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UNIT 2

CHARACTERISTICS AND TREATMENT OF COTTON, SYNTHETICS AND

WOOL PROCESSING EFFLUENTS

Sources, Quantities and Characteristic of Waste Waters:

Sources:
The main sources of waste water in a textile mill are the following:
(a) Preparation of the yarn slashing process waste;
(b) Textile processing-(i) desizing, (ii) kier, (iii) bleaching, (iv) mercerisation and (v) dyeing
and printing;
(c) Waste water from the washing operations in each step of textile process;
(d) Miscellaneous waste streams, namely, cooling water and boiler blow down, housekeeping
(floor washing and washing of equipment), and spills and leaks; and
(e) Sanitary waste.

Characteristics:
a. Slashing Wastes:
Contain mostly starch and softeners and the material left over after completion of the slashing
operation and washing. The waste volume is small, but has a high biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD).
b. Desizing Wastes:
Consist of mostly of washings and contain colloidal and dissolved organic matter derived
from the hydrolysis of starch by enzymes. The waste volume is small but has a high BOD
which amounts to 35 to 50 percent of the total BOD.
c. Kier Wastes:
The spent kier liquor and the washings are dark brown in colour and are strongly alkaline.
They contain caustic soda and suspended solids most of which are fragments of cotton. The
wastes have high pH, total dissolved solids, alkalinity and BOD. The BOD of the kier liquor
is about 30 to 35 percent of the total waste load.
d. Bleaching and Mercerizing Wastes:
These are small in volume but highly alkaline. The wastes contain organic matter and the
chemicals used such a hypochlorite, chlorine, caustic soda and peroxide. The BOD load
contributed by the wastes from bleach house is about 5 percent.
The wastes from mercerization is almost negligible both in regard to its volume waste load
which amounts of less than 1 percent of the BOD load.
e. Dyeing Wastes:
The dyeing process contributes a large volume of waste water. Its composition and
characteristics are highly variable and exert a high oxygen demand due to the organic matter
of the dyes, reducing agents like sulphide, hydrosulphite, nitrite, acetic acid and soaps. The
BOD contribution from the dye house is about six percent of the total mill waste.
f. Printing Wastes:
The waste water derived from the printing process consists of colours, starch, gum and oil
used in making the pastes and soaps. The quantity of waste streams is small but has a fairly
high BOD and chemical oxygen demand (COD).
g. Finishing Wastes:
The finishing of the cotton fabrics contributes a negligibly small volume waste water
containing traces of starch, tallow and salts etc.
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Pollutional Effects:
Waste waters from cotton textile industry are of highly polluting nature and affect the water
quality in several ways.
a. pH Value:
The high alkalinity of the wastes causes an increase in pH value. Any increase in pH value of
the receiving stream greater than 9.0 will have an adverse effect on aquatic life.
b. Colour:
The soluble dyes and colours present in the wastes will persist in the stream and interfere
with penetration of sunlight essential for photosynthesis.
c. Turbidity:
The collodial organic matter in the wastes will increase turbidity of the water and along with
the colours, dyes and oily scum will produce an unsightly appearance. The oily scum formed
on the surface of water will interfere with the mechanism of oxygen transfer at the air/water
interface.
d. Oxygen Depiction:
The most serious effect of textile wastes on the receiving body of water will be depletion of
dissolves oxygen. The organic matter in the textile wastes like starch, dextrin and inorganic
chemicals like sulphide and hydrosulphite and nitrite will exert an immediate oxygen
demand, while dyes and colours will exert long term oxygen demand.
Such changes in the oxygen balance of receiving streams will be deleterious to fish life and
will also interfere with self-purification. Toxic chemicals like sulphide, chlorine, chromium
and aniline dyes will also affect the aquatic life.

Effects of Textile Wastes on Sewers and Agricultural Land:

a. Effects on Sewers:
Due to high pH value, alkalinity and total dissolved solids; the textile wastes have a tendency
for incrustation in the sewers. On the other hand, the sulphur dyes and sulphur compounds
present in the wastes will gradually lead to crown corrosion. Hence it is desirable that process
waste streams containing sulphur dyes and sulphides are excluded from the waste water
discharged from the sewer.
b. Effects on Sewage Treatment Plant:
The plant and machinery of municipal sewage treatment plants will be exposed to corrosive
action caused by acids and hydrogen sulphide. The pumps and pipelines may be subjected to
incrustation. In any case the cumulative effect to textile wastes on sewage treatment plants
will be increased cost of maintenance and repairs.
c. Effect on Agricultural Land Textile:

Wastes has adverse effects on land in many ways as follows:

(a) The suspended and collodial matter may clog the pores of the soil by forming an
impervious mat;
(b) The high alkalinity may be harmful to crops and high salinity of the wastes will impair
their growth;
(c) Sodium has a deflocculating effect on prolonged application;
(d) Sodium displaces divalent cations like Ca++/Mg++;
(e) Sodium hardens the texture of the soil, prevents penetration of the roots; and
(f) The soil losses it water holding capacity. As a cumulative effect, the soil will lose its
productivity.
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Methods of Treatment and Disposal:

The general approach to the problem of pollution abatement of textile wastes is based
on the following criteria:
(a) Reduction in waste volume,
(b) Recovery and reuse of process chemicals,
(c) Reduction in waste load by substitution of process chemicals,
(d) Treatment of waste waters by primary and secondary treatment, and
(e) Application of advance waste treatment methods.

(a) Reduction in Waste Volume by Segregation and Reuse of Water:

Segregation of the relatively highly concentrated waste streams from the less contaminated
streams and reuse of the latter often contribute towards greater economy in water usage and
reduction in waste water volume, but the gross waste load in terms of kg/l of BOD and
suspended solids will, however, remain the same.
The washing of the cotton fabric at the end of each process in a modern textile mill is the
most water intensive operation and accounts for the maximum water usage which is of the
magnitude of 90 to 135 litre per minute for continuous washing of the fabric which moves at
a fairly fast rate of 10 to 20 kg per minute.
Besides every chemical process requires a minimum of one rinse with adequate volume of
water and likewise the bleaching process also heavily depends on the intermediate washing.
Attempts to reduce water usage in a textile mill are directed towards reduction in the duration
of each of the processing sequences.
Use of counter current system of washing ; systematic control of bleach baths, recirculation
of washings and scouring wastes and reuse of dye baths often contribute towards greater
economy in water consumption, On an average reuse of water is possible to the extent of 20
to 40 percent in a cotton textile mill.
Good housekeeping and prevention of leaks and spills are important steps towards reduction
in the waste volume.

(b) Recovery and Reuse of Process Chemicals:

Recovery of the following chemicals used in processing section contributes towards
reduction in waste load:
(1) Recovery of synthetic sizing agents like carboxymethyl cellulose from desizing waste
liquor by chemical precipitation with metal lie salts for example, aluminium sulphate, and its
conversion into sodium salt by treatment with caustic soda;
(2) Caustic recovery from mercirizing and process waste by concentration and evaporation
and from other wastes like kier wastes by dialysis; and
(3) Recovery of Dyes:
In the vat dyeing process only about 65 to 75 percent of the dye is absorbed by the fibre and
the rest is drained out. This category of dyes may be recovered and reused in the same dyeing
process. Similarly bright coloured lakes, lacquers, etc. may be recovered from basic and
reactive dye waste liquors by precipitation of their metallic derivatives.

(c) Reduction of Waste Load:

i. Substitution of Process Chemicals:
Use of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) in the place of starch
used in sizing of cloth, use of mineral acids; instead of acetic acid in dyeing process and use
of non-biodegradable detergents instead of soap are suggested ways and means for the
reduction in BOD load of combined textile wastes to the extent of 50 percent.
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ii. Process Modifications:

Modification of certain manufacturing processes in the textile mills such as use of high speed
machinery with alternative process chemicals have been reported in the literature to be
beneficial in reducing pollutional load.

(d) Treatment of Waste Waters by Primary and Secondary Treatment:

The various methods employed in the treatment of textile mill waste waters are briefly
described in the following clauses:
1. Pretreatment of Wastes Equalization:
Equalization of waste streams over a period of time is essential for regulation of waste and
prevention of shock loads created by batch dumping of certain strong waste like the kier
liquor. The effect of such release is sudden increase in temperature, pH value, alkalinity and
BOD. Such waste streams should be segregated and contained in holding tanks of adequate
capacity and released gradually at a more uniform rate.
2. Primary Treatment:
This consists of-(a) Screening of wastes for removal of coarse floating and suspended
material, and
(b) Grit removal for separation of heavier and readily settle able material.
3. Neutralisation of Wastes:
The optimum pH value range for biological treatment of waste lies between 6.0 to 9.0.
Textile wastes are strongly alkaline with high amounts of free alkali and therefore
neutralization of the waste for pH adjustment is essential prior to biological treatment. Dilute
sulphuric acid, carbon dioxide or flue gas may be used.
4. Chemical Treatment:
Waste streams from bleaching and dyeing processes or composite mill wastes are treated with
conventional coagulants like alum, ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride and chlorinated copper as.
Chemical coagulation is very effective for removal of colour and colloidal organic matter like
starch and gums. More recently, certain coagulant aids like polyelectrolytes are used in
combination with chemical coagulants.
Reports on studies carried out by various research organizations in the country and abroad on
chemical treatment of textile wastes indicate that alum and ferrous sulphate can be
successfully used for colour removal and BOD and COD reduction to a satisfactory level.
The layout for chemical treatment plant will consist of the following units:
(a) Equalization tank,
(b) Chemical house with dosing equipment,
(c) Flash mixer,
(d) Coagulation tank,
(e) Settling tank which may be either a fill and draw type unit for small textile mills or
continuous flow type with mechanical desludging equipment for large waste volume, and
(f) Sludge drying beds.
5. Secondary Treatment:
Biological treatment of textile mill wastes is considered necessary when the wastes are to be
discharged into rivers and lakes from which water is derived for community and industrial
water supply and for fish culture. Textile wastes contain carbon, nitrogen and phosphorous in
the requisite proportions and are amenable to treatment by conventional biological systems.
However, biological treatment in combination with domestic sewage is advantageous from
the point of economics of treatment, dilution, availability of supplementary nutrients and
seeding with micro-organisms.
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The biological methods applied for treatment for the wastes are the following:
(a) Trickling filter,
(b) Activated sludge process,
(c) Oxidation ditch,
(d) Aerated lagoon, and
(e) Oxidation pond.
Since the waste water are almost of the same length as normal sewage in regard to BOD,
aerobic methods are preferred for their treatment.
(a) Trickling Filter:
The results of biological treatment of textile wastes by trickling filters, as reported in
literature, indicate BOD removal in the range of 90 to 95 percent. Conventional high rate
filters and their modification like totally enclosed filters with forced ventilation can also be
applied.
(b) Activated Sludge Process:
The conventional activated sludge process has been applied successfully in the treatment of
textile mill effluents along with sewage in USA. BOD reductions in the range of 90 to 95
percent are reported.
(c) Oxidation Ditch:
The oxidation ditch which operates on the extended aeration principle is also reported to be
quite suitable for secondary treatment of textile mill wastes. So far there is no evidence of
such plants being installed by textile mills anywhere in this country.
However, information on the application of oxidation ditch for textile wastes based on
laboratory studies is available. The results indicate the feasibility of obtaining BOD removal
efficiencies in the range of 86 to 93 percent during an aeration period of 12 hours. The
effluents from the oxidation ditch will have a BOD in the range of 30 to 35 mg/l.
(d) Aerated Lagoon:
Literature survey on aerated lagoons indicated that they are quite efficient for treatment of
textile wastes together with sewage. They are being installed in large numbers in USA by the
textile industry. Data available from research investigations in the country indicates the
feasibility of obtaining BOD removal efficiencies in the range of 78 to 95 percent with a
hydraulic detention period of 6 to 7 days. The final effluent quality is reflected by the low
BOD in the range of30 to 50 mg/l.
(e) Oxidation Pond:
The oxidation pond offers a simple and most economical method for treatment of textiles
waste in combination with domestic sewage, especially for warm climates prevailing in this
country. Pretreatment of wastes for colour removal will be more advantageous from the point
of view of light penetration. Pond depths in the range of 0.9 to 1.2 m with retention period in
the range of 10 to 30 days are considered suitable.
BOD loading could be of the same order as that of aerobic ponds treating sewage that is 340
kg/hectare/day BOD removal efficiencies to the extent of 75 to 80 percent may be achieved
and the BOD of the final effluent will be in the range of 30 to 50 mg/l.

6. Final Treatment:
The treatment methods described above have the main objectives:
(a) Removal of colour,
(b) PH control,
(c) Removal of settleable and suspended solids, and dissolved mineral constituents and the
cations.
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Textiles wastes have a high sodium content usually in the range of 89 to 98 percent and the
effluents resulting from the aforesaid methods will not meet the requirements of IS: 3307-
1977.
Therefore, from the point of view of agricultural utilization, treatment with gypsum is
considered essential to reduce the percentage of sodium in the total cation content of the
waste.

(e) Application of Advanced Waste Treatment Methods:

Advance waste treatment methods for textile mill waste waters will be applicable for
reclamation of water for reuse purposes, as a tertiary treatment stage, the following primary
and secondary treatment stages.

The methods which may be found suitable are:

(a) Activated carbon treatment,
(b) Reverse osmosis, and
(c) Electro-dialysis.

Treatment of wastes from small textile processing units:

The methods of pretreatment of the wastes water consisting of chemical and biological
treatment systems especially the low cost waste treatment systems described above are also
suitable for the treatment of process waste waters from textile units. However, it will be more
economical to provide a common treatment facility for a group of such units.

REDUCTION OF POLLUTION LOAD

PRIMARY TREATMENT METHODS

Primary wastewater treatment techniques remove entrained and suspended solids from
wastewater by various means.

Bar screen
Removes large objects such as wood, stones, rags, etc., prior to the grit chamber.

Grit chamber
Sedimentation tank designed to slow down the water flow in a wastewater treatment plant.
Heavy solids, grit, and sand settle out in this chamber, preventing downstream damage to
pumps, pipes, and other equipment.

Primary clarifier
Tank that provides long hydraulic retention time to provide a quiescent zone for solids to
settle from an influent stream. Settled solids are removed from the tank and usually sent to
anaerobic biological treatment processes, while clarified wastewater is directed to secondary
biological treatment. Often these clarifiers incorporate surface-skimming devices to remove
oils and greases and other floating material.

Centrifugation
The use of centrifugal force to promote accelerated settling of particles in a solid–liquid
mixture.
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SCREENING
Wastewater Screening is the first unit operation in all wastewater treatment plants. Screen is
the device used to retain solids found in the influent wastewater to the treatment plant. The
main purpose of screening is to remove solid materials that could:
 Cause damage to other process equipment.
 Cause reduction in efficiency of the whole system
 Contaminate waterways
The materials that are removed using screens are called screenings.

Classification of Wastewater Screens

Screens are generally classified into three based on the size of their openings in the screening
element and mechanism of removal.
 Coarse screens
 Fine screens
 Microscreens

Coarse screens
Coarse screens have a clear openings ranging from 6 to 150 mm (0.25 t0 6 in). Coarse screen
consist of parallel bars, rods or wires, wire mesh or a perforated plates with openings
generally of circular or rectangular shapes. So it is also call as “bar rack” and used to remove
coarse solids such as rags and large objects that may clog or cause damage to other
appurtenances. Based on the Wastewater Screening method used to clean them, coarse
screens are classified into two:
 Hand cleaned screens
 Mechanically cleaned screens

Hand cleaned coarse screens

Hand cleaned coarse screens are used in small wastewater pumping stations. They are often
used as standby screens in bypass channel for service during high-flow periods or when
mechanically cleaned screens are under repair or when power failure occurs. When used the
length of bar rack should be limited to 3 m, which enables convenient hand raking. The
screen channels should be designed in such a way that to prevent excessive accumulation of
grit and other heavy metals. The channel should have a straight approach which should be
perpendicular to the bar screen to promote uniform distribution of the solids throughout the
flow and on the screen.

Mechanically cleaned screen

It is designed mainly to reduce the operating and maintenance problems and to increase the
efficiency of screening. Mechanically cleaned bar Wastewater Screens are classified into
four principal types:
1. Chain driven screens: this type of screens used a automatic chain to clean the screen. It
is classified into front and back chain driven screens on the basis of how the screen is
raked from the upstream or in downstream and whether the rakes return to the bottom of
the bar screen from the front or back
2. Reciprocating rake (Climber screen): In this type of screen the rake moves to the base
of the screen, engages the bars and pulls the screenings in to the top of the screen where
they removed. This screen uses only one rake instead of multiple rakes that are used in
other type of screens. Due to this they have limited capacity in handling heavy screening
loads.
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3. Catenary screen: They have the rake which is held against the rack by the weight of
chain. They are front cleaned, front return chain driven screen. If heavy objects become
jammed in between the bars, the rakes will pass over them instead of further jamming in
it.
4. Continuous belt screen: It is a continuous, self cleaning screen that can remove fine and
coarse solids. A large number of rakes are attached to the drive chains. The number of
screening elements generally depends on the depth of the screen channel.

Fine screens

In Wastewater Screening, Fine screens have clear openings less than 6 mm. They consisted of
perforated plates, wire cloth, wedge wire elements that have smaller openings. They are also
used to remove the fine solids present in the primary effluent. Fine screens are classified as:
 Static (fixed) wedge wire screen
 Rotary drum screen
 Step type screen

Static wedge wire screens

They have a clear opening of 0.2 to 1.2 mm and designed for a rate of flow of 400 to 1200
L/m2 min of screen area. Large floor area should require for installation of these screens and
these should be cleaned once or twice daily.

Drum screens

In this type the screening or straining medium is mounted on a cylinder that rotates in the
flow channel. The wastewater flows into either end of drum and flows out through the screen
outlet with the solids are being collected on this interior or into the top of the unit.

Step screens

It consists of two step shaped sets of thin vertical plates, one fixed and other one is movable.
The fixed and movable step plates alternate across the width of channel and together form a
single screen face. The movable plate rotates in a vertical motion. Through this the solids
collected on the screen face is lifted up to the next fixed step landing and transported to the
top of the screen to discharge into outlet.

Microscreens

They are rotating drum screens which have a variable low speed (upto 4 r/min), which is
continuously backwashed operating in gravity flow conditions. The filtering fabrics used
should have a openings ranges from 10 to 35µm and fitted on the periphery of the drum. The
influent enters through drum lined with fabric. The solids retained are collected through
backwashing and transported for disposal.
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SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation is the process of allowing particles in suspension in water to settle out of the
suspension under the effect of gravity. The particles that settle out from the suspension
become sediment, and in water treatment is known as sludge. When a thick layer of sediment
continues to settle, this is known as consolidation. When consolidation of sediment, or
sludge, is assisted by mechanical means then this is known as thickening. In water treatment
sedimentation might be used to reduce the concentration of particles in suspension before the
application of coagulation, to reduce the amount of coagulating chemicals needed, or after
coagulation and, possibly, flocculation. When sedimentation is applied after coagulation, its
purpose is usually to reduce the concentration of solids in suspension so that the subsequent
filtration can function most effectively. Sedimentation is one of several methods for
application prior to filtration: other options include dissolved air flotation and some methods
of filtration. Generically, such solids-liquid separation processes are sometimes referred to as
clarification processes. There is a variety of methods for applying sedimentation and include:
horizontal flow, radial flow, inclined plate, ballasted floc and floc blanket sedimentation.

Theory
Standard texts should be referred to (for the time being) for the theory of sedimentation. It is
relevant to note that development of the theory is based on the initial assumption the particles
to be removed from suspension are spherical and solid, whereas in practice they are irregular
in shape, exist as a wide range in size and can be permeable to flow of water. The challenge
for researchers is to develop the theory to take account of these realities. The theory reflects
two basic forms of sedimentation: unhindered and hindered settling.

When the concentration of particles in suspension is small, approx < 1% v/v, the particles
settle with negligible impact on each other. As particle concentration increases beyond about
1% then adjacent particles progressively affect, i.e. hinder, the behaviour of each other. When
particle concentration exceeds about 8% v/v the suspension is in the fully hindered regime
(see method of concentration measurement below). The properties of the suspension are now
a function of the volumetric concentration of the particles in the suspension, as well as
dependent on other properties of the particles. With increasing particle concentration the
degree of contact between particles progressively increases

When the particle concentration in the suspension is about 18% v/v then there is a transition
in how the suspension appears. For concentrations greater than about 18% v/v, the upper
interface between the water and suspension should be distinct. For concentrations less than
about 18%, the interface is diffuse, increasingly so with smaller concentrations. When the
particle concentration is about 26% v/v adjacent particles become in permanent contact with
ach other such that the suspension enters the thickening regime. Hindered settling in water
treatment exploits suspensions with concentrations between about 12 and 22% v/v. A
suspension in this range is called a floc blanket, which is actually a fluidised bed. Method of
particle volume concentration: In water treatment the particles, flocs, produced by
coagulation are readily deformed. Therefore measurement of volumetric concentration has to
be a compromise. A method used for more than 40 years is to collect a sample of the
suspension to the top mark in a graduated cylinder, e.g. 1L, which is then left undisturbed for
30 minutes. The proportion of the liquid volume occupied by the settled particles after 30
minutes is taken as the particle concentration in the suspension.
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Types of Sedimentation Tanks

1. Horizontal flow tanks

The simplest form of sedimentation is to fill a jar or tank with water, leave alone for a long
enough time for particles to settle and then decant off the resulting water without the
sediment. In practice this is rarely viable in treating water for townships, and therefore
sedimentation tanks are operated continuously.

The simplest method of sedimentation is to use rectangular tanks with horizontal flow
through them. The water with the particles in suspension is introduced at one end of the tank,
then as the water flows to the other end of the tank settlement of particles in the water occurs.
The aim is that a large proportion of the settling particles manage to reach the tank floor
before the water is drawn out of the tank at the outlet end. Such horizontal flow tanks are
usually built with a floor that slopes gently down to the inlet end to a hopper. The tank is
fitted with a mechanism to scrape the sediment from the outlet end back to the inlet end and
into the hopper from where it can be discharged hydraulically. In the design of such tanks
detailed attention has to be given to the inlet and outlet ends so that the water flows from one
end to the end as uniformly as possible.

Partly because rectangular tanks have a large footprint, multi-layer tanks (i.e. two or three
decks) have been built. These tanks are usually multi-pass in that the water flows along the
length of one layer before returning along the next.

2. Radial flow tanks

Radial flow tanks are circular with the inlet for the water at the centre and a peripheral outlet.
Attention has to be paid to the design of inlet to support uniform distribution of flow to the
whole of the tank. The sediment is scraped to a central hopper for its discharge. Some circular
tanks include additional features in the centre for flocculation (i.e. premix designs) and even
recirculation of settled particles (i.e. premix-recirculation designs).

In unhindered settling tank size is governed by the time to be allowed for particles to settle
through the depth of water. The simple theory shows that efficiency of removal of particles is
governed by the area available for settlement. An approach to providing a large are with a
small footprint is to use inclined plates or tubes. These are usually constructed with
lightweight material in modular form which can be easily positioned in a concrete or steel
tank. Flow between such inclined plates can be co-current, counter-current or cross-flow. In
the co-current arrangement, the water flows downward between the plates n the direction of
particle settlement. In the counter-current arrangement, the water flows upward between the
plates against the direction of particle settlement. In cross-flow the water flows across the
plates, i.e. horizontal, at right angles to the direction of particle settlement. A design
challenge for inclined settling is to maximise distribution of flow of water within and
between plates and thereby maximise efficiency of particle removal. Inclined tubes can be
used in either co-current or counter-current modes, but in most instances in the latter. Tube
modules can be constructed in a variety of ways such that the cross-sectional shape of tubes
can take various forms.
 Page 11 of 16

3. Ballasted sedimentation
The density difference between water and the particles produced in water treatment by
coagulation, flocs, in general is small. Therefore they settle slowly. Methods of plain
sedimentation (i.e. horizontal, radial and inclined sedimentation) are preceded by a slow
mixing process called flocculation. The purpose of flocculation is to assist coagulated
particles to collide and adhere so as to grow into larger particles that might settle faster, and
for the particle size distribution to be as small as possible.

Flocculation can be assisted by the application of high molecular weight polymers called
polyelectrolytes. In the first instance flocculation does not increase particle density – a
property of flocs is that their density decreases with increase in particle size. The density of
floc particles can be increased by application of a ballasting agent such as Bentonite or fine
sand. In the case of fine sand (80-200 µm), it is possible to recover it for recycling by means
of passing the sludge collected from the sedimentation tank through hydrocyclones. The
settling rate of floc ballasted with fine sand can be three or more times faster than floc that is
not ballasted, and is usually settled in a tank with counter-current inclined plate system
placed over a hopper in which the settled sludge is collected.

4. Floc blanket sedimentation

The first floc blanket tanks had an inverted pyramidal shape topped by a short vertical
section. („Floc blanket‟ is used in preference to „sludge blanket‟. This is because the view is
taken that floc in the suspension is still functioning as floc should, helping to remove the
particles in the incoming water. Once floc becomes part of sediment and become surplus to
the process, the sediment is sludge. Therefore, when sediment is allowed to accumulate on
the floor of a tank that might appropriately be referred to as a sludge blanket, as is typical in
sewage treatment.)

The incoming suspension was fed downward into the apex of the pyramidal hopper by a
single pipe. The blanket occupied most of the pyramidal hopper. The comparative success of
floc blanket settling resulted in adaptation of premix-recirculation tanks being developed to
include floc blanket zones. However, more effective developments and cheaper designs led to
use of flat-bottomed rectangular tanks fed by an arrangement of multiple inlet pipes –
candelabra like, or horizontal pipes with multiple orifices close to the tank floor. Further
developments have led to the use of inclined plate or tube modules in such tanks.
 Page 12 of 16

EQUALISATION

It is used to minimize or control fluctuations in wastewater characteristics in order to provide

optimum conditions for subsequent treatment ™ The purpose of equalization for industrial
wastewater treatment facilities is:
ƒ
For dampening of organic fluctuations to avoid shock loading on biological wastewater
treatment system. ƒ To minimize flow surges to physical-chemical treatment systems. ƒ To
control pH or to minimize the chemical requirements for neutralization. ƒ
 To provide continuous feed to biological systems over periods when the manufacturing
plant is not operating. ƒ
 To controlled discharge of industrial waste to municipal sewers. ƒ
 To prevent high concentrations of toxic materials from entering the biological treatment
plant.

Mixing is normally provided to ensure adequate equalization and to prevent settleable solids
from depositing in the basin. ƒ
 Also oxidation of reduced compounds from wastewater or reduction of BOD by stripping
may be achieved by mixing and aeration.
Methods used for mixing: ƒ
 Distribution of inlet flow and baffling. ƒ
 Turbine mixing/ mechanical aeration. ƒ
 Diffused air aeration.

Most commonly submerged or surface aerators with power level of approx. 0.003 to 0.004
kW/ m3 are used. In diffused air mixing air requirement of 3.74 m3 / m3 is used.

Equalization basin may be designed as ƒ

 Variable volume: to provide constant effluent flow (used in industries). ƒ

 Constant volume: variable effluent flow (used in municipal discharge)
Equalization basin may be designed on line or off line. ƒ
 Equalization basin may be designed to equalize flow, concentration or both. ƒ
 For flow equalization cumulative flow is plotted verses time over equalization period i.e.
24 hr. The maximum volume with respect to constant discharge line is the equalization
volume required.

Design of equalization basin for concentration dampening

Equalization basin may be designed to keep the maximum concentration of BOD or COD
under control for wastewater. For near-constant wastewater flow and normal statistical
distribution of wastewater composite analyses the required equalization retention time When
completely mixed basin is used for treatment, (e.g. ASP, aerated lagoon) this volume can be
considered as part of equalization volume. E.g. completely mix aeration tank dt = 8 hr, and
retention time for equalization is 16 hr, then equalization basin only needs to have a retention
time of 8 hr.
 Page 13 of 16

NEUTRALIZATION

Where wastewater is acidic or alkaline, neutralization is required prior to discharge to

receiving waters or prior to chemical or biological treatment.

Types of processes

(a) Mixing acidic and alkaline waste streams: This requires sufficient equalization capacity to
effect neutralization.
(b) Acid waste neutralization through limestone beds: ƒ
 Can be down flow or up flow. ƒ
 Max hydraulic load for down flow system 2.5 m3 /m2 .hr to ensure sufficient retention
time. ƒ
 H2SO4 conc. should be limited to 0.6% to avoid coating of limestone with nonreactive
CaSO4 and excessive CO2 evaluation, which limits neutralization. ƒ
 Effective for wastewater where relative acidity is fairly constant. ƒ
 Not very effective where flow and conc. varies with time.
(C) Mixing acid waste with lime slurries ƒ
Depends on the type of lime used. ƒ
Magnesium fraction of lime is most reactive below pH of 4.2. ƒ
The reactions can be accelerated by heat and agitation. ƒ
Reaction is complete within 5 to 10 min.
Quicklime (CaO) is used as 8 to 15 % lime slurry ƒ
Neutralization can also be accomplished by NaOH, Na2CO3, and NH4OH. ƒ
Lime slurries pose practical difficulties due to variation in quality of lime received.
(D) Alkaline waste: ƒ
Strong acids are used. H2SO4 is preferred for economy. HCl can also be used. ƒ
Reactions are instantaneous. ƒ
Flue gases containing 14% CO2 can be used. Either gases are bubbled or spray tower with
countercurrent can be used.

System for neutralization: ƒ

Usually stepwise addition is preferred for all above for better results with two or even three
stages. Batch treatment is used up to flows of 380 m3 /d. ƒ
Air is used for mixing (min. rate 0.3 to 0.9 m3 /m2 .min at depth of 2.7m). ƒ
When mechanical mixers are used, 0.04 to 0.08 kW/ m3 is required power.

Control of process

The pH control is troublesome for the following reasons:

1. For strong acid-strong base neutralization is highly nonlinear, particularly when close to
neutral.
2. The influent pH change can be fast per pH unit per min.
3. Variation in wastewater incoming flow 4. Small amount of reagent must be thoroughly
mixed with larger liquid volume in short time.
5. Hence for biological treatment bicarbonate addition is preferred to maintain neutral pH.
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COAGULATION

Wastewater influents contain varying levels of total dissolved solids (TDS) and total
suspended solids (TSS). Course screening and grit chambers will reduce the TSS but must be
followed by a more refined solids removal process. Sedimentation and filtration are methods
that have been used in the past, but these methods cannot remove many of the smallest
particles.

Coagulation has become a popular method of reducing the TSS and, in some cases, TDS of
wastewater. This process involves destabilizing the charged particles in the solution. Because
of their similar electrical charges, the particles repel one another and prevent them from
settling quickly. To destabilize this electrical charge, an opposite charge must be applied to
the solution, enabling the colloids and other minerals to aggregate.

There are currently two well-known methods of coagulation:

1. Chemical Coagulation

Chemical coagulation is a well known method of particle coagulation. This process warrants
the addition of a number of chemical additives to achieve the desired destabilized state.
Alum, ferric chloride, ferric sulfate, ferrous sulfate, and lime are some of the additives used
to neutralize the charged particles. Other supplements include polymers, which act as an aid
for the aggregation of solids.

Pros

The main consideration behind the use of chemical coagulation is that it speeds up the time it
would take for the solids to settle on their own. Therefore, decreasing the overall detention
time of the wastewater treatment process.
Chemical coagulation can also aid the settling of finer colloidal particles and mineral
contaminants. These particles typically may not settle during a sedimentation process and
would pass through a subsequent filtration system.

Cons

Chemical coagulation is, at its core, an additive process. Though it can reduce the amounts of
solids in a solution, it still requires the addition of chemicals to achieve this. Adding these
substances can be quite complex and require extensive jar testing. The dosages need to be
fairly exact in order to properly process the influent optimally. Dosage can require continuous
adjustment based on the varying composition of the wastewater source.
The addition of chemicals also results in the production of a large volume of sludge that will
need to be treated and disposed of following treatment. This sludge is also hazardous due to
the nature of the constituents being added. The volume and toxicity of the sludge can drive up
disposal costs as its not easily dewatered.
 Page 15 of 16

2. Electrochemical Coagulation

More recently, electrochemical coagulation has entered the scene in wastewater treatment in
a more optimized form. After pH adjustment, if needed, this process involves the supply of
specific power to a series of metallic media. The anodes and cathodes can either be the same
material or different from one another. This material is optimized depending on the influent
water makeup. Aluminum and iron are two such materials that can be used in this process.
The electrodes release charged ions into the solution during oxidation, which leads to the
destabilization of the particles in the solution.

Pros

Electrocoagulation is a straightforward process. It has few moving parts, thus it can be

remotely monitored with reduced oversight and maintenance. The process can also typically
be adjusted to accommodate for differing amounts of particles without much effort, if
required.
The EC process is also able to target multiple contaminants using a single system and, in
certain cases, with a single treatment pass. Its lack of typical chemical addition produces
smaller volumes of sludge that are typically non-hazardous, easily dewatered, and less
expensive to process and dispose of.

Cons

An EC system can require the addition of acids or bases for pH adjustment, so it is not
completely free of additives. Also, due to the nature of the process, the electrodes are
sacrificial and will corrode over time, requiring replacement. It can utilize a clean-in-place
(CIP) process for plate cleaning, which would use acid in its cleaning cycle. The nature of the
process also requires electrical power. While it may not require much at one time, in some
places in the world the power may be more expensive, which can increase operating cost.

FLOCCULATION

Flocculation is a water treatment process where solids form larger clusters, or flocs, to be
removed from water. This process can happen spontaneously, or with the help of chemical
agents. It is a common method of stormwater treatment, wastewater treatment, and in the
purification of drinking water. One of the requirements for treated water leaving wastewater
plants is the removal of suspended solids. Small solid particles affect the colour of the water
and carry impurities into our natural water sources like rivers and the ocean. Phosphorus
content must also be limited in wastewater as a release of phosphorus into rivers promotes
algae growth. Uncontrolled releases of phosphorus have been known to cause mass die-offs
of fish and other aquatic life. Some industrial applications generate high levels of phosphorus
in their wastewater, which may even require pre-treatment before releasing it to wastewater
treatment plants.

Flocculation is a water treatment process where solids form larger clusters, or flocs, to be
removed from water. This process can happen spontaneously, or with the help of chemical
agents. It is a common method of stormwater treatment, wastewater treatment, and in the
purification of drinking water.
 Page 16 of 16

One of the requirements for treated water leaving wastewater plants is the removal of
suspended solids. Small solid particles affect the colour of the water and carry impurities into
our natural water sources like rivers and the ocean.

Phosphorus content must also be limited in wastewater as a release of phosphorus into rivers
promotes algae growth. Uncontrolled releases of phosphorus have been known to cause mass
die-offs of fish and other aquatic life.

Some industrial applications generate high levels of phosphorus in their wastewater, which
may even require pre-treatment before releasing it to wastewater treatment plants.
Flocculation is based on a chemical process. It involves adding chemicals to the wastewater
in sequence and allowing tiny solid particles to collect together in a larger mass called a floc.
As a treatment of wastewater, flocculation is carried out in stages.

STAGE 1
Suspended solid particles in wastewater are negatively charged. In the first stage of
flocculation, a coagulant like aluminium sulphate is added to the wastewater. The positively
charged coagulant molecules neutralize the negatively charged solid particles suspended in
the water. Neutralising these particles paves the way for them to flocculate together into a
larger mass.

STAGE 2
The wastewater must be agitated with mixers. High energy mixing is required initially to
ensure that the coagulant spreads throughout the water. When flocculation is in progress the
mixing energy is reduced to prevent the mass of particles from separating again.

STAGE 3
Once floc is beginning to form, a polymer chemical is added to the wastewater. Polymers
bridge the flocculant from micro to macro flocculant, meaning that the mass of particles
collecting together gets bigger. This chemical also binds the collected mass together so that it
does not easily disintegrate even when the water is slightly agitated.

STAGE 4
After flocculation is complete, the large solid masses can be removed from the
wastewater stream. This is done either through settling where the floc drops to the bottom
for removal or through the use of filters which capture the floc in the filter material. Care
must be taken when cleaning the filters to ensure that the phosphorus rich floc is contained
and treated.