Military Technological College

AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE SAFETY,

TOOLS AND INSPECTION
TYPICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL,
MEASURING AND ELECTRICAL TOOLS

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Contents

USE AND CARE OF HAND TOOLS 4

GENERAL 4
HAMMERS 4
Ball Pein Hammers 4
USING HAMMERS SAFELY 7
SPANNERS AND WRENCHES 13
Size and identification of spanners 13
Strap Wrenches 16

CLAW OR CROWS-FOOT SPANNERS 16

Allen and Torx Keys 17
SOCKET WRENCHES 19
Drivers 19
Socket Drivers 19

SOCKETS 20

UNIVERSAL JOINT 20
TORQUE WRENCHES 20
Using an Adapter or Extension with a Torque Wrench 22
SCREWDRIVERS 24
Plain Screwdriver 24
Phillips Screwdrivers 24
Dumpy Screwdriver 25
Offset Screwdriver 25
Stud Box 26

MEASURING TOOLS & PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS 26

SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT 26
Metric Units 26
Imperial Units: Fractional and decimal inch units. 27
THE FEELER GAUGE (THICKNESS GAUGE) 27
THE RADIUS GAUGE 28
THREAD PITCH GAUGE 29

TOOL CONTROL SYSTEMS, TOOL FUNCTION AND CARE 30

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Tool Control 30
TOKEN SYSTEM (ALSO CALLED "TALLY" OR "TAG") 31
Care of Tools 32
Control of other items 32
Workshop Consumable Materials Practices 34
Lubrication 34
LUBRICATION AND LUBRICATING TOOLS 34
OIL LUBRICATION 34
Types of grease 36
Under-greasing 36
DRY-FILM LUBRICANTS 38
Anti-seize Compound. 38

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USE AND CARE OF HAND TOOLS

GENERAL

The term "hand tools" describes all the handheld tools most commonly used in the everyday
life of the aircraft maintenance technician. Some of these tools are for general use while others
have a very specialized purpose. Because misuse of tools can result in damage to aircraft
components and injury to personnel, it is important you always use the right tool designed for
the job and that you use it correctly.

Regardless of how common the tools are, many times they are used incorrectly. This section
helps you to understand the correct use and care of basic hand tools.

Before using any tool, you must inspect it to make sure that it is clean and serviceable.

HAMMERS

Hammers come in many different shapes and sizes, each with a very specific use: they
are classified by the type and the weight of head.

When striking a blow with a hammer, think of your forearm as an extension of the handle. In
other words, swing the hammer by bending your elbow, not your wrist. Always strike the work
squarely using the full face of the hammer. To prevent damaging the work, keep the face of
the hammer or mallet smooth and free of nicks and dents.

Ball Pein Hammers

The ball pein is the standard engineers’ hammer; you will use this more than any other; it
ranges in weight from one ounce to three pounds. One face is flat while the other is formed
into the shape of a ball. It is made of high-grade steel and is used for pounding; never to drive
a nail. The ball end of the hammer was designed to peen industrial rivets, but we don’t use it
for that purpose on aircraft sheet metal structures, we use it to shape soft material.

The eye of a hammer is shaped as shown to allow a suitably shaped handle to be fitted to it.
Good hammer handles are made of hickory, straight-grained ash, or a similarly strong plastic
material. A wedge is driven into the eye to hold the handle firmly in position.

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Other types are the cross pein and the straight pein.

Soft Faced and Hard-Faced Hammers (or mallets)

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There are two types of mallets, soft-face, and hard-face. The forming and shaping of soft
aluminium alloy are accomplished with a soft-faced mallet, which in early aviation, consisted
of a rawhide roll, held in position by a clamp. However, when modern synthetic materials were
developed, plastic and rubber mallets virtually replaced the rawhide type.
Hard plastic tip mallets, on the other hand can have two faces that are often replaceable. One
face is made of a resilient rubber-like material, while the other is made of a hard plastic.
Soft faced hammers are used:

• To seat or position work for machining.

• To strike surfaces without damaging them
• To strike full impact blows, without danger from rebound
Materials used for the soft faces include brass, copper, aluminium, lead, wood, rubber, plastic,
and rawhide.

To avoid damage to a finished or soft surface, select a hammer that is softer than the material
to be struck.

For example, use:

• Copper, to drive steel parts into position.

• Rawhide, to seat insulated coils in an electric motor armature; and
• Plastic, to strike a finished metal surface.

Observe safety rules when using these hammers. Be sure to:

• File burrs off heads

• Discard split heads.
• Replace worn inserts.

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USING HAMMERS SAFELY

a) Confirm that the head is firmly fixed to the handle and that the wedge is tight.
Check that the head is square and in line with the handle. If the head is loose have
it refitted, and wedged correctly.

b) Inspect the handle. Remove any handle that is cracked or split. Sandpaper
smooths any splinters. Make sure the handle is clean and dry.

c) Heads flying from poorly fitted or broken handles can inflict serious injuries

d) Inspect the striking faces of the head. Discard any split or badly chipped heads.
Have any burrs or tiny chips ground off. Make sure the faces are smooth, bright, clean,
and dry.

e) Heads with slippery faces can glance off the work and hurt you.

f) Never hit two hammer faces together. The faces could split, and chips would fly
dangerously. Never hit any hardened metal directly. Always use a piece of soft metal
between the hammer and hard steel.

g) Make sure that everything is clear behind and above you before you swing your
hammer. Anything that deflects the hammer on the back swing could cause it to strike
you. Keep clear of anyone swinging a hammer.

h) Take care when striking tools such as chisels and punches. Make sure their
heads are clean and dry and strike them squarely.

i) Always wear safety goggles to prevent metal chips entering the eye.

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PLIERS

Pliers are used for holding and for cutting. Holding tools are very important to an aircraft
maintenance technician. These tools come in a variety of shapes and sizes and are designed
for different tasks and needs. The proper use of holding tools helps ensure a professional
looking job. However, care must be taken to use the proper tool for the job in hand.

Holding and cutting pliers are made of high carbon steel, tool steel or alloy steel that is forged,
machined and heat- treated.

They are classified by type and length and are made with a great variety of jaw shapes
designed for cutting, holding, gripping, pulling, pushing, twisting, and turning.

Some types of pliers are intended mainly for cutting. Others are for holding and manipulating.
The most common types combine these functions.

Combination Pliers

The standard engineers’ pliers or combination pliers are so called because of their
multifunction. They are sometimes referred to as side cutters.

• The flat jaw tips are serrated for general gripping.

• The pipe grip is serrated for gripping round bars.

• Two joint cutters are provided for shearing off steel wires.

• Side cutting jaws are for cutting softer wires.

• Combination pliers are available in sizes from six to nine inches.

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• Electricians' pliers are fitted with insulated sleeves on the handles, intended as an additional
safeguard against electric shock.

• Care should be taken to avoid using pliers with jaws that may mark or damage the work

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Holding and cutting pliers come in many shapes and varieties some are for general use and
others have more specialized uses.

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Various types, shapes and sizes of self-locking pliers (for example the Vice-grips above) are
available and very useful for the technician, in holding parts securely.

SPANNERS AND WRENCHES

Wrenches are used for the installation and tightening of threaded fasteners. They are made in
a variety of shapes and sizes, to meet the requirements of the fastener, the installation design,
or the physical location of the fastener assembly. The technician should always use a wrench
designed for the job in hand or to be performed. If the wrong wrench is used, the material may
be damaged.

Usually bolt heads and nuts are hexagonal in shape: the spanners that fit them are sized by
the distance across the flats. Spanners are made in Imperial fraction and metric sizes.

Size and identification of spanners

The size of a spanner is determined by the nut or bolt it fits. The distance across the flats of a
nut or bolt varies both with the size and thread system.

The two most common systems used in aviation are as follows:

1. Unified standard system

2. Metric standard system

1. UNIFIED STANDARD SYSTEM

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Spanners for Unified bolts are marked with the fractional size following the sign AF (Across
Flats), e.g. ½” AF.

2. METRIC STANDARD SYSTEM

Spanners for metric bolts also are marked with the size across the jaw opening followed by
the abbreviation 'mm' e.g. 15 mm.

Open-end spanner

Box-end or ring spanner

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Ratchet box-end spanner

Combination spanner (open end ring spanner)

Open-end adjustable spanner

Adjustable spanners or wrenches

An open-end adjustable wrench is shown in the above picture. This wrench should be
considered as a tool of “last resort” and should not be used unless other types of wrenches
are not available.

Because of the open-end design, the wrench makes contact on only two sides of the bolt head.
The adjustment mechanism does not allow a good fit with resulting damage to the bolt or
nut.

A wrench of this type, as often as possible, should be used only for holding bolt heads while a
correctly sized normal spanner turns the nut.

If there is no way to avoid using it to turn a nut great care must be taken to see that the jaws
are as tight as possible. Placing the thumb on the adjusting screw and applying pressure in
the direction to tighten the jaws will help prevent slippage. The wrench should be turned in a
direction so that the maximum stress is applied toward the inner end of the fixed jaw, as shown

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in the lower picture. Adjustable wrenches are manufactured in sizes designated by their overall
length.

Strap Wrenches

A strap wrench is a tool for gripping smooth, circular shaped components that have no
provision to accept wrenches.

The most common use is for removing spin-on type oil filters. These filters are smooth,
cylindrical canisters that are difficult to grip, especially when they are oily.

The fabric strap is wrapped around the filter and the handle turned anticlockwise tightening the
strap and gripping the filter body: further turning will unscrew the filter.

CLAW OR CROWS-FOOT SPANNERS

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“C” spanner or Hook wrench

Allen and Torx Keys

Some setscrews and bolts use an internal wrenching head. These fasteners do not have a
hexagonal head but rather a shaped recess in the head. Tightening these fasteners requires
the use of a special key (or wrench) that fits the shape of the recess.

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Allen Torx

Allen keys fit heads with hexagonal recesses: the size is measured across the flats.

Torx keys fit into 6-pointed star shaped recesses: the size is measured from point-to-point.
This type of driver is also known as “star-point “or “Hex-Lob”, an abbreviation of Hexalobular
(meaning 6 lobes)

These keys can be shaped like an "L" or a "T"; they are also fitted to sockets or have
screwdriver handles for ease of use.

L Keys
T-handle Key

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SOCKET WRENCHES

One of the tools most useful to the technician is the socket wrench. Socket sets are made in a
variety of types and sizes of drivers and sockets.

Socket wrenches have a square opening which accepts the driving tool. The basic size of a
socket set is determined by the size of the drive. Sets are made in 1/4”, 3/8”, 1/2”, and 3/4”
drives. Adapters allow different sizes of sockets and drivers to be used together. The aircraft
technician will make extensive use of the 1/4”, and the 3/8” drive sets. Metric-sized socket
wrenches use standard fractional-sized drivers. (e.g., ¼ inch)

Drivers

Sockets can be turned, or driven, by several tools:

These include: the speed brace or speed handle, the breaker bar, the sliding T-handle, and
the ratchet handle, as shown in the picture. The speed brace is used with a socket to make
the rotation of the bolt or nut more rapid than with other types of handles. The breaker bar and
T-handle are used where it is necessary to get more torque on a bolt, such as to "break loose"
a tight nut. The ratchet handle is used to rotate the socket wrench in a very restricted area.

Socket Drivers

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SOCKETS

UNIVERSAL JOINT

TORQUE WRENCHES

A torque wrench is a measuring device designed to indicate the twisting force being applied to
a nut or a bolt in pounds- inches (lb-in), pounds-feet (lb-ft) or Newton-meters (N-m). The figures
(a, b & c) illustrate three torque wrenches with three different methods for indicating torque.
Each of the torque wrenches is designed to be used with a socket wrench.
The wrench in the first picture is a beam-type torque wrench. It has a pointer, which moves
across the indicating scale, indicating an amount proportional to the force exerted by the
wrench. The movement of the scale under the pointer is caused by deflection of the spring-
steel handle.

fig. a

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A torsion-type torque wrench is shown in the second picture. With this wrench the torque is
indicated by a small dial gauge attached to the wrench. The gauge is actuated by a spring
mechanism in the handle.

fig. b

An adjustable toggle-type torque wrench is shown in the third picture. The operator sets the
wrench at the desired torque value with an adjuster on the handle. When the desired torque is
applied to the wrench, the wrench clicks and the handle momentarily releases. The wrench
can apply increased torque once this point has been reached. Technicians using this type of
wrench must be sure they recognize the release action. This toggle-type wrench does not have
the direct reading capability of the other two torque wrenches.

fig. c

Other types of torque wrenches are available and include the “break-back” and “Spring-cam”.
As with the toggle type the user must recognise the point at which the release action operates.
The design of the spring-cam type however prevents over-tightening.

Torque wrenches are available in several ranges, such as 30 to 200 lb-in. 150 to 1000 lb-in,
5 to 75 lb-ft, and 30 to 250 lb-in. The technician should choose a wrench that covers the range
of torque values required for the work he or she is doing. Torque wrenches are precision
instruments and should be handled and stored with care. Torque wrenches must be calibrated
on a periodic basis; ensure the calibration certificate is valid before using the wrench.

Torque wrenches should be used in every case where the force applied to a nut or bolt is
critical. This is especially true in the assembly of components in the aircraft engine. Extensions
and special attachments are required for use of the torque wrenches in certain applications.
These will change the effective arm of the wrench, and a correction value must be calculated
to get the correct torque setting.

When an adapter is used to reach a particular fastener, the indication of torque on a torque
wrench must be modified to find the actual torque being applied.

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Using an Adapter or Extension with a Torque Wrench

Remember, when the length of a torque bar changes, the scale used on the torque wrench is
no longer accurate.

When using an adapter that extends the arm of the torque wrench, the value to be read on the
wrench will have to be determined to achieve the required actual torque that is given in the
Maintenance Manual or other manual that is being used. For this a formula is used:

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These torque calculation formulae appear in many publications, sometimes explained

differently and with different units; however, the principal calculation is the same.

For example, it may be required to find if a torque wrench setting is still within the required
limits of the manual when an adapter of a certain length is used.

For example, a torque wrench has a length between the drive square and the handle pivot of
20 inches, and a five-inch extension. To find the torque applied to a fastener with an indication
of 120 pounds-inches on the wrench, use the following formula:

TA = Tw (L + A)

L
Where:

TA = Actual (desired) torque

TW = Apparent (indicated) torque

L = Length of torque wrench

A = Added length

When this formula is used and the torque wrench reads 120 pounds-inches, the amount of
torque actually applied on the fastener is 150 pounds-inches.

By shifting the variables, the same formula can be used to determine what a torque wrench
will indicate for a given torque on a fastener. This formula has more practical use for the aircraft
engineer, since he/she needs to know what figure to set on the wrench in order to apply the
correct torque as per the MM, or other instructions.

The formula to do this is: Tw = TA x L

(L + A)

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SCREWDRIVERS

Screwdrivers appear in the aircraft technician’s toolbox in many different forms; the simplest
of which is the common flat or plain type.

NOTE: Hex-lob is more commonly called TORX.

Hex is more commonly called "Allen”.

Many variations on basic screwdrivers can be found; some have a ratchet mechanism built
into the handle, some consist only of a handle and shaft with a magnetic socket on the end
that will receive different drive bits of various types and sizes.

Plain Screwdriver

The plain screwdriver works well for general use but has the disadvantage of applying torque
at only two places in the screw-head slot: the slots are prone to wear and if not handled with
great care the screwdriver will slip.

Phillips Screwdrivers

THE PHILLIPS SCREWDRIVER WAS INTRODUCED TO PROVIDE A TOOL WITH BETTER GRIP ON THE
SCREW THAN THE PLAIN SCREWDRIVER; IT APPLIES TORQUE IN FOUR PLACES AND IS A MUCH

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BETTER FIT ON THE SCREWDRIVER. PHILIPS HEADED FASTENERS AND SCREWDRIVERS ARE USED
WIDELY IN AVIATION.

Dumpy Screwdriver

The dumpy screwdriver is so called because it is short and looks fat. The short length enables
access in restricted areas where a normally proportioned screwdriver would be too long.

Offset Screwdriver

When access is so limited that a dumpy cannot get into an area then we use an offset
screwdriver. This has the disadvantage that it’s difficult to apply pressure into the screw head.
Great care must be exercised to prevent the screwdriver from slipping, even a Phillips.

Dumpy Offset

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Stud Box

A stud box is a tool used to insert or remove studs; it consists basically of

a length of hexagonal stock drilled through its axial length and threaded to
suit the size of the stud to be installed.

MEASURING TOOLS & PRECISION MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

SYSTEMS OF MEASUREMENT

Metric Units

The Metric system is an international decimalised system of measurement,

first adopted in France in 1791. The standard metric system is called the
SI, or International System.

Many countries have replaced the Imperial system with the Metric.
However, aviation engineers and technicians need to be aware that the
Imperial units are widely used in aviation alongside and often in place of
the metric (decimal) units.

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Both these systems are common in both civil engineering and in

aeronautical engineering, and units such as inches, pounds, psi, are still in
common use worldwide.

The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) has stated that there
should be a common world system and that it should be the SI system,
however they have also ruled that the use of the foot (Imperial unit) for
altitude is to be permitted. For now, we are faced with an industry where
both Metric and Imperial are the standard measuring systems.

Imperial Units: Fractional and decimal inch units.

Aviation technicians will need to be proficient in the use of fractions as well

as the decimal inch system. Conversion charts or tables are available and
should be used by the technician.

An example of the fractional and decimal inch units, and their metric (mm)
equivalents, is shown in this extract from a table of drill sizes:

Fractional Decimal Metric

(in.) (mm.)
1/32 0.0312 0.79
3/64 0.0469 1.19
1/16 0.0625 1.58
5/64 0.0718 1.98
3/32 0.0938 2.38
7/64 0.1094 2.78
1/8 0.1250 3.18
9/64 0.1406 3.57
5/32 0.1562 3.97
11/64 0.1719 4.37
3/16 0.1875 4.76
13/64 0.2031 5.16
7/32 0.2188 5.56
15/64 0.2344 5.95
1/4 0.2500 6.35

THE FEELER GAUGE (THICKNESS GAUGE)

Description:
a) A Set of Feeler Gauges consists of a number of thin steel leaves that fold into a handle.

b) The thickness of individual leaves is marked on each one.

c) When measuring a gap, the marked leaves are inserted in the gap until the closest-fitting
leaf or combination of leaves is found.

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d) The thickness of one, or the sum of a combination of leaves, represents the size of the gap
in imperial or metric dimensions.

e) It is generally used in assembly areas to check interface gaps, or for example point and
spark-plug gaps.

f) Fold unwanted leaves back in the handle with only the selected leaves exposed.

g) Do not use on moving or rotating parts.

h) Always clean before and after use.

i) Never force leaves into a gap. Only a light drag should be felt.

j) Fold leaves into handle when not in use.

THE RADIUS GAUGE

Description:
a) It is made up of several short steel leaves that fold into a handle.

b) The leaves are specially shaped so that they can be used in any position at any angle to
measure fillets and radii against shoulders or in corners.
c) The size of the fillet or radius is engraved on each leaf.
d) Store in a safe, dry place and handle with care.

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THREAD PITCH GAUGE

Description
a) It is made up of several short steel leaves that fold into a handle.

b) It is used to determine the pitch of various threads, by matching the teeth of the leaf with
the thread on the work piece.

c) The correct pitch may be read directly from the leaf.

d) Pitch gauges are available in a wide range of sizes and thread types

c) Leaves on all gauges are narrow enough to permit checking of nut threads.

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TOOL CONTROL SYSTEMS, TOOL FUNCTION AND CARE

Tool Control

The tools an aircraft maintenance technician uses are some of his most treasured
possessions: properly cared for they will give good service for many years. You must always
know where your tools are and return them to their proper place immediately after use; be that
in your toolbox, on a shadow board or in the tool store.

All too often tools, or materials get left behind in aircraft after maintenance and can cause
serious safety problems.

A tool, a piece of equipment or a cleaning rag left inside an aircraft can do a lot of damage.
There have been several documented aviation incidents and accidents that have resulted from
tools, equipment or material inadvertently left in aircraft after maintenance.

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A flashlight left in a Boeing 737 wheel well after maintenance became lodged in the landing
gear mechanism, preventing the pilot from raising the gear after take-off.

On another occasion, an aircraft, which had had a variety of defects related to fuel supply and
the tank quantity indication system, was delivered to a customer airline. A rag and a
screwdriver were found in one of the fuel tanks.

Clearly, if the technicians involved in these incidents had exercised proper control over their
equipment, they could have avoided putting people’s lives at risk.

Ensuring that you know where your tools are is a vital element of tool control.

Civil aviation authorities require that all maintenance and overhaul facilities institute tool control
procedures that permit effective management of tools. Tools and equipment should be
controlled so that their location is always known, and this includes both operator and staff
owned tooling.

Figure 5.1

TOKEN SYSTEM (ALSO CALLED "TALLY" OR "TAG")

In organizations where no private tools are permitted everyone shares the same tool kit and
operates a “tag-for-tool” system. Every technician is given several tokens (8 - 10) marked with
a number registered against his or her name. When you need a tool, you remove it from the
shadow board and place your token on the hook for that tool. At “cease work” time or at shift
change, it is easy to see who has not returned which tool; the shadow painted on the board
matches the profile of the tool, so an absent tool is easily noticed.

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Usually it is the small, personal tools that get left behind in aircraft. Some tool manufacturers
offer foam inlays for each tray of your toolbox with special recesses for individual tools; this
way if a tool is missing it is immediately obvious.

NB: It is good practice always to account for all the tools you used on a job before you
sign the aircraft work card.

Care of Tools

Preserving the good condition of tools is easy, always use the right tool for the job, clean,
lubricate them after use, and store them properly. Taking care of your tools is not only good
for the tools but reduces the chance of you having an accident while working.

Control of other items

What about control of cleaning rags? The humble cleaning rag can also be considered a tool.
There are many reported cases of rags left behind in aircraft, causing fuel and oil blockages,
fires – and even destroying the compressor section of turbine engines.

Anything used to accomplish a task can be described as tools or equipment; a piece of wood
used as a wedge, locking wire used to tie back a flexible pipe during maintenance, the list is
very long.

While the rules talk about knowing the location of tools and equipment, it’s really all about
ensuring no foreign object is left behind in an aircraft following maintenance. The problem of
foreign objects in aircraft extends beyond tools and rags to anything that can be left in an
aircraft and cause damage This means not only knowing where all the tools are in accordance
with the regulations but being sure of where all the other things like rags and left-over hardware
are not.

It all comes down to you and your level of professionalism. It is in everyone’s interest to
maintain the discipline of keeping track of personal tools, rags and discarded hardware.

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Figure 5.2
Toolbox Storage Rack

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Workshop Consumable Materials Practices

The term “workshop consumable materials” covers a wide range of items from use-once-throw-
away locking devices (wire, tab washers, etc.) to composite raw materials, paints, acids, and
lubricating compounds.

Inert consumables, i.e., those that will have no adverse reactions when exposed to other
materials, can be stored, used, and disposed of without any special precautions being taken.

Active consumables, i.e., those that will have adverse reactions when exposed to other
materials, require special storage, handling, and disposal procedures. There are so many
different materials in this category that they cannot all be discussed here, suffice it to say that
before handling any of them the technician should review the procedures involved as written
in the work instructions.

Small quantities (up to 5 litres) of flammable liquids may be kept in the workshop for the sake
of convenience but common sense should be exercised to avoid safety risks. When not in use
the containers should be stored in a steel cabinet.

Larger quantities must be kept in an approved shelter a safe distance from working areas and
marked clearly with a sign indicating the class of goods stored within as described in Objective
One of these notes.

Lubrication

The purpose of lubrication is to reduce friction and wear between moving parts imposing a
load on each other by separating them with a lubricant film.

Lubricants:

a. Oil
b. Grease
c. Dry film
d. Anti-seize Compound.

LUBRICATION AND LUBRICATING TOOLS

OIL LUBRICATION

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Types of oil

Lubricating oil can be extracted from animal, vegetable or mineral sources or made
synthetically.

All types of oil are affected by temperature; they get thicker as ambient temperature gets lower
and thinner as the temperature rises.

At very low temperature oil will congeal and cease to lubricate; at high temperature oil gets so
thin that the lubricating film breaks down.

Viscosity

The thickness or resistance-to-flow is called viscosity.

Animal and vegetable oils have a very limited temperature range so are used only rarely in
aviation.

Mineral oils have a much more acceptable operating temperature range and are used
extensively in aviation but at temperatures above 120º C mineral oils oxidize rapidly and start
to lose their lubricating properties; above this temperature synthetic oils are used.

Synthetic oils have stable viscosity that varies little and retain their lubricating properties at
temperatures exceeding 200ºC.

Compared to grease, oil can enable bearings to be operated at a wider range of temperatures.

Oil lubrication is used to lubricate in three ways:

1. re-circulating oil systems,

2. constant level bath

3. periodic application.

Re-circulating oil systems use a pump to provide a continuous flow of oil to the bearing, which
is then collected, cooled, filtered and re-circulated; the oil functions both as a lubricant and a
cooling agent.

A constant level oil bath is the simplest method of oil lubrication for low to moderate speed
gearboxes and engine starters.

Oil used for periodic applications can be applied using a hand-operated oil can, an aerosol can
or a brush.

Oil tanks or other reservoirs can be replenished by pouring direct from the container in which
the oil was supplied or a hand operated pump that attaches to the same container but will
replenish the oil from the bottom of the tank via a self-sealing coupling.

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GREASE
LUBRICATION

Grease is the most widely used lubricant for rolling contact bearings outside of the engines,
mainly because grease type lubricants are relatively easy to handle, require only the simplest
of sealing devices and offer better protection against corrosion to the rolling surfaces.

Greases typically are used in areas where a continuous supply of oil is un-necessary, such as
open bearings or gears.

Lubricating grease is a mixture of 85 - 90% oil together with a thickener. The function of the
thickener is to hold the lubricating oil in a semi-liquid state for easier handling. When there is
rise in temperature, the oil bleeds out from the thickener and functions as a lubricating agent,
when the temperature drops the thickener soaks up the oil again to become semi-solid once
more.

Grease is good at sealing out contaminants, minimizing re-lubrication intervals and reducing
leaks. Simply put, it is used where oils cannot be due to various equipment requirements.

Successful grease lubrication requires using the right grease in the right quantity at the right
intervals for the application to ensure optimum life and equipment reliability.

Types of grease

The type of grease chosen for a particular bearing lubrication application must therefore be
chosen very carefully. High temperature grease used in low temperature applications can
cause the bearings to seize due to lack of lubrication because the oil does not bleed out.

Under-greasing

A common cause of grease related equipment failures is a lack of lubrication from improper or
poor maintenance practices. under-greasing leads to high levels of metal-to-metal contact
between bearing components causing equipment failure or breakdown.

Over-greasing can be as bad as under-greasing. Over-pressurizing bearing seals by applying

too much grease can lead to higher grease usage and mechanical failures. If the bearing seal

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is damaged or blown out, equipment or bearing life can be shortened by more than 50 percent
due to the introduction of external contaminants.

Grease can be applied by hand, by spraying or most commonly with a grease-gun.

Lever and Pistol Type Hand Operated Grease Guns

Small portable hand operated or electric grease guns can reach inaccessible places but
contain only small amounts of grease and will need to be replenished regularly; pneumatically
powered guns can apply grease via long hoses from bulk containers.

Modern hand-operated grease guns produce pressures as high as 10,000 psi when greasing
bearings. This can easily damage bearings internal and external seals. The seals were
designed to keep foreign matter out; if damaged, they cannot do their job effectively.

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DRY-FILM LUBRICANTS

Dry-film lubricants stick to the surface to which they are applied and are used in areas either
where there is little relative movement between highly loaded bearing surfaces or where
temperatures are too high to use liquid lubricants, such as engine hot-stream thrust reverser
mechanisms.

In spite of the name dry films are applied wet; the lubricant is suspended in a volatile carrier
fluid and is applied either by hand brush or sprayed on from an aerosol can. The carrier fluid
evaporates after a few minutes and leaves a dry, even coating behind.

NB. Never assemble the parts before the fluid has evaporated; the action of sliding the two
faces together will wipe the lubricant away.

Anti-seize Compound.

Anti-seize compound is used in hostile environments where there is no relative movement

between mating parts, but other lubricants would be washed or burned away: such places as
wheel wells and hot engine sections on parts such as bushings, keyways, press fitted parts,
etc. to protect against seizure, heat freeze, galling and corrosion.

The purpose of it is twofold; it lubricates parts during assembly but more importantly the
lubricating properties are retained permitting easy disassembly.

A typical general purpose anti-seize compound might contain copper, graphite, and a
combination of specialty products blended into a water-resistant, non-melting grease base:
supplied in tubes or aerosol form.

CAUTION - Molybdenum disulphide is a very effective, low friction additive to grease and
dry-film lubricants but must not be used anywhere other than where specified in the AMM; at
high temperature it gives off sulphuric acid that will eat away and finally dissolve whatever
metal is in contact with it causing major failure of the part.

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