 1 5 ℎ 0+5 1+ℎ
A+B =

/ 3 4 −3 /−4
− 2 7=2 7
0 1 5 ℎ 0−5 1−ℎ
A–B=

Trial question

−3 −5
−6 0
If A = , A + B = 2I. Find B

Properties of Matrix Addition

1. Commutative Law
If A = [aij], B = [bij] are matrices of the same order, say m × n, then A + B = B + A.
2. Associative Law
For any three matrices A = [aij], B = [bij], C = [cij] of the same order, say m × n, (A + B) + C
= A + (B + C).
3. Existence of Additive Identities
Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix and O be an m × n zero matrix, then A + O = O + A = A. In
other words, O is the additive identity for matrix addition.
4. Existence of Additive Inverse
Let A = [aij]m×n be any matrix, then we have another matrix as – A = [–aij]m×n such that A +
(–A) = (–A) + A= O. So – A is the additive inverse of A or negative of A.
MORE PROPERTIES:

1) α (A + B) = α A + α B
2) ( α + β )A = α A + β A
3) ( αβ )A = α(β A)
4) (A + B)T = AT + BT
5) (A – B)T = AT - BT
6) (α A)T = α AT
7) ( AT )T = A
NOTE:

The most important rule to know is that when adding two or more matrices, first make sure the
matrices have the same dimensions. In order words, you can add a 2 x 3 with a 2 x 3 or a 2 x
2 with a 2 x 2. However, you cannot add a 3 x 2 with a 2 x 3 or a 2 x 2 with a 3 x 3. For example,
the addition of two given matrices with dimension 2 × 2. For example
 3 8 2 3
4 6 1 0
A= and B =

3 8 2 3 5 11
4 6 1 0 5 6
A+B= + =

3 8 2 3 1 5
4 6 1 0 3 6
A–B= - =

A+B≠A–B

DETERMINANT OF A MATRIX

The determinant of a matrix is the scalar value or number calculated using a square matrix.
The square matrix could be 2×2, 3×3, 4×4, or any type, such as n × n, where the number of
column and rows are equal.

Note:

 The determinant of a matrix obtained by eliminating the ith row and the jth column of matrix

 The determinant of An×n , is denoted by |A| or det(A)

A is called the ijth minor of A, and denoted as Mij

a) If n = 1 A=(a) |A| = a

/ |A| = ad – bc
0 1
b) If n = 2 A=
For example

Suppose;

5 6
8 9
A=

|A| = <5 6< = (5×9) – (8×6) = 45 – 48 = -3

8 9

c) If n = 3

A== >
|A| = a11< < – a12 < < + a13 < <

|A| = a11M11 – a12M12 + a13M13

1 2 3
Given A = =4 5 6>
7 8 9

|A| = 1 <5 6< – 2 <4 6< + 3 <4 5

<
8 9 7 9 7 8
|A| = 1(45 – 48) – 2(36 – 42) + 3(32 – 35)

= -3 + 12 – 9

=0

Note:

 |?@ | = |A|
 Every property of |A| which is true for rows, is also true for columns.
 One can evaluate |A| by any row or column:
If we use an even row/column, start with a negative (-) and if we use an odd row/column,
start with a positive (+)

1 2 3
For example, following the previous example, if I chose the second column, we will have:

A = =4 5 6 >
7 8 9

|A| = -2 <4
6 1 3 1 3
<+5< <-8< <
7 9 7 9 4 6

= -2(-6) + 5(-12) – 8(-6)

= 12 – 60 + 48

=0

Trial question

Find the determinant of the following matrices

4 1
3 2
a) A =
 2 4
1 2
b) B =

c) Find the determinant of A + B

MINORS AND COFACTORS

Minors and cofactors can be computed for each of the elements of a matrix. Minor of an element
is equal to the determinant of the remaining elements of the matrix, after excluding the row and
column containing the particular element. The cofactor of an element can be calculated from the
minor of the element. The cofactor of an element is equal to the product of minor of the element,
and -1 to the power of position values of row and column of the element.

Cofactor of an Element = (-1)i + j × Minor of an Element

Cij = (-1)I + j . Mij

Therefore |A| = a11C11 + a12C12 + …… + a1nC1n

Solved Examples

Question 1: Find the cofactor matrix of the matrix:

1 9 3
A= 2 5 4
3 7 8
Solution:

Given matrix is:

1 9 3
A= 2 5 4
3 7 8
Let Mij be the minor of elements of the ith row and jth column.

Minors of the elements of matrix A are:

5 4
A =< < = 40 − 28 = 12
7 8
2 4
A =< < = 16 − 12 = 4
3 8
2 5
A =< < = 14 − 15 = −1
3 7
 9 3
A =< < = 72 − 21 = 51
7 8
1 3
A =< < = 8 − 9 = −1
3 8
1 9
A =< < = 7 − 27 = −20
3 7
9 3
A =< < = 36 − 15 = 21
5 4
1 3
A =< < = 4 − 6 = −2
2 4
1 9
A =< < = 5 − 18 = −13
2 5
Matrix of cofactors of A is:

+12 −4 + −1!
= B−51 + −1! − −20!C
+21 − −2! + −13!

12 −4 −1
= −51 −1 20
21 2 −13
Question 2:

2 −3 5
If the cofactor of the element a11 of the matrix A = =6 0 D > is -20, then find the value of p
1 5 −7
Solution: Given matrix is:

2 −3 5
A = =6 0 D>
1 5 −7
Using the formula of cofactor of an element,

Cij = (−1)i+j det(Mij)

Cofactor of a11 is:

C11 = (-1)1+1 det(M11)

0 D
-20 = < <
5 −7
-20 = 0 – 5p

-20 = -5p

⇒ 5p = 20

⇒ p = 20/5

⇒p=4

Hence, the value of p is 4.

Trial question

Find the determinant of the matrix;

6 5 −3
A = =−5 4 −2>
1 −4 5

Advice:

a) To evaluate |A| using a row/column with as many zeros (0’s) as possible!

1 4 0 3
Example;

1 0 0 3
A=F G
1 2 0 1
1 0 5 3

1 4 3
|A| = -5 H1 0 3H
1 2 1

4 3 1 4
= -5 −1 < <−3 < <
2 1 1 2

= -5 −1 −2! − 3 −2!!

= -5 (2 + 6 )
 = - 40

/ 0 / 0
b) For a 3 × 6 matrix, that’s consider matrix

1 3 4 1 3 4
5 ℎ 5 ℎ
A=

|A| = aei + bfg + cdh – afh – bdi – ceg

Important Properties of Determinants

 REFLECTION PROPERTY:
The determinant remains unaltered if its rows are changed into columns and the columns into
rows. This is known as the property of reflection.
 ALL-ZERO PROPERTY:
If all the elements of a row (or column) are zero, then the determinant is zero.
 PROPORTIONALITY (REPETITION) PROPERTY:
If all elements of a row (or column) are proportional (identical) to the elements of some other
row (or column), then the determinant is zero.
 SWITCHING PROPERTY:
The interchange of any two rows (or columns) of the determinant changes its sign.
 SCALAR MULTIPLE PROPERTY:
If all the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant are multiplied by a non-zero
constant, then the determinant gets multiplied by the same constant.

+/ 0 1 0 1 / 0 1
 SUM PROPERTY

H + / 0 1 H= H 0 1 H + H/ 0 1 H
+/ 0 1 0 1 / 0 1

/ 0 + I/ + J0 / 0
 PROPERTY OF INVARIANCE:

H / 0 H=H + I/ + J0 / 0 H
/ 0 + I/ + J0 / 0

That is, a determinant remains unaltered under an operation of the form

Ci → Ci + αCj + βCk, where j, k ≠ I or An operation of the form Ri → Ri + αRj + βRk, where j,

k ≠ i.

 FACTOR PROPERTY:
If a determinant Δ becomes zero when we put x = α, then (x – α) is a factor of Δ.
 TRIANGLE PROPERTY:
If all the elements of a determinant above or below the main diagonal consist of zeros, then

0 0
the determinant is equal to the product of diagonal elements. That is,

H 0 / / H = H / 0H = / 0
0 0 0 / 0

 DETERMINANT OF COFACTOR MATRIX:

K K K
Δ=H H then Δ1 = HK K K H
K K K
Where Cij denotes the cofactor of the element aij in Δ.

Example

PROBLEMS ON PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

Question 1: Using properties of determinants, prove that

/ 0
H/ 0 H= + / + 0! / + /0 + 0 − −/ −0 !
0 /
Solution:

By using invariance and scalar multiple properties of determinants, we can prove the given
problem.

/ 0
Δ = H/ 0 H
0 /
+/+0 / 0
H/ + 0 + 0 H= [Operating K → K + K + K ]
0+ +/ /

1 / 0
+ / + 0! H1 0 H
1 /
=
 1 / 0
+ / + 0! H0 0−/ − 0 H [Operating W → W − W X1 W → W − W ! ]
0 −/ /−0
=

= (a + b + c) [(c – b) (b – c) – (a – b) (a – c)]

= + / + 0! / + /0 + 0 − −/ −0 !

Question 2: Prove the following identity

−I JI ZI
Y IJ −J ZJ Y = 4I J Z
IZ JZ −Z
−I I I
Taking α, β, γ common from C , C , C in that order, Δ = IJZ H J −J JH
Z Z −Z

Now taking [α, β, γ] common from R , R , R resp. Then,

−1 1 1
Δ=I J Z H 1 −1 1H
1 1 −1
Now applying and

−1 1 1
W → W + W we have Δ = I J Z H 0 0 2H
0 2 0

0 2
Now expanding along K , ΔI × J −1! × Z −1! < < = I J −1!Z 0 − 4! = 4I J Z
2 0
Hence proved

Question 3: Show that

I J Z J o l
Hk l mH = HI n kH
n o p Z p m
Solution:

Interchange the rows and columns across the diagonal using the reflection property, and then
using the switching property of the determinant, we can obtain the required result.

L.H.S. =

I J Z I k n
Hk l mH = HJ l oH
n o p Z m p

(Interchanging rows and columns across the diagonal)

I n k
= (-1) HJ o lH
Z p m

J o l
= (-1) HI n kH
Z p m
2

J o l
= HI n k H = R.H.S
Z p m

1+
Question 4: If a, b, c are all different and if H/ / 1 + / H = 0, prove that abc = –1.
0 0 1+0
Solution:

Split the given determinant using the sum property. Then by using scalar multiple, switching and
invariance properties of determinants, we can prove the given equation.

1+
D = H/ / 1+/ H
0 0 1+0
 1
= H/ / 1H + H/ / / H
0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1
= H/ / 1H + abc H1 / / H
0 0 1 1 0 0

1 1
= (-1)1 H1 / / H H1 / / H [K ↔ K in 1st det. ]
1 0 0 1 0 0
+ abc

1 1
= (-1)2 H1 / / H + abc H1 / / H [K ↔ K in 1st det. ]
1 0 0 1 0 0

1 1
= H1 / / H H1 / / H
1 0 0 1 0 0
+ abc

1
= 1 + /0! H1 / / H
1 0 0

1
= 1 + /0! H0 / − / − H [W → W − W and W → W − W ]
0 0− 0 −

= 1 + /0! </ − / − < expanding along 1st row!

0− 0 −
1 /+
= 1 + /0! / − ! 0 − ! < <
1 0+
= (1 + abc ) (b – c ) (c – a ) ( c + a – b – a )
= (1 + abc ) (b – a) ( c – a) (c – b)

⇒ r = 1 + /0! − /! / − 0! 0 − !; But given r = 0

⇒ 1 + /0! − /! / − 0! 0 − ! = 0

∴ ( 1 + abc) = 0

[since a, b, c are different

≠ /, / ≠ 0, 0 ≠

Hence, abc = -1

Question 5: Prove that

+ / + 20 /
H 0 /+0+2 / H=2 + / + 0!
0 0 + + 2/

Applying K → K + K + K !, we obtain;

2 + / + 0! /
Y2 + / + 0! / + 0 + 2 / Y
2 + / + 0! 0 + + 2/

1 /
=2 + / + 0! H1 / + 0 + 2 / H
1 0 + + 2/
W → W − W and W → W − W given!

1 /
2 + / + 0) H0 / + 0 + 0 H
0 0 0+ +/

=2 + / + 0!{ / + 0 + ! 0 + + /! − 0 × 0!} = 2 + / + 0!
Hence proved.

Question 6: Prove that

+1 / 0
H / / +1 /0 H = 1 + +/ +0
0 /0 0 +1
Solution:

Expand the determinant

+1 / 0
H / / +1 /0 H
0 /0 0 +1
By using scalar multiple and invariance properties.

+1 / 0
L.H.S = H / / +1 /0 H
0 /0 0 +1

Multiplying C1, C2, C3 by a, b, c respectively

+ 1! / 0
= z{| Y / / / + 1! /0 Y;
0 / 0 0 0 + 1!

Now taking a, b, c common from R1,R2,R3 respectively

+1 / 0
H / +1 0 H
z{|
z{|
/ 0 +1
1+ +/ +0 / 0
H1 + +/ +0 / +1 0 H [K → K + K + K ]
1+ +/ +0 / 0 +1

1 / 0
= 1+ + / + 0 ! H1 / + 1 0 H
1 / 0 +1
 1 / 0
= 1+ + / + 0 ! H0 1 0 H [W → W − W X1 W → W − W ]
0 0 1

= 1+ + / + 0 ! 1! = 1 + + / + 0 = W. }. ~.

Hence proved

MORE ON PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

1) If one of the rows/columns is all 0’s, then |?| = 0

1 0 0 0
2) The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the main diagonal entries i.e.
−3 0 0
2 −3 0 0
• • → 1H−1 3 0H → 1(-3) (3) (2) = -18
4 −1 3 0
−5 1 2
2 −5 1 2

1 0 0
3) If we exchange 2 rows/columns, the sign of the determinant changes, i.e.

H0 1 0H = 1
0 0 1

0 1 0
So if we change rows 1 and 2,

H1 0 0H = -1
0 0 1
4) If A has two equal rows or columns, then |?| = 0
5) A common factor of a row/column can be taken out of |?|
1 2 3
H8 10 12H
7 8 9

1 2 3
The second row has a common factor of 2 where 2×4 =8, 2×5=10, and 2×6=12

2H4 5 6H→ 2(0) → 0

7 8 9

I / /
Word of caution: suppose we have;
< <→α< <
I0 1 0 1
So in general, |I?| = αn |?| and |I?| ≠ α|?|
6) If one row/column is a multiple of another row/column, then det(A) = 0 (idea: Take out the
scalar, be left with equal rows)
7) If we add a scalar multiple of a row/column to another row/column, then the determinant
does not change.
Example 1:
 1 2 3
H4 5 6H
7 8 9

R1 → R1 + R2 + R3, We have;

12 15 18
H4 5 6H
7 8 9
We realize that R1 → 3R2 & therefore the determinant is zero.

1+ 1 1 1
Example 2:

1 1− 1 1
• •
1 1 1+ 1
1 1 1 1−

R1 → R1 – R2 + R3 – R4

1 1− 1 1
• •
1 1 1+ 1
1 1 1 1−

1 1 1 1
1 1− 1 1
•
1 1 1+ 1
i•
1 1 1 1−

R2→R2 – R1
R3→R3 – R1
R4→R4 – R1

1 1 1 1
0 − 0 0
•
0 0 0
i•
0 0 0 −

→ i(-i) = 1
Remarks

1) If we do row operations, |?| changes, but one must pay attention to +/-, and the scalars
2) If A and B are row-equivalent, then |?| = 0, if only |€| = 0
CRAMER’S RULE
Let Ax = b, be a system of ‘n’ linear equations with ‘n’ unknowns.

If |?| ≠ 0, then the system has a unique solution. Here is another method for solving a system of
linear equations.

Denote by Di the determinant of a matrix obtained from A by replacing the ith column of A with
b.

Theory: if |?| ≠ 0, then the solution of Ax = b is x1 = |ƒ|‚ , x2 = |ƒ|„ , x3 = |ƒ|… ,…., xn = |ƒ|†
• • • •

Example:

Solve the linear system below using Cramer’s rule

−2ˆ + 3ˆ − ˆ = 1
‡ ˆ + 2ˆ − ˆ =4
−2ˆ − ˆ + ˆ = −3

−2 3 −1
1 2 −1
−2 −1 1
A=

1
b= 4
−3
|?| = -2

1 3 −1
D1 = H 4 2 −1H = -4
−3 −1 1
−2 1 −1
D2 = H 1 4 −1H = -6
−2 −3 1
−2 3 1
D3 = H 1 2 4 H = -8
−2 −1 −3
 ˆ r ⁄|?| −4⁄−2 2
X= ˆ → ‰r ⁄|?|‹ → −6⁄−2 → 3
ˆ r ⁄|?| −8⁄−2 4

Solve the following linear system below using Cramer’s rule

2Œ + • − Ž = 1
‡3Œ + 2• + 2Ž = 13
4Œ − 2• + 3Ž = 9

Solution

Compare the linear system with

a1x + b1y + c1z = d1

a2x + b2y + c2z = d2

a3x + b3y + c3z = d3

•• •• •‘
• • •
X= , Y= , z=

/ 0 Π1
/ 0 #• $ = 1
/ 0 Ž 1

2 1 −1 Œ 1
3 2 2 #•$ = 13
4 −2 3 Ž 9

Step one: Determine D

 2 2 3 2 3 2
2 < < –1 < < + (-1) < <
−2 3 4 3 4 −2
2(6 + 4) – 1(9 - 8) + -1(-6 – 8)

2(10) – 1(1) + -1(-14)

20 - 1 + 14

33

Step two: Determine Dx and x

1 1 −1
Dx = 13 2 2
9 −2 3
2 2 13 2 13 2
1 < < –1 < < + (-1) < <
−2 3 9 3 9 −2
1(10) – 1(21) + -1(-44)

10 - 21 + 44

33
••
•
x= = =1

Step three: Determine Dy and y

2 1 −1
Dy = 3 13 2
4 9 3
13 2 3 2 3 13
2 < < –1 < < + (-1) < <
9 3 4 3 4 9
2(21) – 1(1) + -1(-25)

42 – 1 + 25

66
••
•
y= = 66/33 = 2
Step three: Determine Dz and z

2 1 1
Dz = 3 2 13
4 −2 9
2 13 3 13 3 2
2 < < –1 < < +1 < <
−2 9 4 9 4 −2
2(44) – 1(-25) + 1(-14)

88 + 25 – 14

99
•‘
•
z= = 99/33 = 3

x = 1, y = 2 and z = 3

INVERSE OF A MATRIX

/
0 1
Given the general 2×2 matrix A = , it can be shown that the inverse matrix (if it exists) is
given as;

1 −/
’“” • −0
A-1 =

1 −/
–’—˜™ −0
i.e. A-1 =

Inverse of a 3 × 3 matrix

A== >
 ⎡< < < < < <⎤
⎢ ⎥
A-1 = |ƒ| ⎢< < < < < <⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣< < < < < <⎦

Problem

Find the inverse of a matrix

1 2 3
A= 4 5 6
7 2 9

1 2 3
det 4 5 6
7 2 9
= 1(33) – 2(-6) + 3(-27) = -36

Let us find the minors of the given matrix as given below:

5 6
2 9
M11 = det = 33

4 6
7 9
M12 = det = -6

4 5
= −27
7 2
M13 = det

2 3
2 9
M21 = det = 12

1 3
7 9
M22 = det = -12

1 2
= −12
7 2
M23 = det

2 3
5 6
M31 = det = -3

1 3
4 6
M32 = det = -6
 1 2
= −3
4 5
M33 = det

Cofactor is calculated from Cij = (-1)i + j . Mij8

+ − +
Cofactor: − + −
+ − +
33 6 −27
−12 −12 12
−3 6 −3
Cofactor matrix ‘C’ of A =

Now, find the adjoint of a matrix by taking the transpose of cofactors of the given matrix.

The adjoint of the matrix C is its transpose CT

33 −12 −3
6 −12 6
−27 12 −3
T
C =

Now,

A -1 = |ƒ| Adj A

Hence, the inverse of the given matrix is;

−
⎛ ⎞
⎜− − ⎟
−
⎝ ¡ ⎠

Properties

A few important properties of the inverse matrix are listed below.

• If A is nonsingular, then (A-1)-1 = A

• If A and B are nonsingular matrices, then AB is nonsingular. Thus, (AB)-1 = B-1A-1

• If A is nonsingular then (AT)-1 = (A-1)T

• If A is any matrix and A-1 is its inverse, then AA-1 = A-1A = In, where n is the order of
matrices
Practice Problems

Problem 1:

2 4 −4
A = 0 −2 0
4 −2 6
1. Find det(A)
2. Is A invertible?
3. Find the cofactor matrix of A
4. Find the inverse of A
Problem 2

Find the inverse of a matrix:

1 2 3
A = =3 −2 1>
4 1 1

Problem 3

Obtain the inverse of the matrix using elementary operations:

0 1 2
A = =1 2 3>
3 1 1

Problem 4

Find the inverse of a matrix:

1 2
B=¢ £
3 4

Note:
a) Is adjoint and inverse the same?
No, adjoint matrix and inverse matrix are not the same. However, by dividing the each term of
the adjugate matrix by the determinant of the original matrix, we get inverse matrix.

b) How do you find the inverse of a 3×3 matrix?

The steps required to find the inverse of a 3×3 matrix are:

 Compute the determinant of the given matrix and check whether the matrix invertible
 Calculate the determinant of 2×2 minor matrices
 Formulate the matrix of cofactors
 Take the transpose of the cofactor matrix to get the adjugate matrix
 Finally, divide each term of the adjugate matrix by the determinant

c) How to do you know whether the given matrix has inverse?

If the determinant of a given matrix is not equal to 0, then the matrix is invertible and we can
find the inverse of such matrix. That means, the given matrix must be non-singular.

With that therefore, the following applications to matrices will be discussed:

• Applications of Matrix Addition and Subtraction

• Applications of Multiplication of Matrices
• Applications of System of Linear Equations
• Leontief Input-Output Mode
CHECK
APPLICATIONS OF MATRICES TO BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS - SCRIBD

SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS

Solve the simultaneous equation using matrices

3Œ + 4• = 18
a) ¤
4Œ − • = 5
3 4 Π18
4 −1 • 5
=

¥
AX = B
X=ƒ

X=ƒB
 X = A-1B

−1 −4 18
— ¦ −4 3 5
X=

−18 + −20
— ¦ −72 + 15
X=

−38
−57
X=— ¦

2
3
X=

Therefore x = 2 and y = 3

Trial question

2Œ + 3• = 3
1) ¤
Œ − 2• = 5
SOLVING COMPLEX DECISIONS

2) A supplier supplies coffee beans to shop A, B and C in bags of 5 kg, 10kg, and 15kg as
shown in the table below

Bags 5kg 10kg 15kg

Shop A 50 100 30
Shop B 60 150 40
Shop C 80 250 70

The cost price of 5kg, 10kg and 15kg bags are $1060, $1720, and $2250 respectively.

a) Write down 2 matrices P and Q such that the elements of the matrix product PQ give the
total cost price of the beans delivered to each shop. Find the product of PQ
b) In June shops A, B and C received 15, 10, and 5 such deliveries respectively. By using a
matrix multiplication, find the total number of 5, 10 and 15kg bags delivered in June
hence find the total number of bags delivered in June by further matrix multiplication.
3) Costumes are needed for a school play. Boys’ costumes require 8 yards of fabric, 5 yards of
ribbon, and 4 packets of sequins. Girls’ costumes require 6 yards of fabric, 9 yards of ribbon,
and 5 packets of sequins. Fabric cost $6 per yard, ribbon costs $5 a yard and sequins cost $5
per packet. Find the cost of each costume.