CELLULOSE BASED POLYMER AND ITS APPLICATION

A REVIEW

By
WALEED AHMAD

2018-GCUF-06987

Bachelor review report submitted in partial fulfilment

Of the requirements for the degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

IN

APPLIED CHEMISTRY

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY, FAISALABAD.

FURBURY, 2023
 DECLARATION
The work reported in this review article was carried out by me under the supervision of Dr. Aqdas
Noreen, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University, and
Faisalabad.

I hereby declare that the title of the review article“Cellulose Based Polymer and their

applications: A review” and the contents thesis is the product of my research and no part has
been copied from any published source (except the references, standard mathematical or genetic
models /equations /formulas /protocols, etc.). I further declare that this work has not been submitted
for the award of any other degree /diploma. The University may take action if

the information provided is found inaccurate at any stage.

_________________

Waleed Ahmad
2018-GCUF-06987

ii
 CERTIFICATE BY THE RESEARCH SUPERVISOR
I certify that the contents and form of review submitted by Mr. WALEED AHMAD, Registration
No. 2018-GCUF-06987 has been found satisfactory and by the prescribed format. I recommend it to
be processed for the evaluation by the Review Article Evaluation Committee for the award of degree.

Supervisor ______________

Dr. Aqdas Noreen

Assistant Professor

Department of Applied Chemistry

Government College University, Faisalabad.

Co-Supervisor_________________________
Dr. Shazia Tabassum
Assistant Professor
Department of Applied Chemistry
Government College University, Faisalabad

Chairperson ______________

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Jawwad Saif

Professor

Department of Applied Chemistry

Government College University, Faisalabad.

REVIEW/RESEARCH REPORT EVALUATION COMMITTEE

iii
We clarify that the content and form of a review submitted by Mr. Waleed Ahmad Registration
No. 2018-GCUF-06987 has been found satisfactory and by the prescribed format. We
recommend it to be processed for the evaluation by the external examiner for the award of
degree.

Convener_____________________
Dr. Muhammad Naveed Anjum
Associate Professor
Department of Applied Chemistry
Government College University, Faisalabad

Member-1____________________
Dr. Muhammad Ibrahim
Associate Professor
Department of Applied Chemistry
Government College University, Faisalabad

Member-2_____________________
Dr. Tahir Farooq
Associate Professor
Department of Applied Chemistry
Government College University, Faisalabad

Supervisor _____________________
Dr. Aqdas Noreen
Assistant Professor,
Department of Applied Chemistry
Government College University, Faisalabad

TABLE OF CONTENTS

iv
Sr. No. Title Page No.

Acknowledgement i

List of Figures ii

List of Tables iii

List of Abbreviation iv

Abstract V

1. Introduction 1

1.1 Cellulose 2

1.2 Types of cellulose 3

1.2.1 Bacterial cellulose 3

1.2.2 Cellulose acetate 3

1.2.3 Ethylcellulose 3

1.2.4 Hydroxypropyl cellulose 4

1.3 Composition 4

1.4 Sources of cellulose 6

1.4.1 Cellulose from plant 6

1.4.2 Cellulose from microorganisms 7

1.4.3 Animal cellulose 7

1.5 Cellulose properties 8

1.6 Application of cellulose 8

1.6.1 Industrial application 9

v
1.6.2 Biomedical application 9

1.6.3 Textile application 10

1.6.4 Electronics application 10

Why we use cellulose with other polymers?

1.7

1.8 Drwabacks of cellulose

vi
vii
 List of Table

Sr# Title Pg#

1 Compositions, Techniques, properties, and applications of 8

viii
 List of Figures

Sr# Title Pg.#

1 Chemical structure of a cellulose molecule. 5

2 Different sources of cellulose. 6

3 Applications of cellulose 9

5 Schematic representation of PLA/PHB blends and nanocomposites 26

preparation and processing processing of films, filaments, and 3D-print

6 Schematic diagram illustrating hydrogen bonding between PLA, 28

ANCN and ZnO.

7 Schematic illustration of the preparation of a chiral 30

nematicbionanocomposite film showing an intelligent response to
humidity by co-assembling CNCs with glucose, glycerol, and PVA. P/2
indicates the half-helical pitch

8 Schematic illustration of the preparation process of the TNFC- 32

polyPCDA-DH films. (b) AFM micrograph of the TNFC-polyPCDA-
DH solution. (c) Digital images of the as-prepared pure polyPCDA
powder, pure TNFC film, and TNFC-polyPCDA-DH film. (d) SEM
micrograph of fracture surface from the TNFC-
polyPCDADHnanocomposites

9 Scheme 1. Illustration of the synthesis of Cell-CTA and Cell-g-P(BA- 34

co-AM) copolymer

10 Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the preparation of 35

cellulose/curcumin composite fibres

ix
x
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the present world of competition, there is a race of existence in which those have the will to
succeed. A review article is like a bridge between theoretical and practical working. Writing a Review
Articles helps the students to advance excellence in their careers. With this willing, I write this
Review article. First of all, I would like to thank the supreme power the ALLAH ALMIGHTY who
is the one who has always guided me to work the right path in life. Secondly, I would like to thank the
greatest man of the universe, the last messenger of ALLAH, HAZRAT MUHAMMAD (PBUH)
whom ALLAH has sent as a mercy for worlds, the illuminating torch, the blessing for the literate,
illiterate, rich, poor, powerful, weak, able and disabled. Whose life and sayings are the ultimate source
of guidance and way of “NIJAT” for mankind?

Next to him are my parents, whom I am greatly indebted for me brought up with love and
encouragement to this stage. Both my parents always inspired me in every prospect of life. Further,
there are a lot of people. I would like to thank you for a huge variety of reasons. I am very grateful to
the honourable Head of the Department of Applied Chemistry, Dr.Muhammad Jawwad Saif,
Professor/Chairperson, for his valuable suggestions and a keen interest in extending research
facilities. I acknowledge with deep reverence and sincerity and feel much pleasure in expressing my
heartiest gratitude to my honourable supervisor Dr. Aqdas Noreen Assistant Professor, Department
of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, Dr. Shazia Tabassum, Assistant
Professor, Department of Applied Chemistry, Government College University Faisalabad, for their
kind behaviour, vital instructions and great attention during the completion of this review work. I am
highly obliged in taking the opportunity to thanks all my staff members of the Department of Applied
Chemistry. At last, I am thankful to my relatives and friends who have been always helping and
encouraging me. May ALLAH bless these people with delighted and satisfying lives. (Ameen)

WALEED AHMAD

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

xi
 CNC Cellulose Nano Crystals

MCC Microcrystaline Cellulose

CL Cotton Liter

BS Broad-Spectrum

DCE Dichloroethane

DCM Dichloromethane

DMSO Dimethyl Sulfoxide

CMC Carboxymethyl Cellulose

TS Tensile Strength

FTIR Fourier Transform Infrared

NMR Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

PBS Phosphate Buffer Saline

PEA Poly Ethyl Acrylate

TEM Transmission Electron Microscopy

PAM Poly acryl amide

XRD X-ray diffraction

DSC Differential scanning calorimet

SEM Scanning electron microscopy

xii
 ABSTRACT

Cellulose(C6H10O5) is one of the most ubiquitous organic polymers on the planet. It is a significant
structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, various forms of algae and oomycetes.
It is a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1 → 4)
linked d-glucose units. There are various extraction procedures for cellulose developed by using
different processes like oxidation, etherification and esterification which convert the prepared
celluloses in to cellulose derivatives. Since it is a non-toxic, bio-degradable polymer with high tensile
and compressive strength. Cellulose is the renewable, biodegradable, and affordable. Cellulose
have good thermal stability and mechanical property. It has widespread use in various fields such
as nanotechnology, pharmaceutical industry, food industry, cosmetics, textile and paper industry,
drug-delivery systems in treating cancer and other diseases.

1
Cellulolse based polymer

1.Introduction
Cellulose is the most abundant renewable natural biopolymer on Earth (Oun and Rhim, 2017). The
most prevalent and environmentally benign organic component made by plants and some microbes is
cellulose. There have already been reports of several cellulose-reinforced polymeric materials (Murai
et al., 2019). The numerous hydroxyl groups in cellulose, the most prevalent biomass polysaccharide
in nature, offer a special foundation for the creation of biomaterials (Yao et al., 2021). The most
prevalent naturally occurring macromolecule, cellulose is renewable, biodegradable, and reasonably
priced( Zhao et al., 2020). There are both strong intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonds
present. It is well recognised that cellulose is the part of biomass that is most readily available.
Cellulose is one of the most renewable and ecological materials, and it has innovative uses that can
enhance some products. Meanwhile, cellulose is a renewable and biodegradable nanofiller, have
received a lot of attention in the field of nanocomposite materials (Mohan et al., 2020). Cellulosic
biomass is hydrolyzed to form spindle-shaped, extremely crystalline nanomaterials known as
cellulose nanocrystals (Yu et al., 2021). The most prevalent biomass on the planet, cellulose is cheap
and has good mechanical qualities (Jiang et al., 2019). One of the most plentiful and inexhaustible
biopolymers in nature, cellulose has an annual global production that exceeds 1012 tonnes. A high-
molecular crystalline biopolymer, cellulose is the primary structural element of plant cell walls (Kim
et al., 2021). The most prevalent naturally occurring glucose polymer, cellulose, is present in plants
and natural fibres like cotton and linen (Rathnayake et al., 2019). Cellulose is a linear polymer of -
(1,4)-D-glucopyranose units in 4 C1 conformation. Cellulose consists of highly ordered crystalline
regions as well as disordered amorphous regions leading to four different crystalline
allomorphs(Mohit and Arul 2018). Cellulose is the most abundant natural resource material on earth.
It is a linear homo polysaccharide composed of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units linked by the
glycosidic bond(Jayaramudu et al., 2017). Cellulose which is the important component of natural fiber
and the most abundant natural polymer available on earth(Yang and Xu 2017). Cellulose is a
biodegradable polysaccharide polymer that plays a critical role in the structure of plant cell walls in
nature(Graninger et al., 2020). The most prevalent polymer on earth, cellulose, makes for an
intriguing raw material for the creation of novel composites (Cazon et al., 2019). Cellulose, as the
most abundant natural polymer on earth, provides a sustainable green resource that is
renewable, degradable, biocompatible, and cost-effective( Moon et al., 2011). Cellulose is the
most abundant biopolymer available in nature, since it is one of the major components of the
cell walls of most of the plants (Khandelwal et al., 2013 ). It is a homopolymer of anhydroglucose,
with the glucose residues linked in a ß-1,4 fashion (Caballero et al., 2003). Cell walls of plant
cells attribute their mechanical strength to cellulose. Cellulose owes its structural properties to

2
the fact that it can retain a semi-crystalline state of aggregation even in an aqueous
environment, which is unusual for a polysaccharide(Aravamudhan et al., 2014 ). Smaller
amounts of cellulose when processed under appropriate conditions, can be converted to a wide
variety of derivatives, these can be used in manufacture of few commercial products like
cellophane and rayon ( Kalia et al., 2011 ). Since cellulose is a homopolymer of a glucose
derivative, it is a great source of fermentable sugar. It is cultivated in the form of energy crops
for the production of ethanol, ethers, acetic acid, etc. Besides energy requirements the industrial
demands of cellulose are fulfilled by wood pulp and cotton crops (Aunina et al., 2010 ). Cellulose
also fulfils the dietary requirements of some animals, particularly ruminants and termite, they
can digest cellulose with help of symbiotic microorganisms present in their gut, while some
organisms secrete a group of enzymes called cellulases to aid the degradation of cellulose
molecules ( Niwinska, 2012 ). Human beings are unable to digest cellulose due to lack of
cellulases, thus cellulose acts as a hydrophilic bulking agent for faeces and potentially aids in
defecation ( Zhang et al., 2018 ).

1.1.Cellulose

Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer in the biosphere, with a global production (and
decomposition) of ~1.5 ×1012 tons per year, comparable to the planetary reserves of the main
fossil and mineral sources (Klemm et al., 2005). In addition to the long-standing scientific
interest in cellulose, the use of cellulose as renewable and biodegradable raw material in
various applications is a proposed solution to the recent industrial challenge to successfully
meet environmental and recycling problem ( Mohanty et al., 2000). Versatile structuring of
cellulose by various routes of modification, including both physical and chemical methods, has
enabled its use in a variety of applications (e.g., fillers, building and coating materials, laminates,
papers, textiles, optical films, sorption media, viscosity regulators, and even advanced functional
materials( Heinze and Liebert, 2012 ). The earliest systematic efforts that lead to the discovery
of cellulose began in 1837 with the work of the French chemist Anselme Payen, who showed
that various plant materials yielded a fibrous substance after purification with acid-ammonia
treatment and extraction with water, alcohol, and ether. The French Academy finally named the
resulting carbohydrate “cellulose” (Payen A, 1839 )

1.2 Composition
Cellulose is a carbohydrate derived from D-glucose monomer units or so called
anhydroseglucose monomer units . The six carbons in a cellulose monomer unit are
numbered 1 to 6 . The monomers are linked through β(1→4)-glycosidic bonds and in
that way it discerns from e.g. starch and other carbohydrates as these are made up

3
α(1→4)-glycosidic bonds. On the remaining carbons three hydroxyl groups are attached
that are referred to as OH-2, OH-3 and OH-6, indicating the position on the monomer
unit ( Cosica et al., 2017) It is a linear polymer made up of two glucose sugar units that are
joined together to create the dimer cellobiose by a -1, 4 glycosidic bond. Due to the number of
repeating units of glucose (from 20 to 10,000 or more), also known as the degree of

polymerization or DP, cellulose chains can vary greatly in length(Coscia et al., 2018) .
Cellulose is composed of the same polymer chain, which is connected by D-
glucopyranosyl units through β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Each glucose unit has hydroxyl
groups on C2, C3, and C6, which are able to form hydrogen bonds within and between
the molecules of cellulose macromolecules. It is therefore clear that these hydroxyl
groups and their ability to form hydrogen bonds which play a crucial role in knowing the
crystal packing and controlling the physicochemical properties of cellulose (Moon et al.,
2011; Wang et al., 2020). Chemically, cellulose consists of linear chains of repeating β-D-
glucopyranose units covalently linked through β-1,4 glycosidic bonds .A large number of
hydrogen bonds exist intra- and intermolecularly and yield different configurations of
cellulose structure. The nanoscale structures of cellulose (e.g., nanofibrils or
nanocrystals) offer a unique combination of properties including flexible surface
chemistry, transparency, low thermal expansion, high elasticity, and anisotropy( Moon
et al., 2011 ). cellulose is made up by the fundamental D-glucopyranose ring units that
occur in 4C1 chair configuration, and therefore, it exhibits the lowest energy
conformation. These basic ring components are connected to each other by β-1, 4-
glycosidic bonds. Therefore, owing to these chemical bonds, there is an alternate
turning of the cellulose chain axis by 180°. The hydroxyl groups are positioned in the
ring plane (equatorial), while the hydrogen atoms are in the vertical position (axial).
The polymer contains free hydroxyl groups at the C-2, C-3, and C-6 atoms, and the
hydrogen bonds associated with these groups will result in the formation of various
types of supramolecular semicrystalline structures. Another factor of characterization
was degree of polymerization (DP) of the native cellulose or otherwise cellulose I
from different sources, with a chain length of 500 to 15,000 nm lies in the range
between 1000 and 3000. In general, cellulose exhibits two types of polymorphs –
cellulose I (native cellulose) and cellulose II

4
Fig. 1 Chemical structure of a cellulose molecule ( Heinze, 2016 )

1.3 Sources Of Cellulose

Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer derived from biomass, including plants,
some sea animals, and microorganisms (Fig. 2 ). Despite the similar structure, the
cellulose derived from each source has several different characteristics. The following
paragraph presents the characteristics of cellulose extracted from different sources
(Danafar, F., 2020 )

5
Figure 2 : Different sources of cellulose (Danafar, F., 2020 )

1.4.1 Cellulose from plant

Plants or agricultural wastes, including woody or non-woody plants, such as cotton,

hemp, jute and sisal, as well as sea grass species, such as Posidonia oceanic, are the
major source of cellulose. The tubular structure of the cell wall in plants comprises a
helically wound arrangement of cellulose nanofibers with a width of 1.5-3.5 nm and
length of 1 μm and above (Klemm et al., 2005 ). 0 These nanofibers, mostly known as
cellulose microfibrils, consist of a semi-crystalline structure embedding cellulose
molecular chains. In the crystalline domains, the long chains of cellulose are connected
by hydrogen bonds and form a highly ordered crystalline structure. The amorphous
region of cellulose in plants usually consists in hemicelluloses and lignin, and sometimes
pectin. The properties of cellulose extracted from plants depend not only on the
treatment methods applied, but also on the plant source and the plant part used ( Moran
et al., 2008 ).

1.4.2 Cellulose from microorganisms

In addition to plants, several microorganisms can be used to produce cellulose, either in

vivo or in vitro ( lguchi et al., 2000 ). For instance, cellulose has been found in some
classes of green algae, such as Chlorophyceae, Valonia ventricosa (also known bubble

6
 algae), Chaetamorpha melagonicum, and Glaucocystis. Although the cell wall of most
fungi consists of chitin, several fungi, namely, Acytostelium, Dictyostelium and
Polysphondylium, have cellulose in their cell wall. Bacteria belonging to the genera
Gluconacetobacter (or Acetobacter), Agrobacterium, Pseudomonas, Rhizobium and
Sarcinacan can synthesize cellulose from the carbon sources (like glucose) existing in
their culture media. Amongst the cellulose-forming bacteria, a non-pathogen, gram-
negative bacterium Gluconoacetobacter, which secretes the cellulose into the culture
medium, is suitable for economical production of bacterial cellulose ( El- saied et al.,
2004 ).

1.4.3 Animal cellulose

Cellulose can be also found in the outer membranes of some marine animals, like
Ascidians, known as tunicates or sea squirts. The cellulose that reinforces the proteins of
the outer membrane of Ascidians can be obtained through bleaching treatments of the
protein ( Ruiz et al., 2001). 2 The cellulose nanostructures derived from tunicates
exhibited higher crystallinity and aspect ratio, compared to NC obtained from bacteria.8
However, cellulose from marine animals is of little commercial interest because of its
lower availability ( Sacui et al., 2011).

1.2 Types of Cellulose

1. Bacterial cellulose

2. Cellulose acetate

3. Ethylcellulose

4. Hydroxypropyl cellulose

1.2.1 Bacterial cellulose

Although cellulose is mainly produced by plants, many bacteria, especially those belonging to
the genus Gluconacetobacter are involved in the production of a very peculiar form of cellulose
with mechanical and structural properties that can be exploited in numerous applications.
Bacterial cellulose are usually produced by Gluconacetobacter hansenii UCP1619 using the
Hestrin-Schramm (HS) medium. But there are few limitations associated with bacterial cellulose
like the production cost is high, use of expensive culture media, poor yields, downstream
processing, and operating costs. Bacterial cellulose can also be produced by bacteria from
genera Sarcina, and Agrobacterium (Costa et al., 2017 ). Bacterial cellulose produced by aerobic
bacteria has unique physiochemical properties compared to plant cellulose ( Esa et al., 2014 ).

7
1.2.2 Cellulose acetate

Cellulose acetate is an important ester of cellulose. Cellulose acetate can be used for great varies
of applications like for films, membranes or fibres, depending on the way it has been processed.
A special field for using cellulose acetate is the synthesis of porous, spherical particles, so called
cellulose beads ( Fischer et al., 2008 ).

1.2.3 Ethylcellulose

Ethylcellulose (EC) is a derivative of cellulose in which some of the hydroxyl groups on the
repeating anhydroglucose units are modified into ethyl ether groups, largely called as non-ionic
ethyl ether of cellulose. Ethylcellulose (EC) based microencapsulated drug delivery systems are
being studied to achieve extended drug release and to protect the core substance from
degradation ( Murtaza, 2012 ).

1.2.4 Hydroxypropyl cellulose

Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is one of the derivatives of cellulose which is soluble in both
water and organic solvent. It can be used as a lubricant. It can also be used for the treatment of
keratoconjunctivitis sicca, corneal erosions neuroparalytic keratitis etc. It is also used as a
lubricant for patients having artificial eye ( Luchs et al., 2010 ).

1.5 Cellulose Properties

Due to their distinctive qualities, including availability, low density, surface reactivity, high aspect
ratios, biocompatibility, superior mechanical capabilities, sustainability, and low cytotoxicity (Oun
and Rhim 2017). Interesting characteristics of cellulose include its ability to form films, odorlessness,
non-toxicity, biodegradability, and dispersibility in a variety of solvents, including acetone (Freitas,
Silva et al. 2020). Strong intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen bonding in cellulose contribute
to its excellent mechanical and thermal properties (Zhao, Fu et al. 2020). One of the most renewable
and sustainable materials, cellulose has a wide range of characteristics, including shape and
crystallinity, depending on the extraction technique and biomass employed (Mohan, Teong et al.
2020).) Low toxicity, light weight, biodegradability, biocompatibility, and renewability are benefits of
cellulose nanocrystals (Yu, Wang et al. 2021). In-depth research has been done on cellulose-based
materials to create new materials that can replace petroleum-based ones (Liu, Liu et al. 2021). Due to
its poor thermal conductivity, cellulose is a promising heat insulator. However, it is an intrinsically

8
combustible material, raising questions about public safety (Guo, Wang et al. 2018). cellulose is a
cheap material with strong mechanical qualities (Jiang, Pan et al. 2019). Cellulose is a substance that
is environmentally friendly and has appealing applications (Chen, Chen et al. 2017). Due of its large
surface area, high modulus, excellent thermal stability, and exceptional mechanical qualities, cellulose
has drawn increasing attention from all around the world (Jin, Tang et al. 2020). Because strong inter-
or intramolecular hydrogen bonds occur, cellulose is not soluble in ordinary solvents (Jayaramudu,
Varaprasad et al. 2017). Cellulose is a good contender for a multitude of applications due to the
material's abundance, high strength and stiffness, low weight, and biodegradability (Tang, Javaid et al.
2020). Cellulose is inexpensive, abundant in nature, biodegradable, rigid, light, and sustainable
(Naduparambath, Sreejith et al. 2018). In nature, cellulose is essential for the structure of plant cell
walls (Graninger, Kumar et al. 2020). Excellent mechanical and barrier qualities, biocompatibility,
and low cost are all attributes of cellulose (Coscia, Bhardwaj et al. 2018). Cellulose can provide high
strength, high hardness, but low density reinforcement for biocomposite films (Wang, Guo et al.
2018).

1.6 Application of Cellulose

Cellulose is the most richly found organic polymer, as it is a major structural component of the
primary cell wall of green plants, several algae and oomycetes. Cellulose is found in large
quantities in frequently used materials like cotton (90%), Wood (50%) and dried Hemp (57%).
It has numerous applications in various fields, but it is most frequently used in the
manufacturing of paper and cardboard or in derivative products like cellophane and rayon. It is
also a major component of textiles made from cotton or linen. Further, its use is seen in the
pharmaceutical industry as inactive fillers in drugs, in the form of powdered cellulose and
microcrystalline cellulose. However, one of the most important uses of cellulose is in the
production of biofuel and in the food Industry. This will be elaborated further in the following
sections ( Ang et al., 2012 ).

9
Fig. 3. Applications of cellulose (Keller, 2019)

1.6.1 Industrial Application

In ice cream, frozen milk drinks, it is added as a stabilizer to extend the storage life and improve
the overflow property. It is also used as the stabilizer of beer foam. Due to its unique physical
and chemical properties and its behaviour in water, it is today being increasingly used a food
additive to improve the bulk and fibre content of foods without having a major impact on the
flavour of the food. Since it is indigestible by humans, it has no caloric value and is thus used in
excessive amounts in diet foods to create a sensation of fullness both physical and physiology
without having consumed too many calories. It is also widely used an emulsifier and a
thickening agent in whipped cream, sauces and ice cream ( Dhingra et al., 2012 ). The excellent
properties of cellulose fiber-based papers and novel features of nanocellulose, make the
cellulose polymer one of the most fascinating and innovative materials with numerous
applications ( Klemm et al., 2005 ).

1.6.2 Biomedical Application

Cellulose, with its properties, as discussed in previous sections of this manuscript, is extensively
used in the field of biomedicine and pharmaceuticals. The cost of several pharmaceutical
products is extremely high due to production factors such as high cost, difficulty in procuring
the material, complicated processing steps etc. These problems can be remedied by the use of

10
cellulose, which is found abundantly in nature. The most productive use of cellulose would be
the utilization of plant based waste materials which are produced in bulk by many industries
such as the sugar production industry as well as in minor quantities by households ( Vanhatalo
and k,2017 ). Cellulose derivatives have also been researched in terms of drug delivery. For
instance, cellulose acetate has been successfully used in several HIV drugs, five flavonoids, one
pain reliever and two antibiotics among others. Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose has been used
in oral drug delivery formulations ( Barud et al., 2016 ). It is utilized in preparation of hydrogels
for drug delivery systems ((Khoshnevisan et al., 2018). wound dressings and tissue engineering
(Chang & Zhang, 2011 ) Due to the low cost, ease of surface functionalization, biocompatibility,
and biodegradability, the cellulose papers have become a promising platform for biomedical
applications focused on the development of portable paper-based biosensors (PBBs) and
microfluidic paperbased analytical devices (μPADs). Although, the first publications concerning
paper-based analytical devices appeared in the middle of the twentieth century ( Guan et al.,
2014., ).

1.6.3 Textiles Application

Cellulose-based textile fibres have rapidly evolved since their first invention. It is an
important source of reference in textile industries due to their universality and compatibility.
Over time, the transition from natural to man-made fibre involved extensive research
developments. By virtue of the better development, modification of native cellulose is not
foreign in textile industries and offers a slew of benefits. Nonetheless, inventions were meant
to meet current needs. Such needs include aesthetically pleasing and high mechanical
strength, with low production cost. Current trends are into technological advancement
providing textiles with self-heating and self-cooling properties, embedded with electrical
devices, as well as, but not limited to, antibacterial property. Man-made cellulose-based
textile has more to offer in comparison to native cellulose ( salleh et al., 2021 ).

1.6.4 Electronics Application

cellulose is an insulating material, it has been demonstrated that cellulose can be an excellent
material in the manufacturing of different electrode composites. In the latter, the cellulose can
either serve as a flexible substrate for the formation of an electronically conducting polymer
layer or as a low-weight and versatile binder for, e.g., carbon nanotubes or carbon nanofibers
(kim et al., 2019 ) . Using cellulose, it is also possible to manufacture new types of separators
with adjustable porosities, pore distributions, and functional surface layers which can improve
the performances of the devices significantly ( sheng et al., 2017 ).This development, which
demonstrates that the separators in electrochemical energy storage devices should be

11
considered as active (rather than passive) components, is particularly promising in conjunction
with, e.g., lithium-metal and lithium–sulfur batteries ( pan et al., 2019 ).

1.7 Why we use cellulose with other polymers?

Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide found in nature. It is a linear polymer

consisting of 6-member ether rings (D-glucose or dextrose) linked together covalently by
ether groups, the so-called glycosidic bonds. Usually many thousand glucose repeat units
make up a cellulose polymer. Cellulose and its derivatives can be considered
condensation polymers because their hydrolysis yields glucose molecules. The cyclic
structure in the main polymer chain together with strong hydrogen bonding gives
cellulose a rigid structure. Thus, cellulose and some of its derivatives have a high glass
transition temperature and melting point. The strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds
between the hydroxyl groups lead to highly ordered crystalline regions with low
accessibility to reactants which explains why cellulose is water insoluble and why strong
alkalis like caustic soda are required to break down the structure to make the hydroxyl
groups accessible to reactants.Cellulose is the most abundant organic polymer on the
planet. It is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of plants. ( wang et
al., 2010 ).

The cellulose mixed with polymers such as polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) or integrated with
plastic can also be used to reinforce paper and modify its physiochemical properties during

incubation to improve its biosensing performance and increase the system durability

(Cunningham et al., 2016). As chemical characteristic cellulose has a straight chain of

carbohydrate polymer consisting of several 1000 β 1→4 glucopyranose units; it is the world

most abundant biopolymer ( Feldmen and D, 2015 ).

1.8 DRWABACKS OF CELLULOSE

Due to lack of exhaustive physical parameters such as conductivity, Lack of thermo plasticity ,

12
Limited mechanical property , Difficult to extract , Difficulty in handling , Difficulty in loading ,
Poor antibacterial properties and Poor dimensional stability cellulose is combined with
different synthetic and biopolymer.

13
 TABLE 1: COMPOSITION, Improved Properties, Characterization
Techniques AND Applications Cellulose Based Properties

S Composi Categor Improved Charact Applications References

r. tion y properties erizatio
N n
o Techniq
ues

1 Film higher SEM Food packaging

CMC/CNC crystallinity, films and nano-
,STEM,
s mechanical papers (Oun & Rhim, 2017)
strength, and FTIR,
transparency UV,
TGA,
DTG

3 Polypyrrole Film significant SEM, anticorrosive (Parit et al., 2020)

(PPy) / improvement FTIR coatings, sensors,
cellulose in flexible
nanofiber conductivity electrodes, and
(CNF) and water tissue
resistance o engineering
scaffolds.

4 cellulose/Et Elastomer It recovers its ATR- manufacture (Murai et al., 2019)

hyl acrylate original FTIR, sporting goods
structure by and tires
IR,
thermal
annealing ATR-IR
,IRT

5 Gelatin Film Higher UV, ultra-light, ( Yao et al., 2021 )

/cellulose transmittance foldable, and
GCC
and good writable
biodegradabil
Use in flexible
ity.
luminescent
devices.

6 N- Hydrogel Temperature FTIR, Biomedical and (X. Yang et al., 2020)

vinylcaprol and pH - TGA, environmental
actam / dependent SEM fields.
hydroxyeth swelling

14
 yl cellulose behavior and
improved
swelling
capacity.

7 cellulose Film color- UV- vis monitor food (Freitas et al., 2020)
acetate / changing spectroph degradation.
Anthocyani capacity and otometer,
n exhibited a SEM,
plasticizer AFM,
effect on
TGA
mechanical
properties of
the films

8 cellulose/p Film superior SEM, used in lithium (Zhao et al., 2020)

olyethylene tensile TGA, batteries.
glycol strength DSC,EIS
bending
resistance

9 cellulose/p Cellulose Tensile UV, tissue (Mohan et al., 2020)

olylactic strength engineering,
LDM
acid biocompatibil pharmaceutical,
,FDM
ity, and electronic
printing,
biodegradabil
ity, surface 3D,4D
grafting, and
biodegradabil
ity

10 polylactic Film UV blocking, FTIR, Aplicationas ( F. Yu et al., 2021)

acid/acetyl mechanical SEM, active food
ated strength, packaging
TEM,
cellulose oxygen and materials.
water vapor XRD
barrier. ATR

11 CNC/PVA Film Uniform FTIR, used as a (Z. Yu et al., 2021)

colour and smartphotonic
ATR,
desirable material
water responsive to
adsorption humidity.
capacity.

12 PPy/PVA- Film improvement SEM, anticorrosive

CNP in the coatings, sensors,
FTIR
conductivity, flexible

15
 tensile electrodes, and
strength, tissue (Parit et al., 2020)
water engineering
resistance, scaffolds.
and
electromagne
tic shielding
effectiveness

13 Polydiacety Film Super higher FTIR- Applied in (Liu et al., 2021)

lene / tensile ATR, wearable sensors,
TNFC strength and displays, and
XRD,
Young,s anti-
modulus, XPS, counterfeiting
excellent UV-
thermal visible
reversible absorption
cycling
performence

14 Cellulose Film Increased XRD, Hydrogel ( Kim et al., 2021 )

nanofiber/ tensile manufacturing
SEM,
carboxymet strength,high forfood
hyl er thermal AFM, packaging and
cellulose stability FTIR biomedical
film applications.

15 Cellulose/C Hydrogel Responsivene NMR drug delivery, ( Kabiret al., 2018 )

hitosan ss to pH, tissue
time, engineering and
temperature, wound healing,
chemical healthcare
species and
biologicalcon
ditions
besides a
very high-
water
absorption
capacity.

16
16 Micro Composite Their high FTIR, This developed (Rathnayake et al.,
crystaline s aspect ratio, composite can be 2019)
IR,
cellulose / enormous used for various
polypropyl surface area, XRD, engineering
ene low SEM applications.
thermalexpan
sion and
excellent
compatibility
at low
pressure

18 Cellulose Composite manifested FTIR, building (Guo et al., 2018)

nanofiber / s excellent fire insulating
XRD,
hydroxyapa resistance material in fire
tite and self- XPS, safety.
extinguishing TGA

19 Polyuretha Cellulose Improving FTIR, elastomers,

ne / TOCN the ultimate foams, paints,
ATR,
strength, and adhesives.
toughness, UV,
(Lee et al., 2017)
softness, and DSC,
thermostabilit
y, DMA,
SEM

20 TOCN / H- Elastomer High tensile NMR, To be used as (Noguchi et al., 2020)

NBR strength, high high-performance
STEM,
tensile elastomeric
modulus, DMA, materials.
high TMA
ductility,
high storage
modulus, and
high
dimensional
stability to
temperature.

21 Cellulose/ Elastomer Possess NMR, To develop (Jiang et al., 2019)

P(BA-co- strong novel cellulose-
FTIR,
AM tensile, based graft
strength and TGA, copolymers from
high DSC, plastic to
toughness elastomers by

17
 according to GPC, rational
the moleculer design.
AFM,
mechanical
tests. X-ray
scattering

22 Cellulose Cellulose The TEM, Biotechnology

nanofibrils materials and biomedicine
SEM,
/ exhibit good as biomedical
Poly(vinyl mechanical, XRD, scaffold
alcohol) thermal FT-IR materials. (Jin et al., 2020)
properties as
well as great
biocompatibil
ity.

23 PLA / NCC Film improvement SEM, Great potential in (Jin et al., 2020)
in air FTIR, a wide range of
permeability, health care and
,pppppppp
light packing
pppppppp
resistance,
pppppppp
thermal
pppppppp
stability and
pppppppp
mechanical
pppppX-
properties.
ray, UV-
visible,
XRD,
TGA,

24 PLA/LCNF Composite excellent TEM, manufacturing (Wang et al., 2021)

s UV- completely
FTIR,
shielding, biodegradable
water vapor ATR, multifunctional
barrier X-ray, composites for
performance, various potential
and good TGA, applications
thermal XRD
stability.

25 PLA/RBO Film Enhanced XRD, Substitutes for (Brahimi et al., 2022)

hydrophobici traditional
FTIR-
ty and petrochemical
ATR,
improved plastics
SEM,
dispersion in particularly for
water/toluene TGA, food packaging
solvent

18
 system, a DTG, applications.
decrease in
UV
surface
polarity as
compared
with MCC

26 CT /CC Film . Young’s SEM, sensors, flexible (Jayaramudu et al.,

modulus, capacitors, and 2017)
XRD,
tensile metal/dyes
strength, EDX, adsorption
thermal TGA, applications.
stability and
toughness DSC
increased by ,FTIR,
the addition
UV-
of CT.
Visible
spectroph
otometer

27 CNC / Hydrogel green and SEM, potential uses in (Tang et al., 2020)
Sodium eco-friendly, agricultural and
FTIR,
alginate increase in pharmaceutical
the storage TGA products
modulus,
thermo-
responsive

28 CNCF / Composite good SEM, surgical aprons, (Deeksha et al.,

AgNPs/ s antibacterial wound healing 2021)
FT-IR,
Agno3 activities and wound
XRD
against both cleaning
the gram materials,
negative and hospital bed
gram positive spreads
bacteria.

29 PVA / Composite The tensile FT-IR, filtration (Naduparambath et

MCC s strength of materials, paper al., 2018)
TGA,
composite coatings, mats,
films DSC films, and
increased ATR- packaging
slightly. FTIR materials

30 cellulose Hydrogel dual cross- SEM, provide a (J. Yang & Xu, 2017)
nanofibrils/ linked guideline toward

19
 polyacryla networks TEM, the design of
mide with hydrogels with
(PAAm) synergisticall excellent fracture
matrix y improved resistance
strength, capacity
modulus, and
toughness.

31 Micro Disperssio enables SEM, costefficient, safe (Graninger et al.,

crystalline n efficient method to 2020)
DSC,
cellulose/ stress transfer achieve high
EVOH and improved FTIR, performance
Matrix energy TGA composites
storage without the use of
mechanism at compatibilizers
the or lubricants
interphase. using continuous
melt processing
methods
established in
industry

32 cellulose Film Improved the FTIR, diverse (G. Yang et al., 2021)
nanocrystal transparency, application of
XRD,
s/polyvinyl hydrophobici CNC in film
alcohol//gl ty, tensile SEM, formation and
yceryl strength and AFM coating formula
strain of of paper
starch-based products.
film.

33 Wheat Hydrogel increased the SEM, good prospect in (Ding et al., 2018)
straw specific the applications
XRD,
cellulose/N surface area of the catalytic
i and Cu of metal TGA, direction
nanoparticl catalyst and EDS
es improved the
catalytic
performance.

34 cellulose/c Composite good SEM, Potential (Coscia et al., 2018)

urcumin s alignment of applications in
XRD,
cellulose medica,l
chains along FTIR cosmetics and
the fibre axis. food packaging
industry

20
35 Bacterial Composite Toughness, SEM, useful in food (Cazón et al., 2019)
Cellelulose s puncture industry
TGA,
/Chitosan/P strength,
olyvinyl water DSC.
Alcohol solubility and
swelling
degree.

36 cellulose/A Films good tensile XRD, usage in medical (Sivaranjana et al.,

gNP strength and and packaging 2017)
FTIR,
the fields.
antibacterial TGA,
activity. TEM,
SEM

37 Poly vinyl Films form stronger NMR, Used today for (Popescu et al.,
alcohol/ hydrogen packaging 2017)
NIR,
cellulose bonds.
nanocrystal FTIR
s

38 TOCNs/pol Composite improving SEM, elastomers, (Lee et al., 2017)

yurethane s the ultimate foams, paints,
TEM
urea strength, and adhesives
toughness,
softness, and
thermostabili
ty.

39 TEMPO- Composite excellent SEM Use to prepare (Noguchi et al.,

CNF/XNB s mechanical rubber composite 2021)
R and thermal sheets with high
properties. mechanical and
thermal
properties.

40 cellulose Composite showed low XRD, used in (Rbihi et al., 2021)

triacetate/T s thermal laboratories and
SEM, in industrial
io2 conductivity
UV- scale,
as a function
of the VISIBLE for instance,
additive. electronics and
optics, polymer
science .

2. Cellulose based polymers

21
2.1 Tough double network elastomers reinforced by the amorphous
cellulose network
Elastomers are unique solid materials with large and reversible deformability. Hence, they are
ubiquitous in various industrial products such as tires, sealants, dampers, and sports goods, and are
difficult to replace by other materials. For instance, the rubber tread of a tire has been used since the
invention of solid rubber tires in the mid-nineteenth century.. Traditionally, nanofillers such as carbon
black (CB) have been added for increase in the toughness and stiffness of the elastomers.
Furthermore, the color of the filled elastomer is limited by the color of the filler, which restricts the
range of applications; for example, the use of CB-filled rubber has been avoided in some warehouses
and hospitals to prevent formation of black stains. Instead of the CB fillers, silica fillers are also used.
Comparing with the CB filler, one large drawback is the increased weight density, which is more
energy consumptive. To overcome the above-mentioned environmental concerns caused by the use of
the fillers, a novel ecofriendly method for toughening of the elastomers is required. Recently, several
studies on novel toughening methods of gels, which are rubbery materials containing solvent,. A
toughened gel following the s-bond principle typically consists of a highly stretchable matrix with
dense brittle bonds (s-bonds). The s-bond principle was originally applied for preparing double-
network (DN) gels comprising a covalently cross-linked brittle first network and a stretchable second
network. Amorphous cellulose-based tough double-network (DN) elastomers were successfully
fabricated. These elastomers comprise interpenetrated poly(ethyl acrylate) (PEA) network as
the soft matrix and the amorphous cellulose network as the brittle component. Unlike carbon-
black-filled conventional rubbers, the obtained cellulose/PEA DN elastomers are transparent
and can be dyed without any color limitation. The s-bond principle was originally applied for
preparing double-network (DN) gels comprising a covalently cross-linked brittle first network
and a stretchable second network. If a force is applied to a DN gel, the chemical bonds of the
brittle first network break sacrificially to dissipate large energy while the stretchable second
network maintains the integrity of the DN gels. Since both ideal gels and elastomers are soft
materials that display rubber-like elasticity, the s-bond principle should also be applicable for
elastomer toughening. An early example of an s-bond elastomer was a triple network (TN)
elastomer, consisting of a covalently cross-linked first network with brittle s-bonds and a
stretchable third network as the soft matrix (the role of the second network was to make the
first network brittle. ((Murai et al., 2019)

22
Fig. 1.Preparation of the cellulose/PEA DN elastomer. (a) Schematic representation of the
synthesis of cellulose/PEA double network elastomers. (b) Appearance of the cellulose gel. (c)
Appearance of the cellulose/PEA elastomer dyed with several pigments and the carbon black-
filled styrene-butadiene rubber ( Murai et al., 2019 ).

2.2 Highly transparent, writable and photoluminescent foldable polymer

film: When fluorescent dyes or pigments join cellulose-based microgel
Polymer composites with photochromic function have attracted much attention because of their
wide potential applications in various fields, such as sensor (Li et al., 2019). One of the biggest
problems of photoluminescent (PL) materials based on synthetic polymers is difficult to be
degraded and will cause environmental pollution; while natural polymer has great advantages
including environmental-friendly, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and sustainability, so it is
an ideal candidate material for the development of biomass luminescent coating ( Park, & Lee,
2018).

Cellulose is the most abundant biomass polysaccharide in nature, the abundant hydroxyl groups
in its structure provide a unique platform for the fabrication of bio-based photoluminescence
coating agent via functionalization, and its excellent mechanical property and transparent film-
forming make it help maximize the luminous conversion rate as the matrix of the luminescent
material (Zhang et al., 2018). Zhang and co-workers selected fluorescein and Rhodamine B as

23
fluorescent dyes to fabricate regenerated cellulose composite films with strong fluorescence
and brilliant outlook colors by simple blending, and confirmed the presence of strong
interactions between cellulose and the fluorescent dyes (Qi et al., 2009).The combination of PL
dyes or pigments and GCC microgel in aqueous solution can obtain cellulose-based fluorescent
films by casting. Fluorescein and Rhodamine B are well-known organic fluorescent dyes with
chromogenic aromatic and heterocyclic structures ( Leng et al., 2017 ).This work was to
fabricate fluorescent GCC composites with organic dyes (fluorescein and Rhodamine B) and
inorganic alkaline earth aluminate pigments (PLO-8C and PLB-7C) as effective colorproducing
species, respectively.

Yijun and Dan ( 2021 ) prepared a self-dispersed cellulose-based microgel via chemically
bonding hydrophilic gelatin peptide chain onto cellulose glucose chain. Compared with the
existing regenerated cellulose or CNCs-based fluorescent films, the cellulose-based microgel
fluorescent films present higher transmittance and good biodegradability. This study can bring
new ideas for the development of flexible luminescent devices.

24
25
Fig. 1.Chemical structural schematic diagram of organic fluorescent dyes and inorganic
fluorescent pigments. ( Yijun et al., 2021 ).

2.4 High-strength and flexible cellulose/PEG based gel polymer electrolyte with high
performance for lithium ion batteries

Cellulose, the most abundant naturally macromolecule, is renewable, biodegradable, and

affordable ( Chang and Zhang, 2011). The strong intramolecular and intermolecular hydrogen
bonds give cellulose good thermal stability and mechanical property. At the same time, it was
reported that cellulose has the ability to dissociate lithium salts, adsorb and retain the organic
solvents, and also accelerate the migration of lithium ions ( Du et al., 2019). By contrast, a gel
polymer electrolyte which is prepared by plasticizing the SPE with liquid electrolyte, combines
the advantages of both liquid electrolytes and SPE. The liquid electrolytes entrapped in GPE are
beneficial to enhance the interface stability of electrode/electrolyte, leading to relatively higher
ionic conductivity and lower interface resistance under room temperature compared with SPE(
Chaintapalli et al.,1996 ). Poly (ethylene oxide) (PEO) as well as its derivatives have been
investigated systematically as the promising host materials of GPEs because of the coordination
and dissociation interaction between ethylene oxide (EO) and lithium ions ( sihna et al.,2012 ).

26
The schematic of lithium-ion transporting mechanism of cellulose/PEG GPE. (Lingzhu et al.,
2019 ).( Fuyou et al., 2021 ).

2.6 Poly(lactic acid)-based composite film reinforced with acetylated

cellulose nanocrystals and ZnO nanoparticles for active food packaging
Properties

The growing global concerns about long-lasting plastic pollution and depletion of fossil resources
have led to considerable interests in using bio-based, biodegradable materials particularly in the field
of packaging. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a linear aliphatic thermoplastic polyester produced from
renewable resources like corn starch, rice, sugar cane, sugar beet and potatoes via ring opening
polymerization of lactide or by condensation polymerization of the lactic acid (K.M. Nampoothiri et
al., 2010 ). which is considered as one of the most promising bio-based and biodegradable polymers
used for food packaging owing to its superior transparency, easy processability, and comparable
mechanical properties to its counterpart of petroleum-based polymer such as polyethylene and

27
polypropylene (L.K. Kian et al., 2019 ). However, PLA still has some drawbacks of high brittleness as
well as poor water vapor, gas and light barrier properties (A. Mahmoodi et al., 2019 ). With excellent
characteristics is known as one of the most straightforward and efficient strategies to improve PLA
properties with additional functional properties such as antibacterial and UV-light screening
properties.ZnO nanoparticle is well-known environmentally friendly, low cost, non-toxic and easily
available nanofiller, which possesses several useful properties such as high stability, high UV
absorption capability, and strong antibacterial activities on a broad spectrum of bacteria (A. Krol et
al., 2017 ). The incorporation of ZnO nanoparticles into PLA matrix could effectively improve the
mechanical, water vapor barrier, UV-shielding and antibacterial properties of PLA-based composite
films ( I. Kim ET AL., 2020 ). Meanwhile, as one of the renewable and biodegradable nanofiller,
cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) have attracted many attentions in the nanocomposite filed due to their
appealing intrinsic advantages of high surface area, low density, high mechanical strength, and readily
availability (H.M. Azeredo et al., 2017 ).

Schematic diagram illustrating hydrogen bonding between PLA, ANCN and ZnO (Fuyou et al.,
2021 ).

28
2.7Flexible cellulose nanocrystal-based bionanocomposite film as a smart
photonic material responsive to humidity
Smart or intelligent materials respond in a controllable manner to stimuli and environmental changes
(M. Yoshida and J. Lahann2008 ). One example of smart materials is photonic stimuli-responsive
materials that alter color reversibly according to external stimuli (F. Xiao et al., 2017 ). In fact, the
design of smart photonic materials is largely inspired by structural color in nature that arises from the
interactions of a natural material with light (Y . Zhao et al., 2016 ). So far, structural colors have
been discovered in a few living creatures and plants, some of which are known to tune their coloration
based upon the surrounding environment (Y. Zhao et al., 2012 ). For example, Paracheirodoninnesi is
a freshwater fish whose structural color on skin changes from cyan to yellow when triggered by
emotional arousal (S. Yoshioka et al., 2011 ). Similarly, the tortoise beetle Charidotellaegregia can
initiate a color transition on the outer shell from gold to dark red in response to a stressful condition
(J.P. Vigneron et al., 2007 ). Studies have demonstrated that coloration of P. innesi and C. egregia is
reversible and tuned by varying photonic nanostructures (S. Yoshioka et al., 2007 ). Therefore,
mimicking the behavior of these natural structures by photonic crystals is a viable strategy to produce
artificial smart photonic materials. Cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) are spindle-shaped, highly
crystalline nanomaterials produced by the hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass (I.A. Sacui, et al., 2014 ).
As a green material, CNCs have the advantages of low toxicity, light weight, biodegradability,
biocompatibility, and renewability (A.B. Seabra et al., 2018 ).

29
Schematic illustration of the preparation of a chiral nematicbionanocomposite film showing an
intelligent response to humidity by co-assembling CNCs with glucose, glycerol, and PVA. P/2
indicates the half-helical pitch (Zhilong et al., 2021 ).

2.8 An ultrastrong, reversible thermochromic film based on TEMPO-

oxidized nanofibrillated cellulose
In nature, plenty of living creatures, including chameleons, squids, and neon tetra fishes, have a
distinguished talent to rapidly change their skin colors for combats, camouflage and courtship
(Dong Y et al., 2019 ). , primarily due to the structure tuning of chromogenic or photonic (Wang
Y et al., 2020 ). Inspired by these display tactics, a variety of stimuli-responsive chromic
materials in response to electricity (Hu L et bal., 2019 ). Optics, and temperature inputs have
attracted widespread interest, showing a wide range of applications in transistors (Ge D, et al.,
2015 ). Polydiacetylene (PCDA), a layered π-conjugated polymer, exhibits reversible blue-to-red
thermochromism, attributing to the reversible conformational distortion of the ene-yne
conjugated main chains ( Takeuchi M et al., 2018 ). In recent years, significant progress has
been made in the investigation of thermochromic PCDA-based materials, for example, Wu et al.
reported colloidally stable PCDA-based films with near-infrared light and thermochromism for
intelligent applications (Hu B ET AL., 2019 ). These PCDA-based composites show outstanding
thermochromic performance, and the chromic 2D PCDA nanomaterials may be applied to
develop intelligent hybrid materials with many strategies (Li Z et al., 2021 ). However, the poor
solubility and flexibility from the rigid backbone of conjugated polymers weaken the mechanical
properties of PCDA-based composites, restricting their reversible dynamic applications,
especially for flexible devices (Watanabe K et al., 2020 ).

Synthesis

30
Schematic illustration of the preparation process of the TNFC-polyPCDA-DH films. (b) AFM
micrograph of the TNFC-polyPCDA-DH solution. (c) Digital images of the as-prepared pure
polyPCDA powder, pure TNFC film, and TNFC-polyPCDA-DH film. (d) SEM micrograph of
fracture surface from the TNFC-polyPCDADHnanocomposite (Tao et al., 2021)

2.9 Cellulose graft copolymers toward strong thermoplastic elastomers via RAFT
polymerization

In recent years, sustainable polymers have received increased attention due to their
outstanding renewable, biodegradable and biocompatible features. As the most abundant
biomass on earth, cellulose is inexpensive and possesses good mechanical properties (O. Garcia-
Valdez et al., 2018 ). Cellulose can be extracted from various species and utilized as promising
building blocks in a variety of fields, such as packaging (M. Ghaderi, et al 2014 ). However, it is
difficult to dissolve cellulose in most organic solvents due to the presence of plentiful intra- and
intermolecular hydrogen bonding and the high crystallinity, which limits the further
applications of cellulose ( B.D. Rabideau et al., 2015 ). . Therefore, heterogeneous and
homogeneous functionalization strategies are often performed on cellulose to access novel
cellulose-based derivatives and copolymers, enabling the improvement and tailoring of its
chemical and physical properties to meet the customizable demands. In order to improve the
processability of cellulose, different chemical modification methods have been used to modify
cellulose, including esterification ( J. Wu, et al., 2014 ).

31
 2

Scheme 1. Illustration of the synthesis of Cell-CTA and Cell-g-P(BA-co-AM) copolymer (Feng et

al., 2019 ).

2.10 Manufacturing & characterization of regenerated cellulose/curcumin based sustainable

composites fibers spun from environmentally benign solvents

Properties

Among different bio renewable materials, cellulose is one of the most common natural polymers
found in higher plants, algae, bacteria, fungi and marine animals. It is a linear polymer that
consists of two glucose sugar units that are linked by β-1, 4 glycosidic linkage to form a dimer
known as cellobiose (e ( Eichhorn et al., 2010 ). Several studies have shown that cellulose and
its derivatives have a good biocompatibility and in addition, can be regarded as slowly
degradable material ( Czaja et al., 2007 ). Due to its excellent mechanical and barrier properties,
biocompatibility and low cost, cellulose is used in many biomedical applications, like orthopedic
devices and tissue engineering ( Granja et al., 2001 ). Several studies have indicated that some
herbal supplements contain phytochemicals that are able to prevent various relevant and
widespread pathologies, including diabetes, cancer and autoimmune diseases (Aggarwal et al.,
2008 ).

32
Fig. 1.Schematic representation of the preparation of cellulose/curcumin composite fibres.

33
CONCLUSION

cellulose is a highly versatile polymer which is easy to manufacture and extract. Its
application in multiple fields has been discussed above. With increasing population, demand
and technological innovations, renewable energy is gradually becoming imperative aspect of
resource conservation and overall environmental health. Although various other polymers can
be utilized for consumables, biomedical and pharmaceutical applications, the marked
advantage of cellulose is that it is a biodegradable and environmentally friendly material. The
intensive research on the chemistry of the compound, has resulted in the production of a wide
variety of biodegradable products with a plethora of applications. An improved information
of the many structural levels in which cellulose partakes will allow us to understand better
practise of this exceptional and metastable molecular assembly produced by plant metabolic
pathways. We have placed emphasis on the diverse applications of cellulose to promote more
innovations that aim to bridge the gap between the amounts of cellulosic waste and its
optimum utilization. Large amounts of cellulose based wastes are produced in every
community across the world, which remain a largely untapped resource. Research that
involves the conversion of this perceived waste into a widely used commodity would have
the dual benefit of organic waste management and sustainable innovations.

34
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