Introduction to SQL

Structure Query Language(SQL) is a programming language used for storing and managing data in
RDBMS. SQL was the first commercial language introduced for E.F Codd's Relational model. Today
almost all RDBMS(MySql, Oracle, Infomix, Sybase, MS Access) uses SQL as the standard
database language. SQL is used to perform all type of data operations in RDBMS.

SQL Command

SQL defines following data languages to manipulate data of RDBMS.

DDL : Data Definition Language

All DDL commands are auto-committed. That means it saves all the changes permanently in the
database.

Command Description

create to create new table or database

alter for alteration

truncate delete data from table

drop to drop a table

rename to rename a table

DML : Data Manipulation Language

DML commands are not auto-committed. It means changes are not permanent to database, they
can be rolled back.

Command Description

insert to insert a new row

update to update existing row

delete to delete a row

merge merging two rows or two tables

TCL : Transaction Control Language

These commands are to keep a check on other commands and their affect on the database. These
commands can annul changes made by other commands by rolling back to original state. It can also
make changes permanent.

Command Description

commit to permanently save

rollback to undo change

savepoint to save temporarily

DCL : Data Control Language

Data control language provides command to grant and take back authority.

Command Description

grant grant permission of right

revoke take back permission.

DQL : Data Query Language

Command Description

select retrieve records from one or more table

Creating a Database

To create a database in RDBMS, create command is uses. Following is the Syntax,

create database database-name;

Example for Creating Database

create database Test;

The above command will create a database named Test.

Creating a Table

create command is also used to create a table. We can specify names and datatypes of various
columns along.Following is the Syntax,

create table table-name

{
column-name1 datatype1,

column-name2 datatype2,

column-name3 datatype3,

column-name4 datatype4

};

create table command will tell the database system to create a new table with given table name and
column information.

Example for creating Table

create table Student(id int, name varchar, age int);

The above command will create a new table Student in database system with 3 columns, namely id,
name and age.

alter command
alter command is used for alteration of table structures. There are various uses of alter command,
such as,

 to add a column to existing table

 to rename any existing column

 to change datatype of any column or to modify its size.

 alter is also used to drop a column.

To Add Column to existing Table

Using alter command we can add a column to an existing table. Following is the Syntax,

alter table table-name add(column-namedatatype);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(address char);

The above command will add a new column address to the Student table
To Add Multiple Column to existing Table

Using alter command we can even add multiple columns to an existing table. Following is the
Syntax,

alter table table-name add(column-name1datatype1, column-name2datatype2, column-

name3datatype3);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(father-name varchar(60), mother-name varchar(60), dob

date);

The above command will add three new columns to the Student table

To Add column with Default Value

alter command can add a new column to an existing table with default values. Following is the
Syntax,

alter table table-name add(column-name1datatype1defaultdata);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student add(dob date default '1-Jan-99');

The above command will add a new column with default value to the Student table

To Modify an existing Column

alter command is used to modify data type of an existing column . Following is the Syntax,

alter table table-name modify(column-namedatatype);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student modify(address varchar(30));

The above command will modify address column of the Student table
To Rename a column

Using alter command you can rename an existing column. Following is the Syntax,

alter table table-namerename old-column-name to column-name;

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student rename address to Location;

The above command will rename address column to Location.

To Drop a Column

alter command is also used to drop columns also. Following is the Syntax,

alter table table-name drop(column-name);

Here is an Example for this,

alter table Student drop(address);

The above command will drop address column from the Student table

SQL queries to Truncate, Drop or Rename a Table

truncate command

truncate command removes all records from a table. But this command will not destroy the table's
structure. When we apply truncate command on a table its Primary key is initialized. Following is its
Syntax,

truncate table table-name

Here is an Example explaining it.

truncate table Student;

The above query will delete all the records of Student table.

truncate command is different from delete command. delete command will delete all the rows from
a table whereas truncate command re-initializes a table(like a newly created table).

For eg. If you have a table with 10 rows and an auto_increment primary key, if you
use delete command to delete all the rows, it will delete all the rows, but will not initialize the primary
key, hence if you will insert any row after using delete command, the auto_increment primary key will
start from 11. But in case of truncatecommand, primary key is re-initialized.

drop command

drop query completely removes a table from database. This command will also destroy the table
structure. Following is its Syntax,

drop table table-name

Here is an Example explaining it.

drop table Student;

The above query will delete the Student table completely. It can also be used on Databases. For
Example, to drop a database,

drop database Test;

The above query will drop a database named Test from the system.

rename query

rename command is used to rename a table. Following is its Syntax,

rename table old-table-name to new-table-name

Here is an Example explaining it.

rename table Student to Student-record;

The above query will rename Student table to Student-record.

DML command
Data Manipulation Language (DML) statements are used for managing data in database. DML
commands are not auto-committed. It means changes made by DML command are not permanent
to database, it can be rolled back.

1) INSERT command
Insert command is used to insert data into a table. Following is its general syntax,

INSERT into table-name values(data1,data2,..)

Lets see an example,

Consider a table Student with following fields.

S_id S_Name age

INSERT into Student values(101,'Adam',15);

The above command will insert a record into Student table.

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

Example to Insert NULL value to a column

Both the statements below will insert NULL value into age column of the Student table.

INSERT into Student(id,name) values(102,'Alex');

Or,

INSERT into Student values(102,'Alex',null);

The above command will insert only two column value other column is set to null.

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex
Example to Insert Default value to a column
INSERT into Student values(103,'Chris',default)

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex

103 chris 14

Suppose the age column of student table has default value of 14.

Also, if you run the below query, it will insert default value into the age column, whatever the default
value may be.

INSERT into Student values(103,'Chris')

2) UPDATE command

Update command is used to update a row of a table. Following is its general syntax,

UPDATEtable-name set column-name = value wherecondition;

Lets see an example,

update Student set age=18 where s_id=102;

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18
103 chris 14

Example to Update multiple columns

UPDATE Student set s_name='Abhi',age=17 where s_id=103;

The above command will update two columns of a record.

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18

103 Abhi 17

3) Delete command

Delete command is used to delete data from a table. Delete command can also be used with
condition to delete a particular row. Following is its general syntax,

DELETE from table-name;

Example to Delete all Records from a Table

DELETE from Student;

The above command will delete all the records from Student table.

Example to Delete a particular Record from a Table

Consider the following Student table

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18

103 Abhi 17

DELETE from Student where s_id=103;

The above command will delete the record where s_id is 103 from Student table.

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18

TCL command
Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in database.These
are used to manage the changes made by DML statements. It also allows statements to be grouped
together into logical transactions.

Commit command

Commit command is used to permanently save any transaaction into database.

Following is Commit command's syntax,

commit;
Rollback command

This command restores the database to last commited state. It is also use with savepoint command
to jump to a savepoint in a transaction.

Following is Rollback command's syntax,

rollback to savepoint-name;

Savepoint command

savepoint command is used to temporarily save a transaction so that you can rollback to that point
whenever necessary.

Following is savepoint command's syntax,

savepointsavepoint-name;

Example of Savepoint and Rollback

Following is the class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

Lets use some SQL queries on the above table and see the results.

INSERT into class values(5,'Rahul');

commit;

UPDATE class set name='abhijit' where id='5';

savepoint A;

INSERT into class values(6,'Chris');

savepoint B;

INSERT into class values(7,'Bravo');

savepoint C;

SELECT * from class;

The resultant table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

5 abhijit

6 chris

7 bravo

Now rollback to savepoint B

rollback to B;

SELECT * from class;

The resultant table will look like

ID NAME
1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

5 abhijit

6 chris

Now rollback to savepoint A

rollback to A;

SELECT * from class;

The result table will look like

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

5 abhijit

DCL command

Data Control Language(DCL) is used to control privilege in Database. To perform any operation in
the database, such as for creating tables, sequences or views we need privileges. Privileges are of
two types,
 System : creating session, table etc are all types of system privilege.

 Object : any command or query to work on tables comes under object privilege.

DCL defines two commands,

 Grant : Gives user access privileges to database.

 Revoke : Take back permissions from user.

To Allow a User to create Session

grant create session to username;

To Allow a User to create Table

grant create table to username;

To provide User with some Space on Tablespace to store Table

alter user username quota unlimited on system;

To Grant all privilege to a User

grant sysdba to username

To Grant permission to Create any Table

grantcreate any table to username

To Grant permission to Drop any Table

grantdrop any table to username
To take back Permissions
revoke create table from username

WHERE clause
Where clause is used to specify condition while retriving data from table. Where clause is used
mostly withSelect, Update and Delete query. If condititon specified by where clause is true then only
the result from table is returned.

Syntax for WHERE clause

SELECT column-name1,

column-name2,

column-name3,

column-nameN

from table-name WHERE [condition];

Example using WHERE clause

Consider a Student table,

s_id s_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida

102 Alex 18 Delhi

103 Abhi 17 Rohtak

104 Ankit 22 Panipat

Now we will use a SELECT statement to display data of the table, based on a condition, which we
will add to the SELECT query using WHERE clause.

SELECT s_id,

s_name,

age,

address

from Student WHERE s_id=101;

s_id s_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida

SELECT Query
Select query is used to retrieve data from a tables. It is the most used SQL query. We can retrieve
complete tables, or partial by mentioning conditions using WHERE clause.

Syntax of SELECT Query

SELECT column-name1, column-name2, column-name3, column-nameN from table-name;

Example for SELECT Query

Conside the following Student table,

S_id S_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida

102 Alex 18 Delhi

103 Abhi 17 Rohtak

104 Ankit 22 Panipat

SELECT s_id, s_name, age from Student.

The above query will fetch information of s_id, s_name and age column from Student table

S_id S_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18

103 Abhi 17

104 Ankit 22

Example to Select all Records from Table

A special character asterisk * is used to address all the data(belonging to all columns) in a
query. SELECTstatement uses * character to retrieve all records from a table.

SELECT * from student;

The above query will show all the records of Student table, that means it will show complete Student
table as result.

S_id S_Name age address

101 Adam 15 Noida

102 Alex 18 Delhi

103 Abhi 17 Rohtak

104 Ankit 22 Panipat

Example to Select particular Record based on Condition

SELECT * from Student WHERE s_name = 'Abhi';

103 Abhi 17 Rohtak

Example to Perform Simple Calculations using Select Query

Conside the following Employee table.

eid Name age salary

101 Adam 26 5000

102 Ricky 42 8000

103 Abhi 22 10000

104 Rohan 35 5000

SELECT eid, name, salary+3000 from Employee;

The above command will display a new column in the result, showing 3000 added into existing
salaries of the employees.

eid Name salary+3000

101 Adam 8000

102 Ricky 11000

103 Abhi 13000

104 Rohan 8000

Like clause is used as condition in SQL query. Like clause compares data with an expression using
wildcard operators. It is used to find similar data from the table.

Wildcard operators

There are two wildcard operators that are used in like clause.

 Percent sign % : represents zero, one or more than one character.

 Underscore sign _ : represents only one character.

Example of LIKE clause

Consider the following Student table.

s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15
102 Alex 18

103 Abhi 17

SELECT * from Student where s_name like 'A%';

The above query will return all records where s_name starts with character 'A'.

s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15

102 Alex 18

103 Abhi 17

Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like '_d%';

The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'd' as second
character.

s_id s_Name age

101 Adam 15

Example
SELECT * from Student where s_name like '%x';
The above query will return all records from Student table where s_name contain 'x' as last
character.

s_id s_Name age

102 Alex 18

Order By Clause
Order by clause is used with Select statement for arranging retrieved data in sorted order.
The Order byclause by default sort data in ascending order. To sort data in descending
order DESC keyword is used withOrder by clause.

Syntax of Order By
SELECT column-list|* from table-name order byasc|desc;

Example using Order by

Consider the following Emp table,

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SELECT * from Emp order by salary;

The above query will return result in ascending order of the salary.

eid name age salary

403 Rohan 34 6000

402 Shane 29 8000

405 Tiger 35 8000

401 Anu 22 9000

404 Scott 44 10000

Example of Order by DESC

Consider the Emp table described above,

SELECT * from Emp order by salary DESC;

The above query will return result in descending order of the salary.

eid name age salary

404 Scott 44 10000

401 Anu 22 9000

405 Tiger 35 8000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

Group By Clause
Group by clause is used to group the results of a SELECT query based on one or more columns. It
is also used with SQL functions to group the result from one or more tables.

Syntax for using Group by in a statement.

SELECT column_name, function(column_name)

FROM table_name

WHERE condition

GROUP BY column_name

Example of Group by in a Statement

Consider the following Emp table.

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 9000

405 Tiger 35 8000

Here we want to find name and age of employees grouped by their salaries

SQL query for the above requirement will be,

SELECT name, age

from Emp group by salary

Result will be,

name age

Rohan 34

shane 29

anu 22

Example of Group by in a Statement with WHERE clause

Consider the following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 9000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query will be,

select name, salary

from Emp

where age > 25

group by salary

Result will be.

name salary

Rohan 6000

Shane 8000

Scott 9000

You must remember that Group By clause will always come at the end, just like the Order by clause.

HAVING Clause
having clause is used with SQL Queries to give more precise condition for a statement. It is used to
mention condition in Group based SQL functions, just like WHERE clause.

Syntax for having will be,

select column_name, function(column_name)

FROM table_name

WHERE column_name condition

GROUP BY column_name

HAVING function(column_name) condition

Example of HAVING Statement

Consider the following Sale table.

oid order_name previous_balance customer

11 ord1 2000 Alex

12 ord2 1000 Adam

13 ord3 2000 Abhi

14 ord4 1000 Adam

15 ord5 2000 Alex

Suppose we want to find the customer whose previous_balance sum is more than 3000.

We will use the below SQL query,

SELECT *

from sale group customer

having sum(previous_balance) > 3000

Result will be,

oid order_name previous_balance customer

11 ord1 2000 Alex

Distinct keyword
The distinct keyword is used with Select statement to retrieve unique values from the
table. Distinctremoves all the duplicate records while retrieving from database.

Syntax for DISTINCT Keyword

SELECTdistinct column-name from table-name;

Example

Consider the following Emp table.

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 10000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

select distinct salary from Emp;

The above query will return only the unique salary from Emp table

salary
5000

8000

10000

AND & OR operator

AND and OR operators are used with Where clause to make more precise conditions for fetching
data from database by combining more than one condition together.

AND operator

AND operator is used to set multiple conditions with Where clause.

Example of AND

Consider the following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 12000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 9000

SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary < 10000 AND age > 25

The above query will return records where salary is less than 10000 and age greater than 25.

eid name age salary

402 Shane 29 8000

405 Tiger 35 9000

OR operator

OR operator is also used to combine multiple conditions with Where clause. The only difference
between AND and OR is their behaviour. When we use AND to combine two or more than two
conditions, records satisfying all the condition will be in the result. But in case of OR, atleast one
condition from the conditions specified must be satisfied by any record to be in the result.

Example of OR

Consider the following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 5000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 12000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 9000

SELECT * from Emp WHERE salary > 10000 OR age > 25

The above query will return records where either salary is greater than 10000 or age greater than
25.

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 12000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 9000

SQL Constraints
SQl Constraints are rules used to limit the type of data that can go into a table, to maintain the
accuracy and integrity of the data inside table.

Constraints can be divided into following two types,

 Column level constraints : limits only column data

 Table level constraints : limits whole table data

Constraints are used to make sure that the integrity of data is maintained in the database. Following
are the most used constraints that can be applied to a table.

 NOT NULL

 UNIQUE

 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY

 CHECK

 DEFAULT

NOT NULL Constraint

NOT NULL constraint restricts a column from having a NULL value. Once NOT NULL constraint is
applied to a column, you cannot pass a null value to that column. It enforces a column to contain a
proper value. One important point to note about NOT NULL constraint is that it cannot be defined at
table level.

Example using NOT NULL constraint

CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will not take NULL value.

UNIQUE Constraint

UNIQUE constraint ensures that a field or column will only have unique values. A UNIQUE
constraint field will not have duplicate data. UNIQUE constraint can be applied at column level or
table level.

Example using UNIQUE constraint when creating a Table (Table Level)

CREATE table Student(s_id int NOT NULL UNIQUE, Name varchar(60), Age int);

The above query will declare that the s_id field of Student table will only have unique values and
wont take NULL value.

Example using UNIQUE constraint after Table is created (Column Level)

ALTER table Student add UNIQUE(s_id);
The above query specifies that s_id field of Student table will only have unique value.

Primary Key Constraint

Primary key constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database. A Primary Key must contain
unique value and it must not contain null value. Usually Primary Key is used to index the data inside
the table.

Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Student (s_id int PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age int);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id .

Example using PRIMARY KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student add PRIMARY KEY (s_id);

The above command will creates a PRIMARY KEY on the s_id .

Foreign Key Constraint

FOREIGN KEY is used to relate two tables. FOREIGN KEY constraint is also used to restrict actions
that would destroy links between tables. To understand FOREIGN KEY, let's see it using two table.

Customer_Detail Table :

c_id Customer_Name address

101 Adam Noida

102 Alex Delhi

103 Stuart Rohtak

Order_Detail Table :

Order_id Order_Name c_id

10 Order1 101

11 Order2 103

12 Order3 102

In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail table.
The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key in Order_Detail table must be present
in Customer_Detailtable where it is set as primary key. This prevents invalid data to be inserted into
c_id column of Order_Detailtable.

Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level

CREATE table Order_Detail(order_id int PRIMARY KEY,

order_name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

c_id intFOREIGN KEY REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id));

In this query, c_id in table Order_Detail is made as foriegn key, which is a reference of c_id column
of Customer_Detail.

Example using FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Order_Detail add FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES Customer_Detail(c_id);

Behaviour of Foriegn Key Column on Delete

There are two ways to maintin the integrity of data in Child table, when a particular record is deleted
in main table. When two tables are connected with Foriegn key, and certain data in the main table is
deleted, for which record exit in child table too, then we must have some mechanism to save the
integrity of data in child table.

 On Delete Cascade : This will remove the record from child table, if that value of foriegn key is

deleted from the main table.

 On Delete Null : This will set all the values in that record of child table as NULL, for which the

value of foriegn key is eleted from the main table.

 If we don't use any of the above, then we cannot delete data from the main table for which data

in child table exists. We will get an error if we try to do so.

ERROR : Record in child table exist

CHECK Constraint

CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a range. It performs check on
the values, before storing them into the database. Its like condition checking before saving data into
a column.

Example using CHECK constraint at Table Level

create table Student(s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0),
Name varchar(60) NOT NULL,

Age int);

The above query will restrict the s_id value to be greater than zero.

Example using CHECK constraint at Column Level

ALTER table Student add CHECK(s_id > 0);

SQL Functions
SQL provides many built-in functions to perform operations on data. These functions are useful while
performing mathematical calculations, string concatenations, sub-strings etc. SQL functions are
divided into two catagories,

 Aggregrate Functions

 Scalar Functions

Aggregrate Functions

These functions return a single value after calculating from a group of values.Following are some
frequently used Aggregrate functions.

1) AVG()

Average returns average value after calculating from values in a numeric column.

Its general Syntax is,

SELECT AVG(column_name) from table_name

Example using AVG()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query to find average of salary will be,

SELECT avg(salary) from Emp;

Result of the above query will be,

avg(salary)

8200

2) COUNT()

Count returns the number of rows present in the table either based on some condition or without
condition.

Its general Syntax is,

SELECT COUNT(column_name) from table-name

Example using COUNT()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query to count employees, satisfying specified condition is,

SELECT COUNT(name) from Emp where salary = 8000;

Result of the above query will be,

count(name)

Example of COUNT(distinct)

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query is,

SELECT COUNT(distinct salary) from emp;

Result of the above query will be,

count(distinct salary)

3) FIRST()

First function returns first value of a selected column

Syntax for FIRST function is,

SELECT FIRST(column_name) from table-name

Example of FIRST()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query

SELECT FIRST(salary) from Emp;

Result will be,

first(salary)

9000

4) LAST()

LAST return the return last value from selected column

Syntax of LAST function is,

SELECT LAST(column_name) from table-name

Example of LAST()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query will be,

SELECT LAST(salary) from emp;

Result of the above query will be,

last(salary)

8000

5) MAX()

MAX function returns maximum value from selected column of the table.

Syntax of MAX function is,

SELECT MAX(column_name) from table-name

Example of MAX()
Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query to find Maximum salary is,

SELECT MAX(salary) from emp;

Result of the above query will be,

MAX(salary)

10000

6) MIN()

MIN function returns minimum value from a selected column of the table.

Syntax for MIN function is,

SELECT MIN(column_name) from table-name

Example of MIN()

Consider following Emp table,

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query to find minimum salary is,

SELECT MIN(salary) from emp;

Result will be,

MIN(salary)

8000

7) SUM()

SUM function returns total sum of a selected columns numeric values.

Syntax for SUM is,

SELECT SUM(column_name) from table-name

Example of SUM()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 Anu 22 9000

402 Shane 29 8000

403 Rohan 34 6000

404 Scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query to find sum of salaries will be,

SELECT SUM(salary) from emp;

Result of above query is,

SUM(salary)

41000

Scalar Functions

Scalar functions return a single value from an input value. Following are soe frequently used Scalar
Functions.

1) UCASE()
UCASE function is used to convert value of string column to Uppercase character.

Syntax of UCASE,

SELECT UCASE(column_name) from table-name

Example of UCASE()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 anu 22 9000

402 shane 29 8000

403 rohan 34 6000

404 scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query for using UCASE is,

SELECT UCASE(name) from emp;

Result is,

UCASE(name)

ANU

SHANE
ROHAN

SCOTT

TIGER

2) LCASE()

LCASE function is used to convert value of string column to Lowecase character.

Syntax for LCASE is,

SELECT LCASE(column_name) from table-name

Example of LCASE()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 anu 22 9000

402 shane 29 8000

403 rohan 34 6000

404 scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query for converting string value to Lower case is,

SELECT LCASE(name) from emp;

Result will be,

LCASE(name)

anu

shane

rohan

scott

tiger

3) MID()

MID function is used to extract substrings from column values of string type in a table.

Syntax for MID function is,

SELECT MID(column_name, start, length) from table-name

Example of MID()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 anu 22 9000

402 shane 29 8000

403 rohan 34 6000

404 scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000

SQL query will be,

select MID(name,2,2) from emp;

Result will come out to be,

MID(name,2,2)

nu

ha

oh

co

ig

4) ROUND()

ROUND function is used to round a numeric field to number of nearest integer. It is used on Decimal
point values. Syntax of Round function is,

SELECT ROUND(column_name, decimals) from table-name

Example of ROUND()

Consider following Emp table

eid name age salary

401 anu 22 9000.67

402 shane 29 8000.98

403 rohan 34 6000.45

404 scott 44 10000

405 Tiger 35 8000.01

SQL query is,

SELECT ROUND(salary) from emp;

Result will be,

ROUND(salary)

9001

8001

6000

10000
8000

Join in SQL
SQL Join is used to fetch data from two or more tables, which is joined to appear as single set of
data. SQL Join is used for combining column from two or more tables by using values common to
both tables. JoinKeyword is used in SQL queries for joining two or more tables. Minimum required
condition for joining table, is(n-1) where n, is number of tables. A table can also join to itself known
as, Self Join.

Types of Join

The following are the types of JOIN that we can use in SQL.

 Inner

 Outer

 Left

 Right

Cross JOIN or Cartesian Product

This type of JOIN returns the cartesian product of rows of from the tables in Join. It will return a table
which consists of records which combines each row from the first table with each row of the second
table.

Cross JOIN Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list

from table-name1

CROSS JOIN

table-name2;
Example of Cross JOIN

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Cross JOIN query will be,

SELECT *

from class,

cross JOIN class_info;

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 1 DELHI

4 alex 1 DELHI

1 abhi 2 MUMBAI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

4 alex 2 MUMBAI

1 abhi 3 CHENNAI

2 adam 3 CHENNAI

4 alex 3 CHENNAI

INNER Join or EQUI Join

This is a simple JOIN in which the result is based on matched data as per the equality condition
specified in the query.

Inner Join Syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list

from table-name1

INNER JOIN

table-name2

WHERE table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Inner JOIN

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Inner JOIN query will be,

SELECT * from class, class_info where class.id = class_info.id;

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

Natural JOIN

Natural Join is a type of Inner join which is based on column having same name and same datatype
present in both the tables to be joined.

Natural Join Syntax is,

SELECT *

from table-name1

NATURAL JOIN

table-name2;

Example of Natural JOIN

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

Natural join query will be,

SELECT * from class NATURAL JOIN class_info;

The result table will look like,

ID NAME Address

1 abhi DELHI

2 adam MUMBAI

3 alex CHENNAI

In the above example, both the tables being joined have ID column(same name and same datatype),
hence the records for which value of ID matches in both the tables will be the result of Natural Join
of these two tables.

Outer JOIN

Outer Join is based on both matched and unmatched data. Outer Joins subdivide further into,

 Left Outer Join

 Right Outer Join

 Full Outer Join

Left Outer Join

The left outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then remaining rows of
the lefttable and null for the right table's column.

Left Outer Join syntax is,

SELECT column-name-list

from table-name1

LEFT OUTER JOIN

table-name2

on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Left outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

select column-name-list

from table-name1,

table-name2

on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name(+);

Example of Left Outer Join

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam
3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Left Outer Join query will be,

SELECT * FROM class LEFT OUTER JOIN class_info ON (class.id=class_info.id);

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI
3 alex 3 CHENNAI

4 anu null null

5 ashish null null

Right Outer Join

The right outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two tables then remaining rows of
the right table and null for the left table's columns.

Right Outer Join Syntax is,

select column-name-list

from table-name1

RIGHT OUTER JOIN

table-name2

on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Right outer Join Syntax for Oracle is,

select column-name-list

from table-name1,

table-name2

on table-name1.column-name(+) = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Right Outer Join

The class table,

ID NAME
1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Right Outer Join query will be,

SELECT * FROM class RIGHT OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address
1 abhi 1 DELHI

2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

null null 7 NOIDA

null null 8 PANIPAT

Full Outer Join

The full outer join returns a result table with the matched data of two table then remaining rows of
both lefttable and then the right table.

Full Outer Join Syntax is,

select column-name-list

from table-name1

FULL OUTER JOIN

table-name2

on table-name1.column-name = table-name2.column-name;

Example of Full outer join is,

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi
2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI

7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Full Outer Join query will be like,

SELECT * FROM class FULL OUTER JOIN class_info on (class.id=class_info.id);

The result table will look like,

ID NAME ID Address

1 abhi 1 DELHI
2 adam 2 MUMBAI

3 alex 3 CHENNAI

4 anu null null

5 ashish null null

null null 7 NOIDA

null null 8 PANIPAT

SQL Alias
Alias is used to give an alias name to a table or a column. This is quite useful in case of large or
complex queries. Alias is mainly used for giving a short alias name for a column or a table with
complex names.

Syntax of Alias for table names,

SELECT column-name

from table-name

as alias-name

Following is an Example using Alias,

SELECT * from Employee_detail as ed;

Alias syntax for columns will be like,

SELECT

column-name as alias-name

from

table-name

Example using alias for columns,

SELECT customer_id as cid from Emp;

Example of Alias in SQL Query

Consider the following two tables,

The class table,

ID Name

1 abhi

2 adam

3 alex

4 anu

5 ashish

The class_info table,

ID Address

1 DELHI

2 MUMBAI

3 CHENNAI
7 NOIDA

8 PANIPAT

Below is the Query to fetch data from both the tables using SQL Alias,

SELECT C.id, C.Name, Ci.Address from Class as C, Class_info as Ci where

C.id=Ci.id;

Result table look like,

ID Name Address

1 abhi DELHI

2 adam MUMBAI

3 alex CHENNAI

Set Operation in SQL

SQL supports few Set operations to be performed on table data. These are used to get meaningful
results from data, under different special conditions.

Union

UNION is used to combine the results of two or more Select statements. However it will eliminate
duplicate rows from its result set. In case of union, number of columns and datatype must be same
in both the tables.
Example of UNION

The First table,

ID Name

1 abhi

2 adam

The Second table,

ID Name

2 adam

3 Chester

Union SQL query will be,

select * from First

UNION
select * from second

The result table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

3 Chester

Union All

This operation is similar to Union. But it also shows the duplicate rows.

Example of Union All

The First table,

ID NAME

1 abhi
2 adam

The Second table,

ID NAME

2 adam

3 Chester

Union All query will be like,

select * from First

UNION ALL

select * from second

The result table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

2 adam

3 Chester

Intersect
Intersect operation is used to combine two SELECT statements, but it only retuns the records which
are common from both SELECT statements. In case of Intersect the number of columns and
datatype must be same. MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator.

Example of Intersect

The First table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

The Second table,

ID NAME

2 adam

3 Chester

Intersect query will be,

select * from First

INTERSECT

select * from second

The result table will look like

ID NAME

2 adam

Minus

Minus operation combines result of two Select statements and return only those result which
belongs to first set of result. MySQL does not support INTERSECT operator.

Example of Minus

The First table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam
The Second table,

ID NAME

2 adam

3 Chester

Minus query will be,

select * from First

MINUS

select * from second

The result table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

SQL Sequence
Sequence is a feature supported by some database systems to produce unique values on demand.
Some DBMS like MySQL supports AUTO_INCREMENT in place of Sequence. AUTO_INCREMENT
is applied on columns, it automatically increments the column value by 1 each time a new record is
entered into the table. Sequence is also some what similar to AUTO_INCREMENT but its has some
extra features.

Creating Sequence

Syntax to create sequences is,

CREATE Sequencesequence-name

start with initial-value

increment by increment-value

maxvaluemaximum-value

cycle|nocycle

initial-value specifies the starting value of the Sequence, increment-value is the value by which
sequence will be incremented and maxvalue specifies the maximum value until which sequence will
increment itself.cycle specifies that if the maximum value exceeds the set limit, sequence will restart
its cycle from the begining. No cycle specifies that if sequence exceeds maxvalue an error will be
thrown.

Example to create Sequence

The sequence query is following

CREATE Sequence seq_1

start with 1

increment by 1

maxvalue 999

cycle ;

Example to use Sequence

The class table,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

The sql query will be,

INSERT into class value(seq_1.nextval,'anu');

Result table will look like,

ID NAME

1 abhi

2 adam

4 alex

1 anu

Once you use nextval the sequence will increment even if you don't Insert any record into the
table.

SQL View
A view in SQL is a logical subset of data from one or more tables. View is used to restrict data
access.

Syntax for creating a View,

CREATE or REPLACE viewview_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE condition

Example of Creating a View

Consider following Sale table,

oid order_name previous_balance customer

11 ord1 2000 Alex

12 ord2 1000 Adam

13 ord3 2000 Abhi

14 ord4 1000 Adam

15 ord5 2000 Alex

SQL Query to Create View

CREATE or REPLACE view sale_view as select * from Sale where customer = 'Alex';

The data fetched from select statement will be stored in another object called sale_view. We can
use create seperately and replace too but using both together works better.

Example of Displaying a View

Syntax of displaying a view is similar to fetching data from table using Select statement.

SELECT * from sale_view;

Force View Creation

force keyword is used while creating a view. This keyword force to create View even if the table does
not exist. After creating a force View if we create the base table and enter values in it, the view will
be automatically updated.

Syntax for forced View is,

CREATE or REPLACE forceviewview_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name
WHERE condition

Update a View

Update command for view is same as for tables.

Syntax to Update a View is,

UPDATE view-name

set value

WHERE condition;

If we update a view it also updates base table data automatically.

Read-Only View

We can create a view with read-only option to restrict access to the view.

Syntax to create a view with Read-Only Access

CREATE or REPLACE forceviewview_name AS

SELECT column_name(s)

FROM table_name

WHERE condition with read-only

The above syntax will create view for read-only purpose, we cannot Update or Insert data into read-
only view. It will throw an error.

Types of View

There are two types of view,

 Simple View

 Complex View
Simple View Complex View

Created from one table Created from one or more table

Does not contain functions Contain functions

Does not contain groups of data Contains groups of data