Unit 3.

Curves and coordinates

Part 1
Before you read
Discuss these questions.
1. Who discovered a remarkable connection between geometry and algebra and
showed that each of these areas can be converted into the other by using
coordinates?
2. Do coordinates work in three-dimensional space?
3. What is the most important contribution made by the concept of coordinates?
4. How are coordinates used today? What is the influence of coordinates on
everyday life?
5. Look at Figure 1 of the first coordinate system introduced by Fermat. Fermat
noticed a general principle: if the conditions imposed on the point can be expressed
as a single equation involving two unknowns, the corresponding locus is a curve –
or a straight line. He illustrated this principle by a diagram in which two unknown
quantities A and E are represented as distances in two distinct directions. Can you
explain the difference between Fermat’s coordinate system and Cartesian
coordinates?
A Key terms
Match these terms with their definitions.
1. locus a) an expression that can be assigned any of a set of values

2. ellipse b) nonperpendicular axis

3. variable c) a set of points whose location satisfies or is determined
by one or more specified conditions
4. oblique axis d) a closed conic section shaped like a flattened circle and
formed by an inclined plane that does not cut the base of the
cone
Reading tasks
B Understanding expressions
Read the text about Fermat Complete the text with the words and
phrases in the box. Two are not used.
oblique axes drawing on equation with respect to
turns out foci add up to common
an obsolete term arises variables imposed on
embarked upon triangles paved the way
making needless distinctions

Fermat
The first person to describe coordinates was Pierre Fermat. Fermat is best
known for his work in number theory, but he also studied many other areas of
mathematics, including probability, geometry and applications to optics. Around
1620, Fermat was trying to understand the geometry of curves, and he started by
reconstructing, from what little information was available, a lost book by
Apollonius called On Plane Loci. Having done this, Fermat (1) his
own investigations, writing them up in 1629 but not publishing them until 50 years
later, as Introduction to Plane and Solid Loci.
Locus, plural loci, is (2) today, but it was (3) _even
in 1960. It (4) when we seek all points in the plane or space that
satisfy particular geometric conditions. For example, we might ask for the locus of
all points whose distances from two other fixed points always (5) the
same total. This locus (6) to be an ellipse with the two points as its
(7) . This property of the ellipse was known to the Greeks.
Fermat noticed a general principle: if the conditions (8) the point can
be expressed as a single (9) involving two unknowns, the corresponding
locus is a curve – or a straight line, which we consider to be a special kind of curve
to avoid (10) . He illustrated this principle by a diagram in which
the two unknown quantities A and E are represented as distances in two distinct
directions.
He then listed some special types of equation connecting A and E, and
explained what curves they represent. For instance, if A 2 = 1+ E 2 then the locus
concerned is a hyperbola.
 In modern terms, Fermat introduced (11) in the plane (oblique
meaning that they do not necessarily cross at right angles). The variables A and E
are the two coordinates, which we would call x and y, of any given point
(12) these axes. So Fermat’s principle effectively states that any
equation in two-coordinate (13) defines a curve, (14) standard
the
curves known to the Greeks.
. (an extract from the book The story of mathematics by Ian Stewart)
C Understanding expressions
Read the text about Descartes .Complete the text with the words and
phrases in the box.
Descartes
above or below the origin , implies , respectively , are not sufficient , to
contemplate , we perceive, might be, axes , in its own right, it takes a
major effort , origin , are familiar with , came to fruition,

The modern notion of coordinates (1) in the work of

Descartes. In everyday life, we (2) spaces of two and three
dimensions, and (3) оf imagination for us (4) other
possibilities. Our visual system presents the outside world to each eye as a two-
dimensional image – like the picture on TV screen. Slightly different images from
each eye are combined by the brain to provide a sense of depth, through which
(5) the surrounding world as having three dimensions.
The key to multidimensional spaces is the idea of a coordinate system, which
was introduced by Descartes in the appendix La Geometrie to his book Discours de
la Methode. His idea is that geometry of the plane can be reinterpreted in algebraic
terms. His approach is essentially the same as Fermat’s. Choose some point in the
plane and call it the (6) . Draw two (7) , lines that pass through the
origin and meet at right angles. Label one axis with the symbol x and the other with
the symbol y. Then any point P in the plane is determined by the pair of distances
(x,y), which tells us how far the point is from the origin when measured parallel to
the x- and y-axes, (8) .
For example, on a map, x (9) - the distance east of the origin (with
negative numbers representing distances to the west), whereas y might be the
distance north of the origin (with negative numbers representing distances to the
south).
Coordinates work in three-dimensional space too, but now two numbers
(10) to locate a point. However, three numbers are. As well as the
distances east-west and north-south, we need to know how far the point is
(11) . Usually we use a positive number for distances above, and a
negative one for distances below. Coordinates in space take the form(x, y, z).
This is why the plane is said to be two-dimensional, whereas space is three-
dimensional. The number of dimensions is given by how many numbers we need to
specify a point.
 In three-dimensional space, a single equation involving x, y and z usually
defines a surface. For x 2 y 2 + z 2 =1 states that the point (x, y, z) is
example, +
always a distance 1 unit from the origin, which (12) that it lies on the
unit sphere whose centre is the origin.
Notice that the word ‘dimension’ is not actually defined here
(13) . We do not find the number of dimensions of a space by finding
some things called dimensions and then counting them. Instead, we work out how
many numbers are needed to specify where a location in the space is, and that is
the number of dimensions.
(an extract from the book The story of mathematics by Ian Stewart)
D Understanding phrases
Read the text and fill in the gaps with the following words:
extended, made, are determined, complicated, to consider, visual aspect, folium of
Descartes, quadratic equation, arising, linear equation, reveals
Cartesian coordinates
Cartesian coordinate geometry (1) an algebraic unity behind the conic
sections – curves that the Greeks had constructed as sections of a double cone.
Algebraically, it turns out that the conic sections are the next simplest curves after
straight lines. A straight line corresponds to a (2) ax + by + c=0 with
constants a, b, c. A conic section corresponds to a (3)
a x 2 + b x y + c y 2 +d x +e y + f = 0 with constants a, b, c, d, e, f. Descartes
stated this fact, but did not provide a proof. However, he did study a special case,
based on a theorem due to Pappus which characterized conic sections, and he
showed that in this case the resulting equation is quadratic.
He went on (4) equations of higher degree, defining curves more
complex than most of those (5) in classical Greek geometry. A typical
example is the (6) , with x3 + y 3 - 3axy = 0 which forms a loop
equation with two ends that tend to infinity.
Perhaps the most important contribution (7) by the concept of
coordinates occurred here: Descartes moved away from the Greek view of
curves as things that are constructed by specific geometric means, and saw them
as the (8) of any algebraic formula.
Later scholars invented numerous variations on the Cartesian coordinate
system. In a letter of 1643 Fermat took up Descartes’ ideas and (9) them
to three dimensions. Here he mentioned surfaces such as ellipsoids and
paraboloids, which (10) by quadratic equations in the three variables x, y,
z. An influential contribution was the introduction of polar coordinates by Jakob
Bernoulli in 1691. He used an angle  and a distance r to determine points in the
plane instead of a pair of axes. Now the coordinates are (r,  ).
Again, equations in these variables specify curves. But now, simple equations
can specify curves that would become very (11) in Cartesian coordinates.
For example the equation r= corresponds to a spiral, of the kind known as an
Archimedean spiral.
. (an extract from the book The story of mathematics by Ian Stewart)
E Vocabulary tasks
Read the text below and choose the most appropriate word from the list for each
gap. There are two extra words that you do not need to use.
Functions
An important (1) of coordinates in mathematics is a method to represent
functions graphically. A function is not a number, but a (2) that starts
from some number and calculates an associated number. The recipe involved is
often stated as a (3) , which assigns to each number, x (possibly in
some limited range), another number, f(x). For example, the (4)
function is defined by the rule f(x) = x , that is, take the square root of the given
number. This recipe (5) x to be positive. Similarly the square function is
defined by f(x) = x 2 , and this time there is no (6) on x.
We can picture a function (7) by defining the y – coordinate, for a
given (8) of x, by y=f(x). This equation states a (9) between
the two coordinates, and therefore determines a (10) . This curve is called
the graph of the function f.
The (11) of the function f(x) = x 2 (12) to be a parabola. That of
the square root f(x) = x is half parabola, but lying on its side. More complicated
functions (13) to more complicated curves. The graph of the sine function
y= sin x is a (14) wave.

lead wiggly value formula

application

recipe square root geometrically circumference curve

graph turns out prove restriction

relationship

requires
F Complete the sentence
Read the text below and choose the most appropriate word from the list for each
gap. There are two extra words that you do not need to use.
Coordinate geometry today
Coordinates are one of those simple ideas that has had a marked (1)
on everyday life. We use them everywhere, usually without noticing what we are
doing. Virtually all computer graphics employ an internal coordinate system, and
the geometry that appears on the screen is (2) _ algebraically. An operation
as simple as (3) a digital photograph through a few degrees, to get the
horizon horizontal, (4) coordinate geometry.
The deeper message of coordinate geometry is about cross-connections in
mathematics. Concepts whose physical realizations seem totally different may be
different aspects of the same thing. Superficial appearances can be (5) .
Much of the effectiveness of mathematics as a way to understand the universe
(6) its ability to adapt ideas, (7) _ them from one area of
science to another. Mathematics is the (8) _ in technology transfer. And
it is those cross-connections, revealed to us over the past 4000 years, that make
mathematics a single, (9) _ subject.

influence rotating relies on ultimate

dealt with misleading stems from miscellaneous

invented transferring unified

G Complete the sentence

Read the text below and choose the most appropriate word from the list for each
gap. There are two extra words that you do not need to use.
Applications of coordinate geometry
Coordinate geometry can be employed on surfaces more complicated than the
plane, such as the sphere. The commonest coordinates on sphere are
(1) and (2) . So map-making, and the use of maps in navigation,
can be viewed as an application of coordinate geometry.
The main navigational problem for a captain was (3) the latitude and
longitude of his ship. Latitude is relatively easy, because the angle of the Sun
above the horizon (4) with latitude and can be tabulated. Since 1730, the
standard instrument for finding latitude was the sextant (now made almost
(5) by GPS). This was invented by Newton, but he did not publish it. It
was independently rediscovered by the English mathematician John Hadley and
the American inventor Thomas Godfrey. Previous navigators had used the
astrolabe, which goes back to medieval Arabia.
Longitude is (6) . The problem was eventually solved by constructing
a highly accurate clock, which was set to local time at the start of the voyage. The
time of sunrise and sunset, and the movements of the Moon and stars, (7) _
longitude, making it possible to determine longitude by (8) _ local
time with that on the clock. The story of John Harrison’s invention of the
chronometer, which solved the problem, is famously told in Dava Sobel’s
Longitude.
We continue to use coordinates for maps, but another common use of coordinate
geometry occurs in the stock market, where the (9) of some price are
recorded as a curve. Here the x-coordinate is time, and the y-coordinate is the
price. Enormous quantities of financial and scientific data are recorded in the same
way.

longitude obsolete superfluous to determine easier

latitude varies depend on comparing fluctuations

trickier
Over to you
1. Summarize the main points from the texts in your own words.
2. Look at Figure 2. Find out what equation corresponds to it.

Figure 2.

3. Look at Figure 3. Do you know the equation that defines it?

4. Choose a subject from Unit 3 you feel strongly about and prepare a short
presentation on it. Spend 10 minutes making some notes. The template below may
help. Try to make you main points as graphic and dramatic as possible.
Presentation template. Work individually or with a partner. Use the template to
develop a short presentation with a strong opening, a strong ending and three main
stages in between. Make a note of: the main points you want to make; key topic
vocabulary you think you may need; expressions that may help you at each stage
of the presentation (e.g. I’d like to focus on…, Feel free to interrupt if you have
any questions, I’ll give a brief overview of…, To sum up,… ); signpost language
to transition from one stage to the next.(e.g. “To move on”, “Turning to the
question of…, Getting back to …”)