BFPE3107 All Departments , NAHPI , UBa Level 300

BFPE3107 : Thermodynamics for Engineers

Chapter 1: Fundamental Concepts of Thermodynamics

1.1 Introduction
Thermodynamics is the study of the different forms of energy and the various processes that
transform energy from one form to another, and the related properties of matter. When thermodynamics
is applied to design and analysis of various energy conversion systems such as power generation,
refrigerator, nozzle, is it called engineering thermodynamics.
The study of energy is of fundamental importance to all fields of engineering because all
engineering fields utilize the conversion and use of energy to improve the human condition. For
example, materials engineers develop new energy-efficient metallurgical compounds, create high-
temperature materials for engines, and utilize the unique properties of nanotechnology; industrial
engineers minimize energy consumption and waste in manufacturing processes, develop new energy
management methods, and improve safety conditions in the workplace; mechanical engineers study the
flow of energy in systems such as automotive engines, turbines, heat exchangers, bearings, gearboxes,
air conditioners, refrigerators, nozzles, and diffusers.
Assignment: List some applications of thermodynamics in all engineering fields offered at the National
Higher Polytechnic Institute, NAHPI; especially in your field of Engineering.
Like every science, thermodynamics has a unique vocabulary associated with it. The aim of this
chapter is to familiarise the learner with this vocabulary. Therefore, basic concepts of thermodynamics
will be defined and explained in this chapter.

1.2 Dimension and units

1.2.1 Dimension
Dimension of a physical quantity is a measurable characteristic of that quantity. Example 1.1:
A physical quantity that changes with time has a time-dependent dimension called time (t).
Dimensions are broadly classified as “primary or fundamental” or “secondary or derived”.
Dimensions such as mass ‘M’, length ‘L’, time ‘t’ and temperature ‘T’ are called primary dimensions,

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while dimensions such as energy, velocity, force, volume which are described using primary
dimensions are called secondary dimensions.
Example 1.2: An area (A) is a measurable characteristic of an object and therefore one of its
dimensions. However, the area dimension is the same as the length dimension squared (A=L2) because
area derived from length.
Remark: not all systems of dimensional analysis have the same set of fundamental dimensions.
1.2.2 Units
Units are the magnitudes assigned to the dimensions. Units assigned to primary dimensions are
called basic units whereas units assigned to secondary dimensions are called derived units. Various
systems of units have prevailed in the past; this include FPS (Foot-Pound-Second), CGS (Centimetre-
Gram-Second), MKS (Metre-Kilogram-Second) etc. but two set of system units are still used today: the
metric SI (System-International) which is also known as International System (mostly used in science)
and English system also known as the United States Customary System (USCS) (mostly used in
engineering).
Example 1.3:
 SI Base units
Quantities SI units English System units
Name Symbol Name Symbol
Length Metre m Foot ft
Mass Kilogram kg Pound lb
Time Second s Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electrical current Ampere A
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

 SI derived units expressed in term of basic units

Quantities Name Symbol Expression in other unit

Pressure Pascal Pa N.m-2 or kg.m-1.s-2
Energy, Heat, Work Joule J N.m
Heat capacity, Entropy Joule per Kelvin J/K m .kg.s-2.K-1
2

Power Watt W J/s or m2.kg.s-3

Thermal conductivity Watt per metre kelvin W/(m.K) m.kg.s-3.K-1
Area Metre square m2
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Volume Metre cube m3

Density Kilogram per cubic metre kg/m3
Concentration Mole per cubic metre mol/m3

 SI prefixes

Symbol Factor G Prefix Symbol Factor G Prefix Symbol Factor

tera T 1012 giga G 109 mega M 106
kilo k 103 hecto h 102 deca da 101
deci d 10-1 centi c 10-2 milli m 10-3
micro µ 10-6 Nano n 10-9 Pico p 10-12
fasnto f 10-15 atto a 10-18

1.3 Definition of fundamental concepts

1.3.1 Energy
It is difficult to give a precise definition of energy. However, energy can be viewed as the
ability to cause changes. Energy can be possessed by an object or a system, such as a coiled spring or a
chemical fuel, and it may be transmitted through empty space as electromagnetic radiation. The energy
contained in a system is often only partially available for use. This is, called the available energy of the
system. Some of the more common forms of energy are: gravitational, kinetic, thermal, elastic,
chemical, electrical, magnetic, and nuclear. The total energy of a given system is the sum of all these
forms of energies. (Homework: List the importance of energy and energy conversion in technology)

1.3.2 System, Surrounding and Boundary

1. Definitions
A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or
region outside the system is called the surroundings and the real or imaginary surface that separates the
system from its surroundings is called the boundary.

Surroundings
System
Boundary

Remarks:
(i) System + surroundings = Universe
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(ii) The boundary of a system can be fixed (rigid) or movable; it can also be permeable or
impermeable to energy and/or mass.
(ii) Mathematically speaking, the boundary has quasi zero thickness, and thus it can neither
contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space.

2. Types of thermodynamic systems

a) Classification of system based on their interaction with surrounding
Systems may be considered to be open, closed or isolated depending on whether a fixed mass or
a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
 An open system, also called control volume is a properly selected region in space in
which, mass and energy can cross the boundary. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow
such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied by selecting the
region within the device as the control volume.
Ramark:
(i) The boundary of a control volume is called control boundary.
(ii) A large number of engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and,
therefore, they are modeled as control volumes.
 A closed system also known as a control mass consists of a fixed amount of mass. It is a
system in which no mass can enter or leave system, but energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross
the boundary. The volume of a closed system can be fixed or not.
 An isolated system can be a fixed amount of mass or selected region of the space. It is a
system in which energy and mass are not allowed to cross the boundary. Thus, the isolated system does
not interact with the surroundings in any way.
b) Classification of system based on their physical and chemical properties
Systems may also be considered to be homogeneous or heterogeneous depending on its physical
and chemical properties.
 Homogeneous system: is a system which consists of a single phase.
Example 1.4: Mixture of air and water vapour, water plus nitric acid and octane plus heptane.
 Heterogeneous system: is a system which consists of two or more phases. Example 1.5:
Liquid water plus steam, ice plus liquid water and liquid water plus oil.

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Remark: A phase is a quantity of matter in which the physical and chemical properties are similar
throughout the system. A phase is completely uniform and does not contain any boundary surfaces
separating different parts of the system

3. Working substance
Working substances (fluid) are substances which can be expanded and compressed. They also
take part in energy transfer as they can receive or reject heat or can be the means by which work is
done. In general, they are fluids which are capable of deformation such as air and steam. All
thermodynamic system require some working substance in order that the various operations required of
each system can be carried out.
4. Analysis approaches of a system
Thermodynamic studies are undertaken by the following two different approaches.
 Macroscopic approach in which the system of interest is considered without taking into
account the events occurring at molecular level. This is known as classical thermodynamic. This
approach has the advantage that the analysis of macroscopic system requires simple mathematical
formulae and only few properties are needed to describe a system.
 Microscopic approach in which the system of interest is analysed at molecular or atomic
level and all the events occurring at molecular or atomic level are taking into account. This approach is
known as statistical thermodynamics because statistical and mathematical methods are needed to
explain the changes in the system. Large number of variables and mathematical equations are needed to
describe a system at molecular or atomic level. So, the statistical approach is pretty complicated.
Remark: When both approaches are applied to a particular system, they give the same result.

1.3.3 Properties and state

1. Properties
Any characteristic of a system which can be observed or measured is called a property of the
system.
Example 1.6: Pressure, temperature, volume, viscosity, modulus of elasticity, thermal expansion
coefficient, electric resistivity, velocity and elevation.
Properties are classified as intensive or extensive.
 Intensive properties are those that are independent of the mass of a system and they are
generally symbolized by lowercase letters.

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Example 1.7: Temperature, pressure and density.

 Extensive properties are those whose values depend on the size-or extent-of the system.
They are usually symbolized by uppercase (capital) letters.
Example 1.8: Mass, volume, energy, enthalpy and momentum.
Remark: Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties.
Example 1.9: (i) Specific heat (𝑞 = 𝑄/𝑚) (ii) Specific volume (𝑣 = 𝑉/𝑚 = 1/𝜌)
(iii) Specific enthalpy (ℎ = 𝐻/𝑚) (iv) specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the density of
any substance and standard density of some reference substance. For solids and liquids, the water
density at some specified temperature, say 0 ºC or 4 ºC is taken as standard density.

2. State
The state of a system indicates the specific condition of the system. When the thermostatic or
internal properties (properties which depend upon its physical and chemical structure) of system are
quantitatively defined then it refers to the ‘state’ of the system. Complete specification of the state of a
system, the number of properties may be required which depends largely upon the complexity of the
system.
The state of a system changes when the value of one or many thermodynamic properties
defining a state changes. Properties are independent of any process which any particular substance may
have passed through from one state to another, being dependent only upon the end or final state.
State postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two
independent, intensive properties.
Remarks :
(i) A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic,
gravitational, motion, and surface tension effects. These effects are due to external force fields and are
negligible for most engineering problems.
(ii) Two properties are independent if one property can be varied while the other one is held
constant.
Examples 1.10:
(i) Temperature and specific volume, for example, are always independent properties.
(ii) Temperature and pressure, however, are independent properties for single-phase systems, but are
dependent properties for multiphase systems.

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1.3.4 Thermodynamic equilibrium

A system is in thermodynamic equilibrium if the following three types of equilibrium states are
achieved:
 Thermal equilibrium: The temperature of the system does not change with time and has
same value at all points of the system.
 Mechanical equilibrium: There are no unbalanced forces within the system or between
the surroundings. The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not change with respect to
time.
 Chemical equilibrium: No chemical reaction takes place in the system and the chemical
composition which is same throughout the system does not vary with time.

1.3.5 Process
1. Definition
A process occurs when the system undergoes a change in state or when a system undergoes
changes from one equilibrium state to another. To describe a process completely, one should specify
the initial and final states of the process, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.

2. Type of processes
A process may be:
 non-flow in which a fixed mass within the defined boundary is undergoing a change of
state. Closed systems undergo non-flow processes.
Example 1.11: A substance which is being heated in a closed cylinder undergoes a non-flow process.
 flow process in which mass is entering and leaving through the boundary of an open
system. Flow process can be steady (no change with time) or unsteady transient.
In a steady flow process, mass is crossing the boundary from surroundings at entry, and an
equal mass is crossing the boundary at the exit so that the total mass of the system remains constant.
That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any fixed
point they remain the same during the entire process. Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the
total energy content E of the control volume remain constant during a steady-flow process.

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Mass in 410°C 350°C Mass in 410°C 350°C

Control volume Control volume

285°C 285°C
Mass out 215°C 100°C
Mass out
215°C 100°C
At 2 p.m at 5 p.m
For a steady flow process: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑢𝑡 then, 𝑚𝐶𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 and 𝐸𝐶𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
A large number of engineering devices such as turbines, pumps, boilers, condensers, and heat
exchangers or power plants or refrigeration systems operate for long periods of time under the same
conditions, and they are classified as steady-flow devices.

3. Path of a process
The path refers to the series of state changes through which the system passes during a process.
Thus, path refers to the loci of various intermediate states passed through by a system during a process.

4. Cycle
If processes are carried out on a substance such that, at the end, the substance is returned to its
original state, then the substance is said to have been taken through a cycle. Thus, a cycle is the one in
which the processes occur one after the other so as to finally bring the system at the same state.
After the occurrence of a cyclic process the system shall show no sign of the processes having
occurred. This is commonly required in many engines.

1.3.6 Point function and path function

Point function: When two properties locate a point on the graph (co-ordinate axes) then those
properties are called as point function.
Example 1.12: Pressure, temperature, volume
Path function: There are certain quantities which cannot be located on a graph by a point but are
given by the area or so, on that graph. In that case, the area on the graph, pertaining to the particular
process, is a function of the path of the process. Such quantities are called path functions.
Example 1.13: Heat, work etc.
Remark : The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains
constant.
Example 1.14:
- An isothermal process, is a process during which the temperature T remains constant;
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- An isobaric process is a process during which the pressure P remains constant;

- An isochoric (or isometric) process is a process during which the specific volume v remains
constant.
Representation of thermodynamic processes, path and cycle are shown on p-v diagram in

1-2-3-4 = Cycle

1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 = path

1-2 and 3-4 constant pressure processes

2-3 and 4-1 constant volume processes

1.3.7 Reversible and irreversible process

Reversible process: is one in which the system maintains its thermodynamic equilibrium
throughout the occurrence of process. The change of state occurs such that if the system is to restore its
original state, it can be hard or difficult to reverse the factors responsible for the occurrence of the
process. i.e. state changes during the forward direction of occurrence of a process are exactly similar to
the state passed through by the system during the reversed direction of the process.
Irreversible process: is one in which the system doesn’t maintain its thermodynamic equilibrium
throughout the occurrence of process.

3
1 1-2 and 2-1 reversible process following equilibrium states
P

3-4 and 4-3 irreversible process following non-equilibrium states

2 4
V
1.3.8 Temperature
Temperature describes the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The subject of temperature
investigation is called thermometry. Many attempts have been made in the past to lay down a scale of
temperature. Amongst them, the most common temperature scales are: the Celsius scale, the Fahrenheit
scale, Kelvin scale and Rankine scale. The temperature units associated with these temperature scales
are degree celsius (°C), degree fahrenheit (°F), kelvin (K) and rankine (R) respectively.

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Kelvin scale is the one used in thermodynamic because it is independent of the properties of any
substance or substances. In fact, on the Celsius scale, the ice and steam points were originally assigned
the values of 0 and 100°C, respectively. The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 32 and
212°F. Kelvin scale is usually called thermodynamic temperature scale.
Remark : The lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale is 0 K and it is called absolute zero.
 Relationship between the temperature scales
The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by 𝑇(𝐾) = 𝑇(°𝐶) + 273.15
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by 𝑇(𝑅) = 𝑇(°𝐹) + 459.67
The Celsius scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by 𝑇(°𝐹) = 1.8 𝑇(°𝐶) + 32
The Rankine scale is related to the Kelvin scale by 𝑇(𝑅) = 1.8 𝑇(𝐾)

1.3.9 The Zeroth law of thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a
third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.
Two bodies are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature reading even if they
are not in contact.

1.3.10 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. We speak of pressure only
when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The unit of pressure is newton per square meter (N/m2), which is
called a pascal (Pa). It can also be expressed in Torr, atmosphere, mm of mercury, bar and kilogram-
force per square centimeter.
 Conversion factors between pressure units:
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 101,325 𝑃𝑎 = 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠 = 760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
In general during analysis one comes across the following four types of pressure:
- Atmospheric pressure is defined as the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. It is equal to 760
mm of mercury column at 0ºC for mercury density of 0.0135951 kg/cm3, gravitational acceleration of
9.80665 m/s2 and has magnitude of 1.013 bar (= 1.013 × 105 N/m2). The pressure exerted by one
millimeter column of mercury under atmospheric conditions is known as torr.
- The instrument used for measuring this pressure is called barometer and it is often referred to
as the barometric pressure.

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- The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure, and it is measured
relative to absolute vacuum (i.e. absolute zero pressure).
- Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere and
so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This
difference is called the gauge pressure.
Pgauge can be positive or negative, but pressures below atmospheric pressure (i.e negative gauge
pressure) are sometimes called vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are related to each other by
𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 and 𝑃𝑣𝑎𝑐 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

Remark: In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used.
A manometer is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences. A
manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing one or more fluids such as mercury, water,
alcohol, or oil. To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury
are used if large pressure differences are anticipated.

𝑃1 = 𝑔𝑎𝑧 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌ℎ𝑔

𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 ⟹ 𝑃𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝜌ℎ𝑔

𝑃1 = 𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎𝑏𝑠

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