foods

Article
Comparative Analysis of Physicochemical
Characteristics, Nutritional and Functional
Components and Antioxidant Capacity of Fifteen
Kiwifruit (Actinidia) Cultivars—Comparative
Analysis of Fifteen Kiwifruit (Actinidia) Cultivars
Hexin Zhang 1 , Qinyu Zhao 1 , Tian Lan 1 , Tonghui Geng 1 , Chenxu Gao 1 , Quyu Yuan 1 ,
Qianwen Zhang 2 , Pingkang Xu 3 , Xiangyu Sun 1 , Xuebo Liu 1 and Tingting Ma 1, *
1 College of Food Science and Engineering, College of Enology, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100,
China; [email protected] (H.Z.); [email protected] (Q.Z.); [email protected] (T.L.);
[email protected] (T.G.); [email protected] (C.G.); [email protected] (Q.Y.);
[email protected] (X.S.); [email protected] (X.L.)
2 Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS 39762, USA;
[email protected]
3 Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Food Science and Technology Programme, National University
of Singapore, Singapore 119077, Singapore; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel./Fax: +86-29-8709-2486




Received: 18 August 2020; Accepted: 8 September 2020; Published: 10 September 2020


Abstract: Physicochemical characteristics, nutritional and functional components, and the antioxidant
capacity of 15 kinds of domestic and imported kiwifruit in China were studied. Kiwifruit was
classified according to flesh color or species, and the differences were analyzed and compared.
Results demonstrated Ruiyu had the highest sugar-acid ratio, and Hongshi No.2 was an excellent
cultivar with strong antioxidant capacity. TPC (total polyphenol content) and AAC (ascorbic acid
content) showed a significant positive correlation. TPC was the greatest antioxidant contributor
in the DPPH and FRAP assays. The sugar–acid ratio and TFC (total flavonoids content) in
red-fleshed kiwifruit were significantly higher than those in yellow-fleshed and green-fleshed
ones. The composition of free amino acids had a tendency to distinguish A. deliciosa and A. chinensis,
but this needs further verification. In addition, the contents of mineral elements, folic acid and
L-5-methyltetrahydrofolate were also analyzed. Generally, kiwifruit contains comprehensive nutrients
and has strong antioxidant capacity. Cultivar is one of the main factors affecting nutritional and
functional properties and antioxidant capacity.

Keywords: kiwifruit; flesh color; species; physicochemical characteristics; nutritional and functional
components; antioxidant capacity

1. Introduction
Actinidia, the basal genus belonged to Actinidiaceae, well-known as kiwifruit due to its association
with New Zealand, is actually native to China. Over 70 species have been developed gradually all
over the world through decades of domestication and constant selection from wild kiwifruit. Among
these, 62 species are naturally distributed in China [1,2]. Kiwifruit is cultivated in temperate areas
with a latitude between 25◦ and 45◦ . China, Italy, New Zealand, Chile, and Greece are the top five
producers in the world, accounting for 87% of the total yield of kiwifruit [3]. Specifically, in China,
kiwifruit cultivation is mainly distributed in Shaanxi, Sichuan, Chongqing, Guizhou, Hunan, Hubei,

Foods 2020, 9, 1267; doi:10.3390/foods9091267 www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2020, 9, 1267 2 of 18

Henan, and other provinces and regions, and the yield from Shaanxi and Sichuan accounts for nearly
80% of the total. Among the large number of kiwifruit species, only a few have been developed
extensively because of their admirable flavor and important commercial value, including A. deliciosa
and A. chinensis [3]. The hair of A. deliciosa’s rough skin is long, hard, and with late abscission.
In contrast, the hair of A. chinensis’s smooth skin is short, soft, and with nearly complete abscission
when it is ripe. Generally, the color of most kiwifruit flesh is green, yellow or red (the middle part)
at harvest, depending on the type and quantity of pigments. A. deliciosa has green flesh when ripe,
whereas A. chinensis often has yellow flesh when ripe [4,5].
Excellent flavor and outstanding nutritional quality are the main reasons why kiwifruit is widely
accepted by consumers, and it is value-added in the fruit market. The flavor of kiwifruit is related to its
aroma, taste (sugar, acid) and texture [6,7]. There are comprehensive and independent data regarding
the nutritional composition of kiwifruit in the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference
and the New Zealand Food Composition Database [8]. Vitamin C, also known as ascorbic acid, is one
of the most unique nutritional properties in kiwifruit. Taking Sungold as an example, the content of
vitamin C is almost three times that of orange and strawberry (calculated by fresh weight). It enjoys a
reputation as “the king of Vitamin C” in China [3,9]. Kiwifruit is also rich in polyphenols, flavonoids,
anthocyanins and other antioxidant ingredients [10–12]. Generally, phytochemicals are regarded to be
the most important bioactive components of kiwifruit [11]. It is a trend that synthetic antioxidants
are being replaced by naturally occurring antioxidants in food industry [13]. It has previously been
observed that kiwifruit extract is a natural antioxidant, which exhibited strong inhibitory effects on
HepG2 and HT-29 cell growth [14,15]. Data from several studies have suggested that eating kiwifruit
could minimize the symptoms of chronic diseases, such as hyperlipidemia, diabetes, and inflammatory
diseases [16]. Recent evidence has suggested that kiwifruit polyphenols which are rich in anthocyanin
could modulate key inflammatory signals (CCL11 and NF-κB) and have potential benefits in reducing
lung inflammation [10]. In addition, kiwifruit is also a good source of carotenoids, vitamin E, amino
acids, mineral elements, folate, and other nutrients. Particularly, folate is easily damaged in the cooking
process, so fresh-eating is the best way to obtain it [8,17–20].
A deep understanding of flavor and nutrition will promote consumers to select cultivars of
kiwifruit properly and produce a higher market value for the cultivation of new cultivars, which is
crucial for the production and consumption of kiwifruit. Nevertheless, there is an imbalance between
low economic effectiveness and high kiwifruit production. The imported kiwifruit has more market
advantages than the local ones [21]. To date, there are few studies that have investigated the association
between nutritional value, functional characteristics and flesh color of kiwifruit cultivars or species,
and the sample sizes are small as well.
In this study, 15 kinds of classic and new cultivars emerging in China in recent years, including
three flesh colors and two commercially valuable species, were selected to supplement some nutritional,
functional and antioxidant indexes, such as free amino acids and folates, which are frequently ignored.
On the basis of their properties, kiwifruit cultivars with different flesh colors or different species were
analyzed to find the rule, in order to supply some data about the nutritional and functional components
of kiwifruit in Chinese market to help consumers select kiwifruit and promote the economic return.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Samples and Chemicals

The 15 kiwifruit cultivars were purchased from production bases and retail markets in several
provinces rich in kiwifruit. Except for Sungold, which was imported from New Zealand, and Hayward,
which was brought in from Zealand and has been widely cultivated in China, other cultivars were
developed and widely grown in China. The kiwifruits used in this experiment harvested in 2019
were all at commercial maturity, and their hardness was between 3.6–6.7 N/cm2 . Relevant sample
information was shown in Figure 1 and Table 1. Two kilograms (kg) of each kiwifruit cultivar
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 3 of 18
Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 19

were peeled, cut into pieces, homogenized, and sealed sequentially. The homogenate was weighed
weighed directly to measure TSS (total soluble solids) and pH. Meanwhile, TA (titratable acid), AAC,
directly to measure TSS (total soluble solids) and pH. Meanwhile, TA (titratable acid), AAC, TPC,
TPC, TFC, and TAC (total anthocyanins content) were determined through extracts of the
TFC, and TAC (total anthocyanins content) were determined through extracts of the homogenate at
homogenate at the same time. When measuring other components, the homogenate was prepared
the same time. When measuring other components, the homogenate was prepared instantly before
instantly before determination. The chemicals used in the experiments were of analytical grade or
determination. The chemicals used in the experiments were of analytical grade or high-performance
high-performance liquid chromatography grade.
liquid chromatography grade.

Figure 1. Sample photos of 15 kiwifruit (Actinidia) cultivars.

Figure
Table 1. Sample species,
1. Cultivars, photos of 15 kiwifruit
flesh color and(Actinidia)
regions ofcultivars.
kiwifruits.

Cultivar TableAbbr. Species

1. Cultivars, species, Flesh of
flesh color and regions Color
kiwifruits. Region
Cuixiang A. deliciosa
CultivarCX Abbr. Species Flesh Color Green
Region Shaanxi, China
Hayward HW A. deliciosa Green Shaanxi, China
Xuxiang CuixiangXX CX A.A.deliciosa
deliciosa Green GreenShaanxi, China Shaanxi, China
Guichang HaywardGC HW A.A.deliciosa
deliciosa Green GreenShaanxi, China Guizhou, China
Ruiyu Xuxiang RY XX A.A.deliciosa
deliciosa Green GreenShaanxi, China Shaanxi, China
Jinhong No.1 GuichangJH1 GC A. chinensis
A. deliciosa Green Red *
Guizhou, China Jiangsu, China
Hongshi No.2 HS2 A. chinensis Red * Sichuan, China
Ruiyu RY A. deliciosa Green Shaanxi, China
Hongyang HYA A. chinensis Red * Shaanxi, China
Jinhong 50Jinhong No.1
JH50 JH1 A.A.chinensis
chinensis Red * Red *Jiangsu, China Sichuan, China
Oriental RedHongshi No.2
OR HS2 A.A.chinensis
chinensis Red * Red *Sichuan, China Shaanxi, China
Huayou Hongyang HYO HYA A.A.chinensischinensis Red * Yellow Shaanxi, ChinaShaanxi, China
Sungold Jinhong 50SG JH50 A.A.chinensis
chinensis Red * Yellow Sichuan, China New zealand
Jinyan JY A. chinensis Yellow Henan, China
Oriental Red OR A. chinensis Red * Shaanxi, China
Jintao JT A. chinensis Yellow Henan, China
Puyu Huayou PY HYO A.A.chinensischinensis Yellow Yellow Shaanxi, China
Shaanxi, China
Sungold SG A. chinensis Yellow New zealand
Red * represents the color of the middle part of flesh in kiwifruits. The red flesh color means radial red streaks in the
cross section of theJinyan
core. JY A. chinensis Yellow Henan, China
Jintao JT A. chinensis Yellow Henan, China
2.2. Total Soluble Solids Puyu PY Acid
(TSS), Titratable A. chinensis
(TA), pH Yellow Shaanxi, China
Red * represents the color of the middle part of flesh in kiwifruits. The red flesh color means radial
The TSS were determined using homogenate by a PAL-1 Abbe Refractometer (ATAGO, Tokyo,
red streaks in the cross section of the core.
Japan) based on Chinese National Standards (CNS) NY/T 2637-2014 [22]. The preparation of the TA
extract and the determination of TA using an acid-base titration method were based on CNS GB/T
2.2. Total Soluble Solids (TSS), Titratable Acid (TA), pH
12456-2008 [23]. The pH values were measured using homogenate by a PHS-3E pH meter (Shanghai
LeiciThe
Co. TSS
Ltd.,were determined
Shanghai, China)using
basedhomogenate
on Chineseby a PAL-1
National Abbe Refractometer
Standards (ATAGO,
GB/T 10468-1989 Tokyo,
[24] and the
Japan)
previousbased on[25].
study Chinese National Standards (CNS) NY/T 2637-2014 [22]. The preparation of the TA
extract and the determination of TA using an acid-base titration method were based on CNS GB/T
12456-2008 [23]. The pH values were measured using homogenate by a PHS-3E pH meter (Shanghai
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 4 of 18

2.3. Ascorbic Acid Content (AAC), Total Polyphenol Content (TPC), Total Flavonoids Content (TFC), Total
Anthocyanins Content (TAC)

2.3.1. Extracts
AAC extract: 5.0 g of kiwifruit homogenate and 45 mL of 2% oxalic acid solution were mixed and
rested for 1 h, and the supernatant was transferred to a 100 mL volumetric flask after centrifuging,
and diluted with oxalic acid solution. The AAC extract concentration was 50 mg/mL.
Polyphenol extract: 5.0 g of homogenate was mix with 20 mL of 70% ethanol solution, ultrasonic
extracted for 15 min and centrifuged at 4 ◦ C 8000 r/min for 10 min to obtain the supernatant. The above
operation was repeated once for the precipitate, and the supernatant was combined. The supernatant
was the crude polyphenol extract for the determination of TPC, TFC, and TAC. The polyphenol extract
concentration was 100 mg/mL.
The L*, a*, b*, and ∆E values of the extract were determined with a Ci7600 colorimeter (X-rite,
Grand Rapids, USA, Michigan) according to GB/T 6324.6-2014 [26].

2.3.2. Determination
The AAC was determined using a 2,6-dichloro-indophenol titration method based on CNS
GB 5009.86-2016 [27]. The TPC was determined by Folin-Ciocalteu colorimetry as follows: 0.2 mL of
the polyphenol extract was added in 2 mL of the diluted Folin-Ciocalteu solution and 1.8 mL of 7.5%
sodium carbonate solution, then mixed and placed in the dark for 1 h, the absorbance was measured
at 765 nm. And the results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g flesh weight
(FW) [28,29]. The TFC was determined as described previously as follows: 0.5 mL of polyphenol
extract and 0.3 mL of 0.5 mol/L sodium nitrite solution were mixed and rested for 3 min, then 0.3 mL of
0.3 mol/L aluminum chloride solution, 2 mL of 1 mol/L sodium hydroxide solution, and 70% ethanol
to 5 mL were added sequentially and rested for 10 min, the absorbance was measured at 506 nm.
The results were expressed as mg catechin equivalents (CTE)/100 g flesh weight (FW) [30]. The TAC
was estimated using the pH differential method as follows: 0.2 mL polyphenol extract was taken twice,
3.8 mL pH = 1 hydrochloric acid-sodium chloride buffer solution was added to the first solution, and
3.8 mL pH = 4.5 acetic acid-sodium acetate buffer solution was added to the second solution, and the
absorbance of the two solutions was measured at 510 nm and 700 nm. The results were expressed as
mg cyanidin-3-glucoside (CGE)/100 g flesh weight (FW) [30].

2.4. Analysis of Antioxidant Capacity

This study used two different methods to estimate antioxidant capacity, 1,1-diphenyl-2-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), which were slightly modified
from previous studies [21,30]. DPPH determination was as follows: 0.25 mL polyphenol extract
(or TAA extract) in Section 2.3.1 and 4 mL freshly prepared DPPH solution reacted for 30 min in the
dark, and the absorbance was measured at 517 nm. FRAP determination was as follows: 0.25 mL of
polyphenol extract (or TAA extract) in Section 2.3.1 and 8 mL of TPTZ (tripyridyltriazine) working
solution reacted for 10 min in a 37 ◦ C water bath, then the absorbance was measured at 593 nm.
The results are expressed as µmol trolox/g FW.

2.5. Protein and Free Amino Acids

The protein content was determined according to CNS GB 5009.5-2010 [31] using the Kjeldahl
method as follows: 2.0 g of homogenate was added 0.7179 g of copper sulfate pentahydrate, 6.2821 g
of potassium sulfate, and 10 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid sequentially. Then, it was decomposed
at 420 ◦ C for 1 h until being clarified. It was tested by a Kjeltec 2300 automatic analyzer (FOSS,
Hillerød, Denmark).
The concentration of free amino acids was determined according to the national standard
GB 5009.124-2016 [32], and some modifications were made as follows: 2.0 g homogenate was added
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 5 of 18

10 mL 6 mol/L hydrochloric acid with ultrasonic processing for 2 min, and it was put in a stove at 110 ◦ C
for 22 h. Then, it was diluted with ultrapure water 500 times, and filtered with a 0.45 inorganic filter
membrane to be determined by using the Hitachi L-8900 amino acid analyzer (Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan).

2.6. Analysis of Mineral Elements

Three grams of the homogenate was weighed into an Erlenmeyer flask, 10 mL of nitric acid and 0.5
mL of perchloric acid were added and digested on an adjustable heating plate. After a pretreatment with
nitric acid or perchloric acid wet digestion, the PinAAcle900 Atomic Absorbance Spectrophotometer
(PerkinElmer Limited, Waltham, MA, USA) was used to detect these mineral elements.
Each mineral element was determined by the national standard method as follows:
Ca (GB 5009.92-2016) [33], K, Na (GB 5009.91-2017) [34], Cu (GB 5009.13-2017) [35], Zn
(GB 5009.14-2017) [36], Mg (GB 5009.241-2017) [37], P (GB 5009.87-2016) [38], and Fe
(GB 5009.90-2016) [39].

2.7. Analysis of Folic Acid (FA) and L-5-Methyltetrahydrofolate (5MTHF)

The measurement was performed by HPLC and the method according to
Czarnowska-Kujawska et al. [40] was slightly modified as follows. Thereby, 8 g of kiwifruit
homogenate was added 20 mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer to the centrifuge tube, and it was blown on a
nitrogen blower for 15 s, then put in a 90 ◦ C water bath for 5 min. It was put in an ice bath under
dark conditions and centrifuged. The supernatant was pass through an inorganic filter membrane for
testing. Gradient elution conditions: A Waters Alliance 2695 HPLC system with a 2996 PDA Detector
(Waters Corp., Milford, MA, USA) was used to simultaneously separate and analyze the FA and
5MTHF. The system was run at 0.4 mL/min using a HC-C18 column (2) (Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA
250 × 4.6 mm, 5 µm). The column temperature was set at 25 ◦ C, and 20 µL of sample was injected.
The detection wavelength was 285 nm. The mobile phase was phosphate buffer and acetonitrile.
The condition was that 6% acetonitrile combined 94% phosphate buffer in first 5 min, in 5–25 min
linear change was from the original ratio to 25% acetonitrile combined 75% phosphate buffer, then it
maintained for 2 min. The flow term was linear in the range of 27–28 min, then changed back to the
original concentration ratio.

2.8. Statistical Analysis

The experimental results were expressed as the mean ± SD of three parallel measurements,
and data analysis was performed using SPSS statistics 23 software (International Business Machines
Corporation, Armonk, NY, USA). Multigroup comparisons of the means were carried out by one-way
analysis of variance (ANOVA) test with post-hoc contrasts by LSD test and Duncan test. The statistical
significance for all tests was set at p < 0.05. Using Euclidean distance as a measure of dissimilarity,
hierarchical cluster analysis and heat maps were constructed using the data of free amino acids and
mineral elements, respectively. The average values of the amino acids and the mineral elements were
used as input data in principal component analysis (PCA). The R programming language (Ross Ihaka
& Robert Gentleman, Auckland, New Zealand) was used to perform correlation analysis.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Physicochemical Characteristics

3.1.1. Total Soluble Solid (TSS), Titratable Acid (TA) and pH

Figure 2 illustrated the physical and chemical characteristics of different kiwifruit cultivars,
including TSS, TA and pH. Generally, TSS consists of sugar, acids, vitamins, certain minerals, and other
soluble solids, which are essential indicators of sensory quality and consumer recognition [41]. The TSS
for all cultivars ranged from 11.60 to 19.13◦ Brix (Figure 2a), which was larger than the TSS range
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 6 of 18
Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 19

range
in in previous
previous studiesstudies [12]. Among
[12]. Among them,
them, the TSS the
ofTSS of Ruiyu
Ruiyu (19.13◦(19.13°
Brix), Brix),
JinhongJinhong 50 (18.70°
50 (18.70◦ Brix) Brix)
and
and Hongyang (17.47° Brix) were the highest, and that of Jintao (13.80° Brix), Hayward
Hongyang (17.47 Brix) were the highest, and that of Jintao (13.80 Brix), Hayward (13.30◦ Brix),
◦ ◦ (13.30° Brix),
andJinyan
and Jinyan(11.60
(11.60° Brix)were
◦ Brix) werethe
thelowest.
lowest.

Figure 2. Three physicochemical characteristics in 15 kiwifruit cultivars. (a) Total soluble solid (TSS);
Figure
(b) 2. Three
Titratable acidphysicochemical characteristics
(TA); (c) pH (mean ± SD; n = 3).inMean
15 kiwifruit cultivars.
values in (a) Total
each column withsoluble
unlikesolid (TSS);
letters are
(b) Titratable acid (TA); (c) pH (mean ± SD; n =
significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05). 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are
significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
Titratable acid (TA) also plays an important role in the taste of fruits. From Figure 2b, the TA
Titratablewas
of 15 cultivars acidbetween
(TA) also playsand
0.85% an important
1.35% (based roleonincitric
the taste of Compared
acid). fruits. Fromwith Figure 2b,cultivars,
other the TA of
15 cultivars was between 0.85% and 1.35% (based on citric acid). Compared
Puyu (1.35%), Sungold (1.35%), and Guichang (1.37%) had higher TA values. In addition, the pH with other cultivars,
of all
Puyu (1.35%), Sungold (1.35%), and Guichang (1.37%) had higher TA values.
15 kiwifruit cultivars was between 3.16 and 4.04 (Figure 2c). The results of TA and pH were consistent In addition, the pH of
all 15
with thekiwifruit
previouscultivars
study [41], was between
showing the3.16
range andof 4.04 (Figure
TA from 1.14%2c).
to The
1.82% results
and the of range
TA and pH from
of pH were
consistent
3.06 to 3.56. with the previous study [41], showing the range of TA from 1.14% to 1.82% and the range
of pH from 3.06 to 3.56.
3.1.2. Sugar-Acid Ratio
3.1.2. Sugar-Acid Ratio
The sugar-acid ratio (TSS:TA), also known as the maturity index, which may influence fruit
The flavor,
taste and sugar-acid
is anratio (TSS:TA),
important also known
parameter for theas the maturity index,
classification which[42].
of cultivars mayHere,
influence fruit taste
we classified
and flavor,
different is ancultivars
kiwifruit important parameter
according for flesh
to their the classification
color and species of cultivars [42]. analysis.
for differential Here, weAs classified
shown
indifferent
Figure kiwifruit cultivars according
3b, the sugar–acid to their flesh
ratio of red-fleshed color and
kiwifruit wasspecies for differential
significantly higher thananalysis.
that ofAs
shown in Figure
yellow-fleshed 3b, the (p
kiwifruit < 0.05) but
sugar–acid ratio
notofsignificantly
red-fleshed different
kiwifruitfrom
was significantly higher than
that of green-fleshed that of
kiwifruit.
yellow-fleshed
However, after kiwifruit
removing(pthe < 0.05) but not
cultivar significantly
Ruiyu, which had different from that
the highest of green-fleshed
sugar-acid kiwifruit.
ratio (Figure 3a),
However,
the sugar-acidafter removing
ratio the cultivar
of red-fleshed Ruiyu,
kiwifruit was which had the
significantly highest
higher thansugar-acid ratio (Figure
that of green-fleshed 3a), the
kiwifruit
< 0.05). Inratio
(psugar-acid 2017,ofa red-fleshed kiwifruit
national protection wasassignificantly
right a new planthigher
cultivarthanwasthat of green-fleshed
obtained for Ruiyu. Thekiwifruit
new
(p < 0.05).
cultivar In 2017,
came a national
into being protection
in Shaanxi right as
Province, a newfor
China plant cultivar wasand
transformation obtained for Ruiyu.
upgrading The new
of kiwifruits.
cultivar
The came ratio
sugar-acid into being in Shaanxi
of Ruiyu Province,
also confirmed Chinaas
its status for transformationthat
a breakthrough; andis,upgrading
green-fleshed of kiwifruits.
kiwifruit
Theno
was sugar-acid ratio of Ruiyu
longer characterized by aalso confirmed ratio.
low sugar-acid its status as a breakthrough;
As shown in Figure 3c,d,that based is,on
green-fleshed
the species
kiwifruit wasthere
classification, no longer
was no characterized by a low sugar-acid
significant difference between A.ratio. As shown
deliciosa and A.in Figure 3c,d,
chinensis based on
in sugar-acid
ratio (p > 0.05).
the species classification, there was no significant difference between A. deliciosa and A. chinensis in
sugar-acid ratio (p > 0.05).
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 7 of 18
Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 19

Figure 3. (a) The distribution of sugar-acid ratio in different flesh colors of 14 cultivars, which is
Figure
not 3. (a)the
included The distribution
cultivar of sugar-acid
“Ruiyu”. ratio in different
(b) The distribution flesh colors
of sugar-acid ratio of 14 cultivars,
in different which
flesh colorsisof
not
15 cultivars. (c) The distribution of sugar-acid ratio in two species of 14 cultivars, which is not included15
included the cultivar “Ruiyu”. (b) The distribution of sugar-acid ratio in different flesh colors of
thecultivars. (c) The distribution
cultivar “Ruiyu”. of sugar-acid
(d) The distribution ratio in two
of sugar-acid ratiospecies
in two of 14 cultivars,
species which isMean
of 15 cultivars. not included
values
inthe
eachcultivar
column“Ruiyu”.
with “*” (d)
are The distribution
significantly of sugar-acid
different (p < 0.05).ratio in two species of 15 cultivars. Mean
values in each column with “*” are significantly different (p < 0.05).
3.2. AAC, TPC, TFC, TAC
3.2. AAC, TPC, TFC, TAC
Table 2 gave information about the nutritional and functional components with antioxidant
functionTable 2 gave information
for different about the
kiwifruit cultivars, nutritional
including AAC, and
TPC,functional
TFC, andcomponents with and
TAC. Vegetables antioxidant
fruits
function
are for different
the lowest-cost kiwifruit
sources of AAC,cultivars,
and AAC including AAC,factor
is a priority TPC,inTFC,
the and TAC. Vegetables
evaluation and [43].
of many fruits fruits
Inare the
this lowest-cost
study, sourcesfrom
AAC ranged of AAC, and
52.39 toAAC
248.16is amg/100
priorityg,factor
and itinwas
the evaluation
very high in of many fruits
Hongshi [43].
No.2
In this
(248.16 study,g),AAC
mg/100 Puyuranged
(233.99 from
mg/10052.39 to 248.16
g), Huayou mg/100
(187.33 g, and
mg/100 it was
g), and very Red
Oriental high(181.07
in Hongshi
mg/100No.2
g).
(248.16
The resultsmg/100
of AACg),
in Puyu (233.99
this study weremg/100
similarg), Huayou
to those (187.33
in the studymg/100 g), (2010)
of Li et al. and Oriental Redranged
[44], which (181.07
mg/100
from 58.3 g). The results
to 217.1 mg/100ofg.AAC in this study were similar to those in the study of Li et al. (2010) [44],
which ranged from 58.3 to 217.1 mg/100 g.
Table 2. AAC, TPC, TFC and TAC of 15 kiwifruit cultivars.
Table 2. AAC, TPC, TFC and TAC of 15 kiwifruit cultivars.
AAC TPC TFC TAC
Cultivar
(mg/100
AACg) (mg GAE/100
TPC g) (mg CTE/100
TFC g) (mg CGE/100
TAC g)
Cultivar
Cuixiang 145.25(mg/100
± 0.75 hg) (mg GAE/100
131.03 ± 2.84 e g) (mg ±CTE/100
20.39 3.55 de g) (mg CGE/100
- g)
Hayward
Cuixiang 92.75 ± 1.75
145.25 l
± 0.75h 78.04 ± 3.27
131.03 h
± 2.84e 10.25
20.39± ±2.13 f
3.55de - -
Xuxiang 105.42 ± 0.63 k 85.49 ± 2.55 g 12.56 ± 3.51 ef -
Hayward 92.75 ± 1.75l 78.04 ± 3.27h 10.25 ± 2.13f -
Guichang 165.27 ± 3.25 e 133.94 ± 3.52 e 5.69 ± 2.68 f -
Xuxiang
Ruiyu 105.42 ± 0.63k
124.49 ± 0.89 j 85.49
110.57 ± 2.55g
± 3.46 f 12.56 ± 3.51ef
12.00 ± 1.47 ef - -
Guichang
Jinhong No.1 165.27
52.39 ± 3.25e
± 1.88 n 133.94
80.09 ± 3.52e
± 1.91 h 22.195.69 ± 2.68f
± 3.29 d - c
0.52 ± 0.07
Hongshi Ruiyu
No.2 124.49
248.16 ± 0.89j
± 2.67 a 110.57
216.37 ± 3.46f
± 0.73 a 12.00
50.89 ± 1.47ef
± 3.02 a - a
3.65 ± 0.27
Hongyang
Jinhong No.1 154.57 ± 1.72
52.39 g
± 1.88n 129.75 ± 1.59
80.09 e
± 1.91h 40.69
22.19± 3.01 b
± 3.29d 1.02 ± 0.02
0.52 b
± 0.07c
Jinhong 50 161.04 ± 1.70 f 142.89 ± 3.78 c 31.64 ± 3.69 c 0.72 ± 0.00 c
Hongshi No.2 248.16 ± 2.67a 216.37 ± 0.73a 50.89 ± 3.02a 3.65 ± 0.27a
Oriental Red 181.07 ± 2.10 d 144.53 ± 0.77 c 23.72 ± 5.71 d 1.58 ± 0.13 b
Hongyang
Huayou 154.57 ± 1.72g
187.33 ± 1.88 c 129.75
146.46 ± 1.59e
± 2.43 c 40.69 ± 3.01b
23.58 ± 1.44 d 1.02- ± 0.02b
Sungold 50
Jinhong 161.04 ± 1.70f
137.42 ± 1.38 i 142.89 ± 3.78c
113.09 ± 3.22 f 31.64 ± 3.69c
16.33 ± 3.06 e 0.72- ± 0.00c
Oriental Red 181.07 ± 2.10d 144.53 ± 0.77c 23.72 ± 5.71d 1.58 ± 0.13b
Huayou 187.33 ± 1.88c 146.46 ± 2.43c 23.58 ± 1.44d -
Sungold 137.42 ± 1.38i 113.09 ± 3.22f 16.33 ± 3.06e -
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 8 of 18

Table 2. Cont.

AAC TPC TFC TAC

Cultivar
(mg/100 g) (mg GAE/100 g) (mg CTE/100 g) (mg CGE/100 g)
Jinyan 73.83 ± 1.28 m 74.06 ± 0.97 h 15.17 ± 1.12 ef -
Jintao 151.74 ± 1.61 g 141.7 ± 2.19 d 14.69 ± 4.52 ef -
Puyu
Foods 233.99
2020, 9, x FOR PEER ± 1.61 b
REVIEW 158.66 ± 2.35 b 19.61 ± 3.26 d - 8 of 19

The data are given as the mean ± SD (n = 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are significantly
Jinyan
different among cultivars (p 73.83 ± 1.28m
< 0.05). 74.06 ± 0.97h 15.17 ± 1.12ef -
Jintao 151.74 ± 1.61g 141.7 ± 2.19d 14.69 ± 4.52ef -
Puyu 233.99 ± 1.61b 158.66 ± 2.35b 19.61 ± 3.26d -
Phenols are a class of compounds influencing a variety of plant properties, such as color, bitterness,
The data are given as the mean ± SD (n = 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are
and antioxidant activity [15]. As shown in Table 2, TPC, TFC, and TAC were also significantly different
significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
among the different cultivars. In this study, the TPC of different kiwifruit cultivars ranged from 74.06 to
Phenols are
216.37 mg GAE/100 a classwas
g, which of compounds
quite wider influencing a variety
than the result of plant
in previous properties,
studies. such as color,
As Cozzolino et al. [7]
bitterness, and antioxidant activity [15]. As shown in Table 2, TPC, TFC, and TAC were also
reported, the TPC of five cultivars ranged from 83.1 to 169.0 mg GAE/100 g. For the cultivar “Jintao”
significantly different among the different cultivars. In this study, the TPC of different kiwifruit
which was the same cultivar as samples in both studies, the TPC was about 124 mg GAE/100 g
cultivars ranged from 74.06 to 216.37 mg GAE/100 g, which was quite wider than the result in
in the previous
study ofstudies.
Cozzolino et al., and
As Cozzolino et al.was about 141.7
[7] reported, the TPCmgofGAE/100 g inranged
five cultivars this study.
from 83.1 Interestingly,
to 169.0
the cultivars with the four highest levels of TPC showed the same trend for AAC.
mg GAE/100 g. For the cultivar “Jintao” which was the same cultivar as samples in both studies, In fact, in subsequent
the
antioxidant
TPC was correlation
about 124analysis
mg GAE/100(Figureg in 4),
theTPCstudywas significantly
of Cozzolino et al.,correlated
and was aboutwith141.7
the content
mg GAE/100 of AAC
(R2 = g0.96).
in thisThese conclusions the
study. Interestingly, were consistent
cultivars with
with the fourour previous
highest research
levels of TPC showed[21].the Flavonoids
same trend are
usuallyforconsidered
AAC. In fact, to bein effective
subsequent antioxidant[14].
antioxidants correlation
In thisanalysis
study, TFC (Figure 4), TPC
ranged from was significantly
5.69 to 50.89 CTE
correlated with the content of AAC (R 2 = 0.96). These conclusions were consistent with our previous
mg/100 g, and for Hongshi No.2 (50.89 CTE mg/100 g), Hongyang (40.69 CTE mg/100 g), and Jinhong
research
50 (31.64 CTE [21].
mg/100Flavonoids
g), the are
TFC usually
content considered to be effective
was significantly antioxidants
higher than that [14].ofInthe
thisother
study,cultivars
TFC
ranged from 5.69 to 50.89 CTE mg/100 g, and for Hongshi No.2 (50.89 CTE mg/100 g), Hongyang
(p < 0.05). Compared with the result in the study of Du et al. [28], where the range of TPC was from
(40.69 CTE mg/100 g), and Jinhong 50 (31.64 CTE mg/100 g), the TFC content was significantly higher
6.64 to than
74.24that
mg/100 g, the result of TFC in this study was lower due to less species probably. We found
of the other cultivars (p < 0.05). Compared with the result in the study of Du et al. [28],
that the TAC in green-fleshed
where the range of TPC was and yellow-fleshed
from kiwifruit
6.64 to 74.24 mg/100 was
g, the almost
result of TFCundetectable,
in this study and was the
lowererror
for measurement was relatively
due to less species probably.large,
We foundso those values
that the TACwere not shown and
in green-fleshed in the table. This finding
yellow-fleshed kiwifruitwas
consistent with aundetectable,
was almost recent study,and in the
whicherroralmost no anthocyanin
for measurement was detected
was relatively large, sointhose
green-fleshed
values wereand
yellow-fleshed
not shown kiwifruit [10]. In
in the table. Thisthis study,was
finding Hongshi No.2with
consistent had the highest
a recent AAC,
study, in TPC,
whichTFC, almostandnoTAC
anthocyanin was detected in green-fleshed and yellow-fleshed kiwifruit
among the 15 kiwifruit cultivars. Obviously, Hongshi No.2 has an outstanding content of the four [10]. In this study, Hongshi
No.2 had the highest
antioxidant-related AAC, TPC,
compounds, andTFC, and TAC among
therefore, Hongshi theNo.2
15 kiwifruit
is an cultivars.
excellentObviously,
cultivar with Hongshistrong
No.2 has an outstanding content of the four antioxidant-related compounds, and therefore, Hongshi
antioxidant capacity.
No.2 is an excellent cultivar with strong antioxidant capacity.

Figure 4. Correlation heat map of the antioxidant analysis.

Figure 4. Correlation heat map of the antioxidant analysis.
According to the difference analysis of AAC, TPC and TFC based on flesh color classification,
According to the difference analysis of AAC, TPC and TFC based on flesh color classification, as
as shown in Figure 5a, only the difference in TFC was statistically significant (p < 0.05), but there were
shown in Figure 5a, only the difference in TFC was statistically significant (p < 0.05), but there were
no significant differences in AAC and TPC (p > 0.05). Overall, the TFC in red-fleshed kiwifruit was
significantly higher than in green-fleshed and yellow-fleshed kiwifruit. In addition, there was no
significant difference based on species classification (p > 0.05) (Figure 5b).
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 9 of 18

no significant differences in AAC and TPC (p > 0.05). Overall, the TFC in red-fleshed kiwifruit was
significantly higher than in green-fleshed and yellow-fleshed kiwifruit. In addition, there was no
Foods 2020, 9,difference
significant x FOR PEERbased on species classification (p > 0.05) (Figure 5b).
REVIEW 9 of 19

Figure 5. The distribution of AAC, TPC and TFC (a) in different flesh colors and (b) in two species.
Figure 5. The distribution of AAC, TPC and TFC (a) in different flesh colors and (b) in two species.
The colors of the dots in (a) are consistent with flesh color.
The colors of the dots in (a) are consistent with flesh color.
3.3. Antioxidant Activities
3.3. Antioxidant Activities
The antioxidant capacity of kiwifruit in vitro was determined by examining its ability to eliminate
The antioxidant
free radicals [8]. According capacity of kiwifruit
to relevant in total
reports, the vitroantioxidant
was determined
capacityby examining
of kiwifruit wasits ability
higher thanto
eliminate free radicals [8]. According to relevant reports, the total antioxidant capacity
that of apples, grapefruits, and pears, but lower than that of raspberries, strawberries, and oranges [45]. of kiwifruit
Inwas
this higher
study, we thanusedthat
theof apples,
oxalic acid grapefruits, and pears,
extract of kiwifruit, whichbutwaslower
used tothan that of
measure raspberries,
AAC, and the
strawberries, and oranges [45]. In this study, we used the oxalic acid extract
phenolic alcohol extract, which was used to measure TPC, TFC, and TAC, in order to perform the of kiwifruit, which was
used to measure AAC, and the phenolic alcohol extract, which was used to measure
DPPH and FRAP assays, respectively. A comparison of these two extracts was not available in previous TPC, TFC, and
TAC, insoorder
studies, we aimedto perform
to analyzethe the
DPPH and FRAP
antioxidative assays,ofrespectively.
capacity A comparison
the polyphenols of these two
and AAC, respectively.
extracts was not available in previous studies, so we aimed to analyze
As shown in Table 3, in the DPPH assay, the DPPH value of the AAC extract (DPPH(AAC)) the antioxidative capacity of
the between
was polyphenols 1.29 and
µmolAAC, respectively.
Trolox/g and 5.02 µmol Trolox/g, and the DPPH value of the phenol extract
As shown in Table
(DPPH(TPC)) was between 3.69 µmol 3, in the DPPH assay, and
Trolox/g the DPPH valueTrolox/g.
11.96 µmol of the AAC extract
In the FRAP (DPPH(AAC))
assay, the FRAPwas
between 1.29 μmol Trolox/g and 5.02 μmol Trolox/g, and the DPPH
value of the AAC extract (FRAP(AAC)) was between 5.73 µmol Trolox/g and 25.92 µmol Trolox/g, value of the phenol extract
(DPPH(TPC))
and that of thewas between
phenol 3.69 μmol
extract Trolox/g and
(FRAP(TPC)) was 11.96 μmol6.22
between Trolox/g.
µmolInTrolox/g
the FRAP assay,
and 17.69theµmol
FRAP
value of the AAC extract (FRAP(AAC)) was between 5.73 μmol Trolox/g
Trolox/g. Overall, among the 15 tested cultivars, Cuixiang showed the best antioxidant capacity and 25.92 μmol Trolox/g,
and that
among theofgreen-fleshed
the phenol extract (FRAP(TPC))
kiwifruit, was between
and Hongshi No.2 had 6.22
theμmol
bestTrolox/g andcapacity
antioxidant 17.69 μmol Trolox/g.
among the
Overall, among
red-fleshed kiwifruit. the 15 tested cultivars, Cuixiang showed the best antioxidant capacity among the
green-fleshed kiwifruit, and Hongshi No.2 had the best antioxidant capacity among the red-fleshed
kiwifruit.Table 3. Antioxidant activities of 15 kiwifruit cultivars measured by DPPH and FRAP assays.

DPPH(AAC) DPPH(TPC) FRAP(AAC) FRAP(TPC)

Cultivar
Table 3. Antioxidant activities of 15 kiwifruit cultivars measured by DPPH and FRAP assays.
(µmol/g) (µmol/g) (µmol/g) (µmol/g)
Cuixiang 3.56DPPH(AAC)
± 0.3 b 7.88 DPPH(TPC)
± 0.37 c FRAP(AAC)
16.85 ± 0.6 b FRAP(TPC)
9.14 ± 0.46 f
Cultivar
Hayward 2.01 ± (µmol/g)
0.09 d 4.87 ±(µmol/g)
0.62 f ± 0.29 f
5.73(µmol/g) 7.08 ± 0.91 h
(µmol/g)
Xuxiang 1.61 ± 0.29 de 5.37 ± 0.44 ef 8.12 ± 0.59 ef 7.62 ± 0.27 g
Cuixiang 3.56 ± 0.3b 7.88 ± 0.37c 16.85 ± 0.6b 9.14 ± 0.46f
Guichang 1.29 ± 0.34 e 5.64 ± 0.16 e 11.36 ± 1.49 d 9.7 ± 0.67 ef
Hayward
Ruiyu 2.01 ± 0.09d
1.7 ± 0.13 de 4.11 ±4.87
0.24±g0.62f 5.73
13.99 ± 0.29f
± 1.63 c 7.08
7.8 ±±0.16
0.91h
gh
Jinhong Xuxiang
No.1 1.61 ±
1.69 ± 0.06 de 0.29de 3.69 ± 0.56± g0.44ef
5.37 9.96 ± 1.330.59ef
8.12 ± de 7.62
8.36 ± 0.27g
± 0.12 g
Hongshi Guichang
No.2 1.29
5.02 ± 1.1 ±a 0.34e 11.96 5.64
± 0.26± a0.16e 11.36
8.36 ± 1.49d
± 1.1 ef 9.7 ± ±0.67ef
17.69 0.36 a
HongyangRuiyu 2.34 ±1.7
0.29± cd
0.13de 7.69 ± 0.17±c0.24g
4.11 7.02 ± 0.38
13.99 f
± 1.63c 9.81±±0.16gh
7.8 0.22 ef
Jinhong 50 3.51 ± 0.14 b 8.56 ± 0.48 b 11.05 ± 1.93 de 15.04 ± 0.24 c
Jinhong No.1 1.69 ± 0.06de 3.69 ± 0.56g 9.96 ± 1.33de 8.36 ± 0.12g
Oriental Red 3.87 ± 0.03 b 9.29 ± 0.26 b 9.7 ± 0.61 de 17.41 ± 0.25 a
Huayou No.2
Hongshi 4.05 ±5.02
0.08 ±b 1.1a 9.14 ± 0.12 ±b 0.26a
11.96 10.548.36 ± 1.1ef
± 0.27 de 17.69
16.38 ± ± 0.09
0.36ab
Hongyang
Sungold 2.65 ± 0.26± c0.29cd
2.34 6.99 ±7.69
0.17±d0.17c 7.02 ±
25.92 ± 1.810.38f
a 9.81 ± 0.22ef
11.71 ± 0.1 d
Jinhong 50
Jinyan 1.72 ±3.51
0.16 ±de0.14b 4.31 ±8.56
0.13±fg0.48b 11.05
9.15 ± 1.93de
± 1.83 e 15.04
6.22 ±± 0.27
0.24c
i
Jintao
Oriental Red 1.32 ±3.87
0.32±e0.03b 5.86 ±9.29
0.36±e0.26b ± 1.92
12.59.7 cd
± 0.61de 10.05 ±
17.41 0.71 e
± 0.25a
Puyu 3.64 ± 0.16 b 8.62 ± 0.22 b 6.44 ± 0.19 f 17.66 ± 0.69 a
Huayou 4.05 ± 0.08b 9.14 ± 0.12b 10.54 ± 0.27de 16.38 ± 0.09b
The data
Sungold 2.65±±SD
are given as the mean (n = 3).
0.26c Mean6.99
values in each column
± 0.17d with±unlike
25.92 1.81aletters are
11.71significantly
± 0.1d
different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
Jinyan 1.72 ± 0.16de 4.31 ± 0.13fg 9.15 ± 1.83e 6.22 ± 0.27i
Jintao 1.32 ± 0.32e 5.86 ± 0.36e 12.5 ± 1.92cd 10.05 ± 0.71e
Puyu 3.64 ± 0.16b 8.62 ± 0.22b 6.44 ± 0.19f 17.66 ± 0.69a
The data are given as the mean ± SD (n = 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are
significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 10 of 18
Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 19

Antioxidant correlation analysis (Figure 4) was used to explore the relationship between
Antioxidant correlation analysis (Figure 4) was used to explore the relationship between different
different antioxidant variables measured in the kiwifruit extracts. AAC and TPC are the main factors
antioxidant variables measured in the kiwifruit extracts. AAC and TPC are the main factors for
for the antioxidant activity of kiwifruit, and the variables included AAC, TPC, TFC, DPPH (AAC),
the antioxidant activity of kiwifruit, and the variables included AAC, TPC, TFC, DPPH (AAC),
DPPH (TPC), FRAP (AAC), FRAP (TPC), and the L, a, b, and Δ E values of polyphenol extraction. As
DPPH (TPC), FRAP (AAC), FRAP (TPC), and the L, a, b, and ∆ E values of polyphenol extraction.
mentioned above in Section 3.2, the levels of TPC and AAC in kiwifruit were significantly correlated
As mentioned above in Section 3.2, the levels of TPC and AAC in kiwifruit were significantly correlated
(R2 = 0.96), which was similar to the findings of a previous study [21]. The correlation coefficient
(R2 = 0.96), which was similar to the findings of a previous study [21]. The correlation coefficient
between DPPH (AAC) and AAC was 0.62, between DPPH (TPC) and TPC it was 0.89, and between
between DPPH (AAC) and AAC was 0.62, between DPPH (TPC) and TPC it was 0.89, and between
DPPH (TPC) and TFC it was 0.68. There was almost no correlation between FRAP (AAC) and AAC,
DPPH (TPC) and TFC it was 0.68. There was almost no correlation between FRAP (AAC) and AAC,
but the correlation coefficient between FRAP (TPC) and TPC was as high as 0.94, and between FRAP
but the correlation coefficient between FRAP (TPC) and TPC was as high as 0.94, and between FRAP
(TPC) and TFC it was 0.64. These data mean that in the DPPH assay, AAC, TPC and TFC all
(TPC) and TFC it was 0.64. These data mean that in the DPPH assay, AAC, TPC and TFC all contributed
contributed to the antioxidant performance of kiwifruit, while the TPC’s contribution was greater. In
to the antioxidant performance of kiwifruit, while the TPC’s contribution was greater. In the FRAP
the FRAP essay, AAC contributed little to the antioxidant capacity, TFC contributed relatively less,
essay, AAC contributed little to the antioxidant capacity, TFC contributed relatively less, while TPC
while TPC played a dominant role. Additionally, the correlation coefficient between the chroma
played a dominant role. Additionally, the correlation coefficient between the chroma value “a” for the
value “a” for the polyphenol extraction of kiwifruits and DPPH (TPC) was 0.70, and the correlation
polyphenol extraction of kiwifruits and DPPH (TPC) was 0.70, and the correlation coefficient between
coefficient between the chroma value “a” and FRAP (TPC) was 0.77. The larger the value of “a”, the
the chroma value “a” and FRAP (TPC) was 0.77. The larger the value of “a”, the redder the extract
redder the extract was, which could indirectly reflect the correlation between red pigment in red-
was, which could indirectly reflect the correlation between red pigment in red-fleshed kiwifruit and its
fleshed kiwifruit and its antioxidant capacity.
antioxidant capacity.
3.4.Total
3.4. Total Protein
Protein (TP)
(TP) Content
Content and
and Total
Total Free
Free Amino
Amino Acids
Acids (TAA)
(TAA) Content
Content
Protein
Protein is aisminor
a minor butcomponent
but vital vital component of kiwifruit,
of kiwifruit, and ofitscrude
and its content content of iscrude
protein protein is
approximately
approximately 1% of its fresh weight [21,46]. In this study, the protein content of different
1% of its fresh weight [21,46]. In this study, the protein content of different cultivars of kiwifruit cultivars
was
of kiwifruit
between 0.73%wasandbetween 0.73%6a),
1.45% (Figure andwith
1.45%
the(Figure
highest6a), with and
in Puyu the highest
the lowest in in
Puyu and the
Sungold. Thelowest
rangein
Sungold.
was Thewith
consistent range was consistent
nutritional tables with
which nutritional tables
was typically putwhich was typically
the content of proteinputinthe contentatof
kiwifruit
protein in kiwifruit at about 1 g/100 g [46]. There were no significant differences
about 1 g/100 g [46]. There were no significant differences between the groups based on species between the groups
or
based on species or flesh color analysis
flesh color analysis (Figure 6a,b) (p > 0.05). (Figure 6a,b) (p > 0.05).

Figure 6. The distribution of TP content (a) in different flesh colors and (b) in the two species.
Figure
The 6. The distribution
distribution of TP
of TAA content (c)content (a) in
in different different
flesh colors flesh colors
and (d) and
in the (b)species.
two in the two species. The
distribution of TAA content (c) in different flesh colors and (d) in the two species.
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 11 of 18

In this
Foods 2020, study, the REVIEW
9, x FOR PEER TAA content of different cultivars of kiwifruit was between 11 693.37
of 19 and
1449.04 mg/100 g (Figure 6c,d), among which the TAA content of Jintao was the highest and that of
HaywardInwas this study, the TAA
the lowest. Thecontent
TAAofcontent
differentwas
cultivars of kiwifruit was
not significantly betweenbetween
different 693.37 and 1449.04 flesh
different
mg/100 g (Figure 6c,d), among which the TAA content of Jintao was the highest
colors and different species (p > 0.05) (Figure 6c,d), but there were great differences between different and that of Hayward
was the lowest. The TAA content was not significantly different between different flesh colors and
cultivars or even different species in free amino acid composition (Table 4). Overall, the Glu content
different species (p > 0.05) (Figure 6c,d), but there were great differences between different cultivars
in all cultivars was at a high level between 109.82 and 237.24 mg/100 g. For most cultivars except
or even different species in free amino acid composition (Table 4). Overall, the Glu content in all
Xuxiang andwas
cultivars Cuixiang,
at a highArg levelcontent
betweenshowed
109.82 andan 237.24
excellent performance,
mg/100 g. For most especially in Jintao
cultivars except at up to
Xuxiang
318.57
andmg/100
Cuixiang, g. On Arg thecontent
other hand,
showed theanMet and Pro
excellent content were
performance, at a lowinlevel,
especially Jintaoless than
at up to10 mg/100 g.
318.57
In addition,
mg/100 g. theOncontents
the otherofhand,
the other
the Met amino acids
and Pro werewere
content relatively moderate,
at a low level, lessaround
than 10 tens
mg/100 of mg/100
g. In g.
As shown
addition, theincontents
Figure of 7a,the
theother
cluster
aminoheatmap divided
acids were the 15
relatively kiwifruit
moderate, cultivars
around tens into five categories.
of mg/100 g.
As shown contained
The first category in Figure 7a,Jintao
the cluster
and heatmap
Puyu (both divided the 15 kiwifruit
A. chinensis), cultivars
and with theinto five categories.
exception of Pro, their
The first category contained Jintao and Puyu (both A. chinensis),
contents of other amino acids were above average. The second category contained Hongyang, and with the exception of Pro, their
Hongshi
No.2contents
and Sungold of other (allamino acids wereand
A. chinensis), above
theiraverage.
contents Theofsecond
Met, Arg,category
and contained
His were Hongyang,
above average.
Hongshi No.2 and Sungold (all A. chinensis), and their contents of Met, Arg, and His were above
The third category contained Jinhong No. 1, Jinhong 50, Guichang, Huayou, and Ruiyu, which had
average. The third category contained Jinhong No. 1, Jinhong 50, Guichang, Huayou, and Ruiyu,
higher than average amino acid contents of Ile and Gly. The remaining kiwifruit cultivars were in
which had higher than average amino acid contents of Ile and Gly. The remaining kiwifruit cultivars
the fourth
were inand the fifth
fourth categories (Hayward),
and fifth categories with lowwith
(Hayward), totallowamino
total acid
amino content, and most
acid content, of their
and most of free
amino acids were also at low levels. Figure 7b,c showed the results of the
their free amino acids were also at low levels. Figure 7b,c showed the results of the PCA of the aminoPCA of the amino acids in
different cultivars of kiwifruit and it revealed that the different groups could
acids in different cultivars of kiwifruit and it revealed that the different groups could not be well not be well distinguished
based on flesh color.
distinguished based Meanwhile,
on flesh color.based on species,
Meanwhile, basedthe on two tended
species, to tended
the two be distinguished, from which
to be distinguished,
frombe
it could which it could
inferred thatbe species
inferred is
that species
still is still factor
the main the main factor affecting
affecting free aminofree amino acid content.
acid content. Overall,
kiwifruit is a source of almost all nonessential and essential amino acids, which is a manifestationa of its
Overall, kiwifruit is a source of almost all nonessential and essential amino acids, which is
manifestation
nutritional balance. of its nutritional balance.

Figure 7. Preliminary analysis of amino acid data. (a) Cluster heat map of amino acids in 15 kiwifruit
Figure 7. Preliminary analysis of amino acid data. (a) Cluster heat map of amino acids in 15 kiwifruit
cultivars. (b) (b)
cultivars. PCA score
PCA plot
score ofofamino
plot aminoacids
acids in differentflesh
in different fleshcolors.
colors.
(c)(c)
PCAPCA score
score plotplot of amino
of amino acids acids
in two species.
in two species.
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 12 of 18

Table 4. Sixteen kinds of amino acids (mg/100 g) in 15 kiwifruit cultivars.

Cultivar Asp Thr Ser Glu Gly Ala Val Met Ile Leu Tyr Phe Lys His Arg Pro
57.57 ± 62.64 ± 46.15 ± 132.85 ± 37.32 ± 48.06 ± 41.31 ± 4.38 ± 34.81 ± 46.66 ± 20.39 ± 28.24 ± 58.62 ± 17.41 ± 43.39 ± 13.6 ±
Cuixiang
5.41 g 5.63 d 0.7 fg 2.73 g 0.07 e 0.87 g 0.36 ef 0.66 b 0.87 ef 1.04 e 1.12 ef 1.24 e 0.71 f 1.99 e 2.23 n 4.99 b
94.67 ± 57.65 ± 39.25 ± 155.47 ± 22.41 ± 49.28 ± 24.55 ± 1.21 ± 19.31 ± 27.06 ± 13.14 ± 17.86 ± 34.36 ± 14.99 ± 117.37 ± 7.91 ±
Hayward
2.94 cd 1.53 d 1.16 h 8.97 e 1.1 g 1.5 g 0.98 h 0.13 c 0.29 h 0.12 g 1.28 f 1.02 f 0.39 g 0.21 e 1.85 j 0.61 c
74.37 ± 65.32 ± 43.72 ± 128.53 ± 46.44 ± 53.49 ± 42.41 ± 3.54 ± 39.98 ± 51.37 ± 30.41 ± 34.9 ± 60.12 ± 16.83 ± 55.74 ± 2 9.24 ±
Xuxiang
3.53 ef 3.32 d 0.7 g 1.04 g 0.17 d 0.04 fg 0.16 ef 0.66 b 0.17 d 0.99 d 0.72 d 1.75 d 3.88 ef 3.5 de m 0.36 c
79.07 ± 82.48 ± 53.27 ± 157.81 ± 46.33 ± 66.63 ± 43.55 ± 5.73 ± 40.75 ± 48.59 ± 29.11 ± 31.54 ± 61.22 ± 19.64 ± 111.49 ± 6.4 ±
Guichang
10.76 e 6.42 c 0.56 e 3.32 de 2.12 d 2.8 de 0.72 e 0.73 ab 0.58 d 0.41 d 2.88 d 3.14 de 4.26 ef 3.36 de 3.86 k 1.42 c
90.01 ± 82.1 ± 59.05 ± 146.36 ± 55.53 ± 70.14 ± 52.91 ± 4.85 ± 49.65 ± 60.6 ± 35.33 ± 39.75 ± 77.81 ± 21.63 ± 90.97 ± 9.42 ±
Ruiyu
1.65 d 0.63 c 0.37 d 2.47 f 0.66 b 0.67 d 0.21 bc 0.26 b 0.29 b 0.23 c 1.28 c 0.88 c 1.62 c 1.1 de 2.08 l 0.31 c
86.02 ± 104.06 ± 70.91 ± 171.28 ± 54.12 ± 81.42 ± 54.78 ± 6.15 ± 47.6 ± 63.8 ± 28.09 ± 30.25 ± 75.93 ± 82.69 ± 152.97 ± 13.74 ±
Jinhong NO.1
0.94 de 18 ab 2.68 b 2.52 c 3.43 b 4.33 c 2.43 b 0.92 ab 2.67 bc 2.81 b 3.68 d 1.42 e 2.58 c 5.56 a 2.01 f 4.92 b
68.05 ± 89.85 ± 0 62.53 ± 161.9 ± 45.44 ± 65.21 ± 50.17 ± 5.97 ± 41.86 ± 63.67 ± 29.9 ± 43.62 ± 84.61 ± 52.87 ± 252.92 ± 8.06 ±
Hongshi NO.2
0.47 f bc 1.58 c 4.55 d 2.66 d 4.57 e 3.47 c 0.92 ab 2.26 d 2.96 b 2.56 d 3.14 bc 4.33 b 2.46 b 2.7 d 3.92 c
62.64 ± 75.37 ± 47 ± 237.24 ± 32.29 ± 55.74 ± 37.76 ± 5.87 ± 29.64 ± 46.21 ± 16.87 ± 29.79 ± 60.17 ± 52.72 ± 260.37 ± 9.06 ±
Hongyang
0.47 fg 0.47 c 0.79 f 3.58 a 0.46 f 1.1 f 1.76 f 2.24 ab 3.65 f 2.96 e 1.28 f 2.7 e 1.1 ef 9.67 b 1.77 c 2.34 c
97.99 ± 59.66 ± 55.24 ± 165.81 ± 50.39 ± 79.27 ± 47.68 ± 5.73 ± 41.98 ± 59.2 ± 28.77 ± 40.78 ± 70.08 ± 22.41 ± 184.54 ± 41.8 ±
Jinhong 50
3.41 c 3.11 d 1.3 e 2.15 cd 0.3 c 2.48 c 0.26 d 0.86 ab 0.35 d 0.58 c 1.28 d 0.58 c 2.33 d 0.69 de 0.15 e 1.83 a
97.25 ± 64.17 ± 0 47.98 ± 128.53 ± 37.5 ± 65.07 ± 39.89 ± 4.57 ± 32.23 ± 49.45 ± 20.89 ± 33.25 ± 63.96 ± 24.06 ± 147.74 ± 10.32 ±
Oriental Red
4.71 cd d 4.51 f 1.14 g 1.93 e 5.71 e 3.31 f 0.13 b 2.32 f 3.59 d 1.68 e 1.9 de 3.75 e 1.78 d 1.32 g 0.76 bc
88.68 ± 74.92 ± 57.08 ± 148.85 ± 55.15 ± 68.94 ± 49.66 ± 5.27 ± 46 ± 61.3 ± 31.43 ± 40.58 ± 77.58 ± 21.92 ± 139.63 ± 10.25 ±
Huayou
0.24 d 4.58 c 2.88 de 2.67 f 2.45 b 1.65 de 2.23 cd 0.59 ab 2.55 c 4.12 c 3.12 d 3.65 c 6.2 c 1.23 de 3.47 h 1.27 bc
58.9 ± 56.31 ± 40.5 ± 149.4 ± 30.04 ± 61.98 ± 32.53 ± 4.62 ± 27.63 ± 37.31 ± 21.29 ± 27 ± 26.18 ± 16.98 ± 219.55 ± 10.86 ±
Sungold
5.88 g 0.37 d 1.35 h 1.82 f 0.73 f 0.24 e 0.05 g 0.07 b 0.81 g 1.39 f 2.72 e 2.56 e 2.01 h 0.14 e 0.85 d 1.22 bc
58.11 ± 57.54 ± 38.56 ± 109.82 ± 38.35 ± 49.81 ± 37.36 ± 3.82 ± 36.49 ± 44.65 ± 29.05 ± 30.3 ± 56.24 ± 19.06 ± 133.86 ± 5.9 ±
Jinyan
4.06 g 1.68 d 1.39 h 3.06 f 1.19 e 0.43 g 0.98 f 0.53 b 0.7 e 0.99 e 1.04 d 0.51 e 1.74 f 4.6 de 1i 1.73 c
125.45 ± 111.58 ± 77.97 ± 178.27 ± 68.46 ± 111.6 ± 65.72 ± 6.43 ± 60.48 ± 77.33 ± 45.53 ± 54.31 ± 103.89 ± 34.44 ± 318.57 ± 9.03 ±
Jintao
1.88 a 1.68 a 0.74 a 2.14 b 1.23 a 0a 0.93 a 0.26 a 1.1 a 2.2 a 0.16 b 2.63 a 3.49 a 3.7 c 2.77 a 0.05 c
118.21 ± 98.26 ± 65.39 ± 175.14 ± 54.66 ± 98.68 ± 51.19 ± 6.62 ± 45.72 ± 66.79 ± 60.87 ± 45.28 ± 87.81 ± 34.44 ± 268.21 ± 8.16 ±
Puyu
6a 0.32 b 0.7 c 0.52 bc 0.63 b 0.47 b 0.16 c 0.53 a 1.8 c 2.03 b 4.53 a 2.7 b 2.84 b 0.82 c 1b 0.76 c
The data are given as the mean ± SD (n = 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
 Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 19
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 13 of 18

3.5. Mineral
3.5. Mineral Elements
Elements
Table55lists
Table liststhe
the contents
contents of of eight
eight mineral
mineral elements,
elements, including
including Ca,K,
Ca, Fe, Fe,
Mg,K, Na,
Mg,P,Na,
Zn,P, andZn, and
Cu, Cu,
in the
in the different cultivars of kiwifruit. Overall, kiwifruit contained a large amount
different cultivars of kiwifruit. Overall, kiwifruit contained a large amount of K (212.5–516.67 mg/100 g) of K (212.5–516.67
mg/100
and g) and anlow
an extremely extremely
contentlow content
of Na of Na (4.68–11.22
(4.68–11.22 mg/100 g). High mg/100 g). High
sodium intakesodium intake
has been has been
associated
associated with high blood pressure, kidney dysfunction, asthma, stomach
with high blood pressure, kidney dysfunction, asthma, stomach cancer and osteoporosis. On the cancer and osteoporosis.
On the contrary,
contrary, consumption consumption of potassium
of potassium from fruits from
andfruits and vegetables
vegetables is benefit istobenefit to lower
lower blood blood
pressure
pressure and can counteract the negative effects of sodium on blood pressure.
and can counteract the negative effects of sodium on blood pressure. [47] It is not hard to see that [47] It is not hard to
see that kiwifruit is a typical kind of fruit with high potassium and low sodium,
kiwifruit is a typical kind of fruit with high potassium and low sodium, which can reduce the risk of which can reduce
thediseases
the risk of the diseasesabove.
mentioned mentioned above. kiwifruit
In addition, In addition, kiwifruit is
is a favorable a favorable
source source of Mg
of Mg (29.55–60.4 (29.55–
mg/100 g),
60.4 mg/100 g), Ca (8.74–31.27 mg/100 g), P (10.5–38.29 mg/100 g) and
Ca (8.74–31.27 mg/100 g), P (10.5–38.29 mg/100 g) and Fe (2.71–13.75 mg/100 g). According to the Fe (2.71–13.75 mg/100 g).
According to the data from a previous study, compared with citrus fruits
data from a previous study, compared with citrus fruits such as orange, pomelo, mandarin, lemon, such as orange, pomelo,
mandarin,
and lemon,
grapefruit, and grapefruit,
kiwifruit has two tokiwifruit
five timeshas as
two to five
much times as much
potassium potassium
and nearly threeandtimesnearly three
as much
times as much magnesium as these
magnesium as these citrus fruits [21,48]. citrus fruits [21,48].
Similarly, cluster
Similarly, cluster analysis
analysis of
of the
the above
above eight
eight mineral
mineral elements
elements in in the
the 1515 kiwifruit
kiwifruit cultivars
cultivars
(Figure 8a) found the kiwifruits could be divided into three categories. The first
(Figure 8a) found the kiwifruits could be divided into three categories. The first one contained Puyu, one contained Puyu,
Jinhong No.
Jinhong No. 1, 1, Hongshi
Hongshi No.2,No.2, Ruiyu,
Ruiyu, and
and Huayou,
Huayou, whichwhich were
were abundant
abundant in in KK and
and P. P. The
The second
second
categorywas
category wasJinhong
Jinhong50, 50,Sungold,
Sungold,Hayward,
Hayward,and andHongshi
HongshiNo.2. No.2.The
Theremaining
remainingcultivars
cultivarswerewerein inthe
the
third category. Principal component analysis based on flesh color and species
third category. Principal component analysis based on flesh color and species showed no significant showed no significant
difference(Figure
difference (Figure8b,c),
8b,c),which
whichmay
maybe bebecause
becausesome someof ofthe
thefactors
factorsaffecting
affectingmineral
mineralelement
elementcontents
contents
are climatic conditions and soil acidity and alkalinity, regardless of
are climatic conditions and soil acidity and alkalinity, regardless of species [21,49]. species [21,49].

.
Figure 8. Preliminary analysis of trace element data. (a) Cluster heat map of trace elements in
Figure 8. Preliminary analysis of trace element data. (a) Cluster heat map of trace elements in 15
15 kiwifruit cultivars. (b) PCA score plot of trace elements in different flesh colors. (c) PCA score plot
kiwifruit cultivars. (b) PCA score plot of trace elements in different flesh colors. (c) PCA score plot of
of trace elements in two species.
trace elements in two species.
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 14 of 18

Table 5. 8 kinds of trace elements in 15 kiwifruit cultivars.

Ca Fe K Mg Na P Zn Cu
Cultivar
(mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g) (mg/100 g)
Cuixiang 22.37 ± 2.44 cd 4.27 ± 0.05 cd 300 ± 8.33 h 29.61 ± 0.08 g 6.95 ± 0.1 bc 18.71 ± 0.04 cd 0.3 ± 0.14 ab 1.3 ± 0.13 a
Hayward 19.42 ± 0.36 d 4.8 ± 1.94 cd 262.5 ± 4.17 j 29.55 ± 0.3 g 8.71 ± 1.37 b 10.5 ± 0.42 e 0.36 ± 0.02 ab 0.18 ± 0.02 g
Xuxiang 23.74 ± 3 c 3.83 ± 0.2 d 320.83 ± 12.5 g 33.39 ± 1.16 d 7.33 ± 2.48 bc 21.75 ± 0 c 0.4 ± 0.19 ab 0.98 ± 0.01 b
Guichang 14.95 ± 0.65 e 6.05 ± 1.6 c 358.33 ± 0 f 31.36 ± 0.02 ef 5.62 ± 0.18 c 18.54 ± 1.13 cd 0.2 ± 0.07 ab 0.36 ± 0.01 f
Ruiyu 15.93 ± 0.46 e 3.27 ± 0.02 d 445.83 ± 12.5 c 36.74 ± 0.8 b 5.29 ± 0.16 c 34.83 ± 1 a 0.2 ± 0.1 b 0.47 ± 0.03 e
Jinhong No.1 8.74 ± 0.73 f 3.48 ± 0.06 d 475 ± 8.33 b 36.21 ± 0.14 bc 6.64 ± 0.12 bc 38.29 ± 2.13 a 0.24 ± 0.1 b 0.45 ± 0 ef
Hongshi No.2 9.18 ± 0.48 f 5.78 ± 0.6 c 450 ± 0 c 36.6 ± 0.31 b 11.22 ± 2.86 a 23.67 ± 0.25 bc 0.35 ± 0.19 a 0.48 ± 0.05 e
Hongyang 11.31 ± 0.22 f 4.19 ± 0.42 d 320.83 ± 4.17 g 32.74 ± 0.07 de 6.87 ± 1.46 bc 19.63 ± 4.79 cd 0.26 ± 0.02 a 0.18 ± 0.01 g
Jinhong 50 27.02 ± 1.17 b 13.75 ± 0.88 a 212.5 ± 4.17 l 30.87 ± 0.03 f 6.58 ± 0.66 bc 21.79 ± 0.79 c 0.22 ± 0.04 b 0.23 ± 0.01 g
Oriental Red 31.27 ± 2.65 a 4.53 ± 0.16 cd 325 ± 0 g 32.1 ± 0.15 e 5.62 ± 0.58 c 25.42 ± 5 b 0.27 ± 0.06 ab 0.25 ± 0.02 g
Huayou 19.86 ± 1.68 d 10.87 ± 2.41 b 425 ± 8.33 d 31.46 ± 0.16 ef 8.03 ± 2.05 b 24.83 ± 1 bc 0.43 ± 0.2 a 0.19 ± 0.04 g
Sungold 15.22 ± 1.64 e 2.71 ± 0.03 d 241.67 ± 0 k 30.63 ± 0.07 f 4.73 ± 0.97 c 13.54 ± 0.71 e 0.25 ± 0.09 ab 0.72 ± 0.07 c
Jinyan 21.26 ± 2.5 cd 13.12 ± 2.17 a 275 ± 0 i 31.2 ± 0.1 ef 4.81 ± 0.12 c 12.08 ± 2.67 e 0.31 ± 0.07 ab 0.78 ± 0.05 c
Jintao 24.04 ± 1.42 c 4.23 ± 0.14 cd 395.83 ± 4.17 e 35.44 ± 0.57 c 4.68 ± 0.97 c 17.46 ± 0.96 d 0.21 ± 0.02 b 0.63 ± 0.05 d
Puyu 17.33 ± 2.56 de 6.07 ± 0.52 c 516.67 ± 8.33 a 60.4 ± 1.36 a 5.01 ± 0.5 c 24.17 ± 0.67 bc 0.26 ± 0.04 a 0.92 ± 0.11 b
The data are given as the mean ± SD (n = 3). Mean values in each column with unlike letters are significantly different among cultivars (p < 0.05).
 Foods 2020, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 19
Foods 2020, 9, 1267 15 of 18

3.6.FA
3.6. FAand
and5MTHF
5MTHF
Fruits,especially
Fruits, especiallyberries
berriesandandvegetables
vegetablesand andgreen
greenleafy
leafyvegetables,
vegetables,are arethe
themain
mainsources
sourcesofoffolic
folic
acid in the diet, of which 5MTHF is the most important folic acid derivative.
acid in the diet, of which 5MTHF is the most important folic acid derivative. 5MTHF does not require 5MTHF does not require
thecomplex
the complexabsorption,
absorption,metabolism
metabolismand andenzymatic
enzymaticstepsstepsrequired
requiredfor forutilization
utilizationof ofFA
FAin inthe
thebody.
body.
However, compared with other nutrients, folic acid data in the literature
However, compared with other nutrients, folic acid data in the literature and databases are not very and databases are not very
consistent because, first, the high sensitivity to the environment and the low
consistent because, first, the high sensitivity to the environment and the low concentration of folic acid concentration of folic
inacid
the in the biological
biological material,material, and second,
and second, the methods
the methods used
used for for extraction
extraction and determination
and determination of folicofacid
folic
acid are different
are different [21,40]. [21,40].
InInthis
thisstudy,
study,the thecontent
contentofofFA FAininthe thedifferent
differentcultivars
cultivarsofofkiwifruit
kiwifruitwaswasbetween
between23.9923.99andand
122.25 µg/100 g and 5MTHF was between 12.48 and 72.22 µg/100 g (Figure 9a). The contents of FA inin
122.25 μg/100 g and 5MTHF was between 12.48 and 72.22 μg/100 g (Figure 9a). The contents of FA
Huayou(122.25
Huayou (122.25µg/100
μg/100g), g),Jintao
Jintao(105.14
(105.14µg/100
μg/100g)g)andandXuxiang
Xuxiang(104.14
(104.14µg/100
μg/100g)g)werewerethethehighest,
highest,
andmeanwhile,
and meanwhile,the thecontents
contentsofof5MTHF
5MTHFininOrientalOrientalRedRed(72.22
(72.22µg/100
μg/100g), g),and
andRuiyu
Ruiyu(63.58
(63.58µg/100
μg/100g)g)
were significantly higher than in the other cultivars (p < 0.05). Taking
were significantly higher than in the other cultivars (p < 0.05). Taking Sungold as an example, Sungold as an example, in a
previous study, its content of FA was 30.64 μg/100 g, which was similar
in a previous study, its content of FA was 30.64 µg/100 g, which was similar to the results in this to the results in this study
[19,21].
study For 5MTHF,
[19,21]. For 5MTHF, according
accordingto previous
to previous studies, the
studies, thecontent
contentininstrawberries
strawberries was 36–79µg/100
was 36–79 μg/100gg
and that in citrus fruit was 13–27 μg/100 g. For kiwifruit, the content
and that in citrus fruit was 13–27 µg/100 g. For kiwifruit, the content of 5MTHF was approximatelyof 5MTHF was approximately
2323µg/100
μg/100g g[21,40,50].
[21,40,50].InInthis
this study,
study, thethe range
range of of 5MTHF
5MTHF content
content in kiwifruit
in kiwifruit waswas larger
larger duedue to use
to use of
abundant cultivars, and its average content was higher. We thus concluded that kiwifruit is a sound a
of abundant cultivars, and its average content was higher. We thus concluded that kiwifruit is
soundofsource
source FA and of5MTHF
FA andamong 5MTHF among
fruits. Sincefruits.
theySince they are eaten
are generally generally
fresh,eaten fresh,iskiwifruit
kiwifruit a favorable is a
favorable
way to obtain wayFAtoandobtain FA and
5MTHF. 5MTHF.
In terms In terms
of the of of
content theFA content of FA and
and 5MTHF, there5MTHF,
were no there were no
significant
significant differences based on species or flesh
differences based on species or flesh color (p > 0.05) (Figure 9b,c).color (p > 0.05) (Figure 9b,c).

Figure 9. (a) The content of FA and 5MTHF in 15 kiwifruit cultivars (mean ± SD, n = 3). Mean values in
each column
Figure 9. (a)with
The unlike
contentletters
of FAare
andsignificantly
5MTHF in 15 different among
kiwifruit cultivars
cultivars (p <± 0.05).
(mean SD, n =The
3). distribution
Mean values
ofinFAeach
and 5MTHF
column (b) in different
with flesh colors
unlike letters are and (c) in the two
significantly species.
different The colors
among of the(pdots
cultivars in (b) are
< 0.05). The
consistent with the flesh color.
distribution of FA and 5MTHF (b) in different flesh colors and (c) in the two species. The colors of the
dots in (b) are consistent with the flesh color.
4. Conclusions
Generally, as a comprehensive nutritional supplement, kiwifruit is a good source of AAC, TPC,
TFC, mineral elements, TAA, FA, and 5MTHF, and it has excellent antioxidant ability. Overall, one of the
main factors affecting the physical and chemical characteristics, nutritional and functional components

Foods 2020, 9, x; doi: FOR PEER REVIEW www.mdpi.com/journal/foods

Foods 2020, 9, 1267 16 of 18

of kiwifruit is the cultivar. New cultivars developed in recent years may violate the characteristics
of the original categories. This may be because cultivated varieties are produced by mutations in
primitive complex hybrids, which accumulate over time, producing the varieties that exist today.
Moreover, the geographical and environmental factors also have a great influence on the quality of
fruits [51].
The results of this study identified several excellent cultivars with different characteristics. The new
green-fleshed cultivar Ruiyu broke through the low sugar–acid ratio of green-fleshed kiwifruit. The new
red-fleshed cultivar, Hongshi No. 2, had outstanding contents of four antioxidant-related compounds.
In addition, several general trends were identified. The sugar–acid ratio and TFC had significant
differences between different flesh colors. More specifically, the sugar–acid ratio and the TFC of
red-fleshed kiwifruit were significantly higher than green-fleshed and yellow-fleshed ones. The TPC
and AAC showed a significant positive correlation as well. Furthermore, the analysis of antioxidant
correlation demonstrated that TPC was the greatest contributor in both the FRAP and DPPH assays
due to its higher correlation coefficient. In terms of species, A. deliciosa and A. chinensis tended to be
distinguished in their composition of free amino acids, which needs further verification.

Author Contributions: T.M., X.S., and X.L., conceptualization and methodology. H.Z., Q.Z. (Qinyu Zhao), T.L.,
T.G., and C.G., analysis. Q.Y., Q.Z. (Qianwen Zhang), and P.X., data curation. T.M., and H.Z., writing—original
draft preparation. Q.Z. (Qianwen Zhang), and P.X. modified the format and improved the language. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the class General Financial Grant from the China Postdoctoral Science
Foundation (2020M673505, 2020M673507), and the Science and Technology Innovation and Achievement
Transformation project of Experimental Demonstration Station (Base) of Northwest A&F University (TCZX2019-33,
TCZX2020-36), and the Shaanxi Key Research and Development Program (2020NY-134, 2020TD-047).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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