2: Now using the miotre scale, make aquadeat of int ‘and tie thread or strings ov Courit the numbor of plants of each specios preset Divide each quadeat furthor into smaller units, #€ the plant Mako another quadrat in the samo area and Tirthe same way, repeat with tho third quadrat J count the ho field, At the four corn the nails. tin the quadrat ig of small size number of plants in it Fig : A quadrat with subunits Observation and Result 1. Pield chosen should have uniform di m distribution of speci 4 Measurement of quadrats should be accurate, neon 3. The sing usd shoul ot be very thick ; 4 unt the indivic ; ‘ individuals of one plant spocies ata time, Plant lying under the string should be considered in quadrat, if than half of it lies towards insid® more than half of it lies t 101 ‘/uliaieeeemmnmeiie ne y — Species A 2 — Species B Fee ‘¥ — Species D cia — Species E and large in numberExperiment 6 (B) JERE To study plant population frequency by quadat method! Materials Required otro soale, papers Poncil, thread, strings, nails, hammer, jure Solect a suitable sito and lay a quacteat with the hnlfy of metre scale, Fix four nails and tie strings on tho nails, Now divide Ue quadrat into 18 small squaros, Mark the smaller squares with nails and strings {Count the mumbor of plants of gach spectos in oach square After this, find the {otal number of plants of each species in each quadeat. Randomly select another quadrat atid repeat the steps. 1m 1 a x a 5 6Experiment 1 a] 0 su0y: Materials Required Dilforant types of fresh flowers coverslip, cavity slide, microscope, water, beaker, gla rod, boric acid, sucro, ‘magnesium sulphate, potassium nitrate, weighing machine. , ' Procedure 4. Prepare a nutrient solution by dissolving 10 g sucrose, 10 g boric acid, 30 mg magnesium sulphate and 20 my on a clean slide, nutrient solution and put it over the pallen grains, Now mix the contents withFig : A matured pollen grain of an angiosperm Exe tine Tube or vegetative cell ‘Fig : Germination of pollen grain and formation of male gametophyte in an angiosperm Conclusion ‘Viable pollen grains germinate in nutrient medium, Precautions 1. Clean slide should be used to observe pollen grains. 2. Dust a few pollen grains on the slide to avoid overlapping, 3, Carefully prepare the nutrient solution, 4, Only fresh flowers should be used,[cae ‘ colls. Examine, the different gy, rocato the dividing " k ie microscope (0 ; cope ft Jower power 0 a aa power ofthe micros 411, Observe first ‘of mitosis undor the h Fig : Method of placing coverslip (mounting) over the material Observations ‘When the slide is observed under low power of the microscope, rectangular cells with pink coloured nucleus seen scattered whereas under high power of the microscope following stages are seen : (A) Interphase 1. Stage in between two successive cell divisions and hence a non-dividing phase, 2, Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct. 3, Chromatin fibres appear in the form of a network within the nucleus, (B) Prophase 4, Chromatin material gets condensed and appears as long thread-like struct % tures call chromosomes. 2, Bach chromosome consists of two chromatids, jointed at a point called aatcinact 3. Nucleolus gradually disappears by the end of prophase. ’ 4. Nuclear membrane starts disappearing, {C) Metaphase 1, Nuclear membrane disappears completely, 2, Chromosomes become shorter and thicker and two chromati na mat 3. Chromosomes become arranged al the equator of the oa * ofeach chromosome becom clear 4, Bach chromosome gets attached to the spindle fibres at its centrom: ere,(D) Anap! I Gontromere of cach chromosome divides into two so th each chromatid gots its own Spindle fibres gradually shorten so that each ‘hromatid with its contromero is pulled tos ards its respective pole with the contromore proceeding towards poles and chromosome arms trailing Tho daughter chromosomes (separated chromatids) appears }, L and I shaped depending upon. the position of conttromere Each chromatid now behaves as an independent chromosome and is thus known as daughter chromosome f ‘Col wall Daughter chromosomes (Chromats) - ‘Spindle fibres, ats eopase Fig : Different stages of mitosis in the onion root tip Tolophase and cytokinesis Fig : Stages of mitosis in onion root tip cells (plant ceil) (6) Telophase 1 ‘The spindle diss sand the daughtor’ ‘omosomes tinooil to form chromatin fibres at the two poles.Procedure 1, Take e stnall amount of provided plant material (such as s 6 7 a 4 spinach leaves/green papaya‘green pea seers) and grind L tina mortar. Z i . By treating the material with enzyme cellulase, break the coll wall and other onvolofies of plant cell. | ‘Treat the material with enzyme protease to remove histone proteins which are interwined with DNA: sar ii eee hi pir aitapet sen ul on be smevel i Dissolve tho lipid content with enzyme lipase. Precipitate out the DNA by adding chilled athanol. q ‘By spooling, separate out the precipitated DNA as fine threads. Observation DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool. . Precautions 1 2 All the glasswares used should be clean and dry. ‘The enzymes and other chemicals used must be of standard quality. 3, Ethanol should be kept in froezer overnight n plastic bots.sip of band lens Procedure otto aalide, Observe its parts with the 1. Tako'a flower and plac op ; » the extornal agencies observa tinder the microsce for pollination by 2. Extract the pollen and pistil and 4, Write down the different adaptations of the Mowers mioant Observations {A) Salvia flowers : Pollinatod by boneyboos Adaptations in flowers are : 1. The flowors are beautifully coloured inflorescence to become conspicuous. 4, Nectariforous glands are present at su The flowers are born in vorticellaster §. The noctasiferous glands'produice nectar for foeding the visiting insect positions on floral parts to encounter the anthers and stigma 4. The flowers possess landing platform for the insects. §. The Rowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla. They have lever mechanism. Stach stamon fas short filament and elongated connective. Half (lower) the anther is sterile and balf (upper) anther is fertile, both the lobes aré separated apart due to elongation of connective. Upper arm of connect pears fertile lobe of anther and lower arm of connective bears sterile lobe Storile lobes of both anthers for plate aboye the lower lip. 7. Asthe fasect moves inwards a young flower in search of nectar; its head pushes the anther plates and forces fertile anther lobes to strike against its back, 8. din older flowers, the style brings the stigma in such a position that it brushes against the back of insect, collect pollen grains brought by the insects from a young flower. Bhipped carol Closed stigma Ferble anther lobe ‘shedding pollen on Stigma receiving pollen grains form, the back of insect (0) Te Hower tsa Feuen Bo One Nee ee i Fig : Pollination mechani (B) Maize flowers : Pollinated by wind ism in Salvia Adaptations in flowers are : 1. The i sn maize plant has unisexual flowers and is monoect lowers are inconspicuous and not showy ilower’ woid of scent, nectar; ot ors aro produced abo anth a fF owe the foli ar olinge oF placed in hanging postion. Fort the stigmas 8 hang outuide th SORE © Largo quantity of light, anal and est pote, & ‘To catch the pollen grains, the stigma yor porianth Ws are produced. ky, hiniry, foathory or branched. Fig : Anemophily in maize {C) Bignonia/Callistemon flowers : Pollinated by birds. Adaptations in flowers are : 1. Flowers are beautifully coloured. 2, Parts of flowers are commonly leathery. 3. The nectar is secreted in such great amount that drops of it can be brought down by shaking branches. 4, The nectar is chiefly composed of sugars. 5. The flowers are generally scentless. Fig : Pollination in Bignonia ; Humming bird collecting nectar from Bignonia flower and thus pollinating it(B) T.S. of mammalian ovary sors calls a (mammal) transverse section of testis of mouse Fig: Apart of , ‘Sertol coll Blood vessel Connective tissue Fig : A single seminiferous tubule enlarged a | 1. A mammalian ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a thick layer of fitim a tissue, the tunica albuginea. Each ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla. Towards the periphery, medulla contains many rounded or oval bodies called ovarian follicles or Graaf follicles at different stages of development. . The medulla also contains blood vessels, lymph vessels nerve fibres and some smooth muscles. . Bach Graafian follicle contains a large ovum surrounded by many layers of follicle cells, ». The cortex contains young and mature follicles. Cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termalt corpus luteum formed after ovulation and it secretes progesterone. 4(W) Diplotene 1. The two chiasmata. 5. Spindle fibres get attached to centromere (iii) Anaphase 1 1, The two chromosomes of each bivalent m, (iv) Telophase I 1, Chromosomes reach the poles 2. Chromosomes start Uncoiling and become thin. 3, Nucleolus and nuclear envelope start 4. Cytokinesis occurs by plate formation, (B) Meiosis II Teappearing. 1. The chromosomes of daughter cell begin to condense and become thick. 2. Nuclear envelope and nucleolus start disappearing. 3. Spindle fibres start appearing, (ii) Metaphase If 1. Nucleolus and nuclear envelope completely disappear 2, Chromosomes arrange themselves at the metaphase plate. 3. Centromere divides separating the two chromatids, each chromatid having its own centromere. (ii) Anaphase 1 1. Centromeres are attached to spindle fibres of opposite poles. 2. Chromatids start moving to opposite poles by shortening of spindle fibres. (iv) Telophase 1 1. The chromosomes begin to uncoil and become thin, : 2, The nuclear envelope and nucleolus are formed.formed, each with haploid number of chromosomes. Gytokinesis ocours and four daughtor cells areure os the permanent slido, fix it undo a be 9 the slide unde 4 serve th fire sith similar stage, a] calls with similar stages Of moiosis can yp Observed as in Experiment 4 (A), He Nucleotus, Leptotene. a ag Diplotone Anaphase-tI Fig : Various stages of meiosis In grasshopper testis Precautions Same as in experiment 4 (A).Experiment 6 (A) Sample of pea seed, petridishes, enamel tray, pencil/pen, notebook. Procedure In an enamel tray, take about 120 pea seeds, “Take two petridishes, in one put cound seeds and in another put wrinkled seeds. Carefully note down the number of round seeds and wrinkled seeds. Calculate their approximate Repeat the same process for seed colour by using contrasting trait of the seed, i.e., yellow and green PsN Both seed shape and seed colour of pea seed show an approximate ratio of 3:1 which is same as obtained! for monobybrid crosses, This ratio indicates that dominant and recessive forms for all contrasting traits of pa exist in the ratio of 3 :1 in the population of pea seeds. Precautions ¥ 1. Take sufficient ammount (number) of seeds to minimise the error. 2,. Carefully observe the contrasting form of the trait.Expe iment 7 Materials Required Prepared pedigree charts of various rote Procedure 1, Study the pedigree charts of womens. F 2, Find the genotype of the various individuals of the pedigree. Problem 1. ee chart for ae 1e tongue.a # homozygous dominant (Rp ive (rr) while rollers ar tonal Non-rollors are homozygous recess pa copo eal : 1 generation is a nan-ro siete sn A et es en ohh Thon the tndteidual ix homorygotn tommy tn ite aoe oe = ich is possible only when the , herrea etwas individual of find generation are heterozygous (ost rose) wie individual of Hind generation is homongeus recente, The bases i. jeterozygous as its cross wi ehaie 3 a SErcm saan ‘1 of I1}rd generation is homozyous sms 9 ws ms Mg generation is heterozygous. 3 of Ii eneraion i enema me the trait (recessive), so her hus! may weston are either homozygous dominant or haterozygous. —- Rr m>Rr Rr-RR Rr > m™ Rr RVR RW/Re Pedigree chart for colour blindness, a Give genotype of whole pedigree. The allele for colour blindness is present on X chromosome (X°) while the chromosome Y does not bear corresponding allele for this character. A male has one X chromosome (that obtained from his mother). Hence, he will be colour blind when his mother ist carrier, A female is colour blind when her father is colour blind and her mother ise carrier. 1 of Ist generation is a female carrier (X°X). 2 of Ist generation is a normal male (9X), In Und generation, 1is a normal female (XX), 2 is a colour blind male (X°Y) Sis carrier female(X°X) and 4 is a normal male (XY). Wife of 2 (IInd generation) is normal female (XX) while husband of 3 (IInd generation) is colour blind, 1,2,3,4,5, Gand 7a Ulrd generation are female carrier (X°X), female carrier (X©X), normal male (X¥) colour blind male(XY), carrier female (X°X), colour blind female (X°X°) and noma male (XY) respectively.BE AEX OR 5 Ore, " S tinde, ry (1) Cartioy female xy Normal mat metes xy Progeny Sw Carri oS) 3) fetnalg “%rblind Normal Noval mall fomale male 2] @ ae plitd mals Normal female XX Gametes Progeny Carrier Carrier Normal Normal female female male male @) Carrier female Colour blind male XOX, xey Gametes Progeny i i mal Colour Colour blind Carrier Non blind male female male female The genotype of the whole pedigree is : I xX XY xy ~ xy xey-xx X°X i ) xCy XX XCX® W xx XEX XYFig: A flower being emasculated 3, Bagging, Tagging and Labelling va in a bag made of butler paper ar polythene 12 SY f ed immediately Jant, date of ema te of pollinatios parent p (wtnout stamens) Fig: A flower which has been bagged and tagged after emasculPedigree chart for widow's peak OF psig 1_ | 2 oh ué a yd Oo 3 4 m1 } be 2 aed 0 indicate whether the dotted symbol indicates. Give the genotype of whole pedigree. Als dominant or recessive. / Widow's peak is a dominant trait, Thus, both homozygous dominant (WW) anq heterozygous (Ww) individuals have widow peak. Homozygous recessive (wn individuals have a straight hairline. Mother is not having the trait, so she is homozygous recessive (ww). Her thres ) are having the trait, so father must be progenies (1,3 and 4 of IInd generation| i homozygous dominant (WW). His possibility of being heterozygous is absent as that would produce 50% heterozygotes (Ww) and 50% homozygotes (ww) but that is not the case, Hence, all the individuals of igen WI second generation will be heterozygous (Ww). Cross between 2 (of IInd generation) and the outsider Ww Ww-ww Ww Ww (homozygous recessive as he is not having the trait) produces 50% ww Ww Ww children with trait and other 50% without trait. This also verifies the fact that the dotted symbol indicates a heterozygote, 2and 3 of IIIrd generation will be heterozygous while 1 and 4 of IlIrd generation will be homozygous recessive.Materials Required ‘Specimens or permanent slides of Ascaris, Entamoeba, Plasmodium, Microsporum, hand lens, microscope, Procedure 1. Carefully examine a specimen with the naked eyes as well as with the help of hand lens. 2. Fora permanent slide, observe the slide under microscope carefully. 3. Draw its labelled diagram and write down its feature of identification. Observations ed Identification : Ascaris lumbricoides (he giant intestinal roundworm) Disease caused : Ascariasisend. ‘they derive food from the host. symptoms 4. Asit infsts the intestine of the host, so Ag Jike colic pains. 2, In chikdren, mental efficiency is affected and 5, other symptoms include impaired digestion, Saris may obstruct intestinal passage causing ubdominal discomfort body growth is retarded, ‘vomniting, tiredness, diarrhoea, weight loss and muscular pain. Identification : Entamoeba histolytica Disease caused : Amosbiasis or Amoebic dysentery Comments It is @ human parasite (monogenetic) that lives in the upper part of the large intestine. Tt is unicellular, microscopic and has one pseudopodium. ‘There is a single nucleus. A number of food vacuoles are also present. teats red blood corpuscles by rupturing the wall of large intestine and reaching the blood capillaries. It reproduces asexually and forms cysts during unfavourable conditions.motions «ith blood and mucos Symptoms 1, Tho aymptoms of the disease include abtominal pain, repeated 2. Myproduces ulcers and can also rere h other borly organs: 8. Qyets appear in the faecal matter of infected person. Identification + Plasmodium vivox (Malarial Parasite) Disoase caused : Malaria Comments nd fornale Anopheles moscito and jy 1. Plasmodium requires two hosts to. complete its life cycle—human being a1 thus digenetic. 2. Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite stage (mature form) by the bites of female Anopheles mosquito, 3. The sporozoite is spindle-shaped and uninucleate, 4. The sporomites infect liver cells and divide to produce exyptomerozoites which enter new liver cells ang produce metacryptomerozoites. yfoplasm Fig : Sporozoites of Plasmodium 5. They enter RBCs and passes trophozoite signet ring stage and amoeboid stage and produce schizont and merozoites, 5. Merozoites enter fresh RBCs, In RBCs, they mature into trophozoites which release doughter merozoites which _get transformed into male and female gametocytes. ‘The gametocytes reach into mosquito stomach, when the latter : | sucks ae nk he ei the blood of infected human host. b lization place and oocyst is formed which and are ready to infect again. Which produces sporozoites that are taken ta the salivary glasitiS pvorm days after the infections bit tye 1 1 jes, 1088 of Appotite, cleanin TanetO*S Of malaria fevar appoar roms of this fever. followed by muscular pain, headache and feeling of chilliness # rostle esl ting body tomperature upto 1qgep eapicly 18 pap pov jos with sweating and itis « aye; 105" with shivering and chills, 1 fevor repeating aftor 24 ~ 44 hours. on subst Liver cat Liver sinusoid Liver col breaks. ryptomerozoites Nuclei a cytoplasm: . Schizont Liver cell oan eca. Microsporum Iden mm andowinil mycosis ation : Microspon on of Dorenatom te p in chin Disease caused : Ringworm of scalp + pe 03 c rs te ci 1 the hair. eek in the de ‘ow up and down 1. ‘Tho fine mycelium occurs in brook i Who dermis. and grow UP i 2, ‘The fungus infects hair, The hyphae emergoe as 3. The hyphae givos ouit surface fine filaments, Fig : Ringworm of scalp 4. The spores are borne on the fine filaments. Spores are numerous and very small. infection . They readily detach and sym Fig: Fungus causing ringworm (Microsporum andouinif) Symptoms 1. Small, yellowish, cup-like crusts are formed on scalp. Hair gets lustreless and grey and that further may lead to permanent by ids ermanent baldness,