Updated January 30, 2023

Biometric Technologies and Global Security

Biometric technologies use unique biological or behavioral In the future, biometric technologies could be integrated
attributes—such as DNA, fingerprints, cardiac signatures, into lethal autonomous weapon systems (LAWS), or
voice or gait patterns, and facial or ocular measurements— weapons capable of selecting and engaging targets without
to authenticate an individual’s identity. Although biometric the need for manual human control or remote operation.
technologies have been in use for decades, recent advances Such weapons could potentially feature a database
in artificial intelligence (AI) and Big Data analytics have containing the biometric identifiers of preapproved human
expanded their application. As these technologies continue targets; the weapons could then use the database to
to mature and proliferate, largely driven by advances in the autonomously locate, select, and engage human targets in
commercial sector, they will likely hold growing communications-degraded or -denied environments where
implications for congressional oversight, civil liberties, U.S. traditional systems may not be able to operate.
defense authorizations and appropriations, military and
intelligence concepts of operations, and the future of war. Some analysts have argued that this technology application
could increase precision in targeting, and thus improve
How are biometric technologies being adherence to international humanitarian law (e.g., avoid
used today? killing civilians), while others have argued that it is
Biometric technologies are currently used for a number of inherently unethical and could violate international
congressionally authorized or mandated security humanitarian law. The United States does not currently
applications throughout the U.S. government. For example, possess and is not known to be developing LAWS;
the Aviation and Transportation Security Act of 2001 (P.L. however, there is no prohibition on their development or the
107-71) granted the Transportation Security Administration incorporation of biometric technologies into autonomous
the authority to employ biometrics for passenger screening weapon systems. Weapons manufacturers in both China and
and airport access control. Similarly, the Intelligence Russia have stated that they are developing these systems,
Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 (P.L. 108- which could include biometric features.
458) required the Department of Homeland Security to
operate a biometric entry and exit data system to verify the Biometric technologies could also be integrated into
identity of foreign nationals seeking to enter or exit the localized or national data collection and surveillance
United States. These applications are intended to expedite networks. For example, as Center for Security and
screening processes and reduce human error rates. Emerging Technology analyst Dahlia Peterson has noted,
“[Chinese] officials maintain national DNA databases and
Biometric technologies are also used by law enforcement extensive video surveillance networks”—augmented by AI-
agencies, such as the Secret Service and Federal Bureau of enabled voice and facial recognition technology—to
Investigation, to assist in the investigation of crimes and to monitor and track individuals within China. These systems
identify missing persons and persons of interest. In could continue to be linked and supplemented with private
addition, the Department of Defense (DOD) has used information such as medical, travel, and purchase history.
biometric technologies “to identify, target, and disrupt
enemy combatants and terrorists” in Iraq, Afghanistan, and Although the Chinese government claims that these
elsewhere. According to the Government Accountability biometric applications contribute to predictive policing and
Office, between 2008 and 2017, DOD used biometric public safety, some analysts have argued that they provide a
technologies “to capture or kill 1,700 individuals and deny means of imposing censorship and social control and could
92,000 individuals access to military bases.” DOD enable human rights violations. Reports indicate that China
Directive 8521.01E establishes DOD policy and has employed biometric surveillance to monitor ethnic
bureaucratic responsibilities for biometric technologies. minorities in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region and
facilitate their detention and internment in “re-education”
How could biometric technologies be centers. (Some analysts note that China’s application of
used in the future? biometric surveillance systems has not been uniform
DOD is exploring a range of emerging biometric throughout China, and thus the Xinjiang model is not
technologies and biometric applications, including AI necessarily representative of China’s national plans.
techniques that could identify individuals in low-light or Regardless, this model could be deployed nationally in
otherwise obscured conditions and laser techniques that other countries.)
could identify individuals at distances of around 200
meters. Such techniques could be employed in covert and Biometric surveillance systems also could hold implications
clandestine operations without an individual’s knowledge for traditional military and intelligence operations.
or consent. According to former CIA Deputy Director for Science and
Technology Dawn Meyerriecks, around 30 countries have

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 Biometric Technologies and Global Security

already deployed biometric surveillance systems that are Some U.S. defense agencies are seeking to develop
capable of autonomously tracking foreign military biometric presentation attack detection technologies. For
personnel and intelligence operatives. Some estimates example, the Intelligence Advanced Research Projects
suggest that China alone has exported components of these Agency program Odin seeks to provide an automated
systems to over 80 countries, including authoritarian means of both detecting known presentation attacks and
regimes, such as Venezuela, and U.S. allies, such as the identifying unknown vectors of attack.
United Kingdom.
Recent legislative activities
Fully integrated, large-scale biometric surveillance Congress has considered the implications of biometric—
networks have not yet been realized; however, as specifically facial recognition—technologies in a number of
component technologies continue to mature and proliferate, recent legislative provisions. For example, Section 5104 of
such networks could threaten the privacy or jeopardize the the FY2021 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA)
safety of targeted individuals or disrupt U.S. clandestine (P.L. 116-283) tasks the National AI Advisory Committee
operations or human intelligence gathering. As a result, with advising the President on “whether the use of facial
U.S. military and intelligence agencies may continue to recognition by government authorities ... is taking into
develop alternative tradecraft and concepts of operation. account ethical considerations and ... whether such use
should be subject to additional oversight, controls, and
How could biometric technologies fail? limitations.” In addition, Section 5708 of the FY2020
Biometric technologies have a number of vulnerabilities NDAA (P.L. 116-92) expresses the sense of Congress that
that underscore the ethical concerns over their employment the discriminatory use of facial recognition technologies “is
and could result in the failure of the technology to perform contrary to the values of the United States” and that “the
as anticipated. For example, researchers have repeatedly United States Government should not engage in the sale or
found that AI-trained facial recognition programs fail transfer of facial recognition technology to any country that
disproportionately when used for women and people of is using such technology for the suppression of human
color due to both the models and the data on which the rights.” The section also tasks the Director of National
programs were trained. Data poisoning, in which an Intelligence with submitting to the congressional
adversary or bad actor seeks to surreptitiously mis-train an intelligence committees a report on the intelligence
opponent’s AI, could present additional challenges for AI- community’s use of facial recognition technologies. Other
trained biometric technologies. If unaddressed, these biometric technologies are not addressed.
challenges could result in system failure, potentially leading
to violations of civil liberties or international humanitarian Potential questions for Congress
law.
 How should the potential national security benefits of
biometric technologies be balanced with civil liberties
Biometric technologies are also vulnerable to presentation
and the requirements of international humanitarian law?
attacks (or spoofing), in which a targeted individual uses
What domestic or international limits, if any, should be
makeup, prosthetics, or other measures to prevent a
placed on the use of biometric technologies or biometric
biometric system from accurately capturing their biometric
data collection?
identifiers or adjudicating their identity (see Figure 1). This
could enable individuals such as terrorists or foreign  Are biometric technologies being sufficiently tested to
intelligence operatives to thwart biometric security systems. ensure their accuracy and to ward against presentation
attacks and other countermeasures?
Figure 1. Facial Recognition Technologies:
How Do They Work?
 To what extent are potential U.S. adversaries developing
biometric technologies? Are U.S. military and
intelligence agencies sufficiently addressing the
implications of biometric technologies for tradecraft and
concepts of operations?

Related CRS Products

CRS In Focus IF11634, Biometric Entry-Exit System: Legislative
History and Status, by Abigail F. Kolker.
CRS Report R46586, Federal Law Enforcement Use of Facial
Recognition Technology, coordinated by Kristin Finklea.
CRS Report R46541, Facial Recognition Technology and Law
Sources: @tahkion (image); https://arxiv.org/pdf/2006.05074.pdf. Enforcement: Select Constitutional Considerations, by Kelsey Y.
Note: Facial recognition technology authenticates identity by Santamaria.
examining the perceived placement of an individual’s facial features,
such as the eyes, nose, mouth, and jawline (identified in red—
correctly on the left; incorrectly on the right). Evasive measures (e.g.,
makeup pattern) can cause some facial recognition algorithms to Kelley M. Sayler, Analyst in Advanced Technology and
misidentify these features, in turn leading to a failure to correctly
Global Security
adjudicate the individual’s identity.
IF11783

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 Biometric Technologies and Global Security

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