1

DECLERATON OF THESIS

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF

HONORS NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
 2

CERTIFICATION

I OYEWO EMMANUEL OYESHOLA (MAT.NO: 2021/144178EC) hereby declare

that this project titled "Influence of broken ceramic tile on the properties of a concrete as
a partial replacement of course aggregate in concrete production" was carried out by me,
under the supervision of ENGR. WALI IBRAHIM. It has not been previously submitted
to this polytechnic for the purpose of award of similar or any other diploma. All
reference is dully acknowledged.

...............................................
OYEWO EMMANUEL OYESHOLA
2021/144178EC
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APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that this project is undertaken by OYEWO EMMANUEL

OYESHOLA with matriculation number (2021/144178EC) and that it is in conformity
with the acceptance regulation governing the award of High National Diploma in Civil
Engineering technology and approved by the following personnel in the department.
 4

............................................. ..........................................
...
ENGR,WALI IBRAHIM DATE
Project supervisor

...........................................
............................................ ..
ENGR. BABA AHMED NDAKO DATE
Project coordinator

...........................................
............................................. ..
ENGR. MUSA YAKUBU DATE
Head of department

...........................................
............................................. .
External moderator. DATE
5
 6

INFLUENCE OF BROKEN CERAMIC TILE ON PROPERTIES OF A

CONCRETE AS A PARTIAL REPLACEMENT OF COARSE AGGREGATE IN

CONCRETE PRODUCTION

BY

OYEWO EMMANUEL OYESHOLA

MATRIC NO: 2021/144178EC

SUBMITTED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC

P.M.B 55, BIDA

NIGER STATE.

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD

OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

NOVEMBER, 2023
 7

DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the giver of life, almighty God, the most powerful and greatest of all
who gave me the strength and good health to carryout this project and who saw me through out
my HND program. Awesome is thy Lord.
 8

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is a true saying that "nobody is an Ireland'' the completion of this programme is as a

result of contribution from reputable person from all sphere of life.
I will like to use this medium to acknowledge the effort of my project supervisor
in person of Engr Wali Ibrahim for taking his time to read through my work and making
necessary corrections. I also want to use this opportunity to thank all the lecturers in the
Department of Civil Engineering for the knowledge they impacted on me. My thanks
goes to my lovely parents in person of MR and MRS OLATOYE OYEWO for their
support and advice at all times, most importantly their prayers. My thanks aslo goes to
MR and MRS AKINLOYE for their support (financially, morally and prayer), may God
reward your efforts. My profound gratitude goes to my wounderful brother and sisters:
Oyewo Abraham oyetunji, Oyewo Rodah oyenike, I aso want to appreciate the effort of
my dear, in person of Lawal Kikelomo mercy for the contribution toward the success of
this programme. My acknowledge will be incomplete without me saying a big thank you
to my G.O.A.T (Akinola blessing olamide), biggest appreciation to Okanlawon
Wonderful peter, and also acknowledge to my course mates, you are all wonderful.i will
like to appreciate my special and wounderful friends: Abdulrasheed Shuaibu, Usman
abako, taofeek toheeb,victor chimezie, adekunle bello, Khalid mooshod etc. A big shout
out to my fellow "structure " its fun sitting under the same roof to acquire knowledge;
you re all special people.
Thank you all.
 9

ABSTRACT

This project work report on the partial replacement of coarse aggregate with broken
ceramic tile in assessing the properties of concrete. The concrete mix ratio of 1:2:4 was
batched by weight and the percentage replacement varies from 0% to 60% at intervals
of 15%. The slump test (compacting factor and cone method) was used to assess the
workability of fresh concrete. The compressive strength and density of cured concrete
cubes of size 100mm x 100mm x 100mm, were evaluated at the 7 days, 14 days, 21 days
and 28 days. From the investigation carried out, it was observed that the concrete
produced from 0%. 15%, 30%, 45% and 60% for 7 days, 14 day, 21 days and 28 days
have average compressive strength of 16.8N/mm², 18N/mm², 19.3N/mm² and
19.7N/mm² for 0%; 14. 9N/mm², 13.1N/mm², 12.9N/mm² and 6.7N/mm² for 15%;
11.2N/mm², 6.6N/mm², 5.8N/mm² and 4.3N/mm² for 30%; 5.7N/mm²,
6.3N/mm²,8.5N/mm² and 8.8N/mm² for 45% and lastly 3.5N/mm², 6.0N/mm², 6.5N/mm²
and 7.0N/mm² for 60% replacement respectively. It was also observed that 10% and
20% replacement meet the strength value of normal lightweight concrete which is
between 3.5N/mm² to 7N/mm² and structural lightweight concrete which is between
7N/mm² to 17N/mm² respectively. Though the results indicated the possible use of
broken ceramic tile as structural materials, it is recommended that its long term
behavior should be investigated to evaluate this possibility. Also, further research
should be conducted to codify the use of broken ceramic tile as structural materials.
 10

TABLE OF CONTENT
CERTIFICATION 1
APPROVAL PAGE 2
DEDICATION 6
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 7
ABSTRACT 8
CHAPTER ONE 13
INTRODUCTION 13
1.1 Preamble 13
1.2 Statement of the Problem 15
1.3 Justification of the Research 15
1.4 Aim and objectives 16
1.4.1 Aim 16
1.4.2 Objectives 16
1.5 Scope and Limitation 17
1.5.1 Scope 17
1.5.2 Limitation 17
1.6 Methodology 17
CHAPTER TWO 19
LITERATURES REVIEW 19
2.1. Introduction 19
2.1 Concrete 19
2.1.1 Properties of Concrete 20
2.1.2 Types of Concrete 20
2.1.3 Characteristics of Concrete 20
2.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of concrete 21
2.1.5 Uses of Concrete. 21
2.1.6 Classification of Concrete 22
According to binding material 22
According to purpose 22
2.2 Cement 23
2.3 Aggregates 23
 11

2.3.1 Fine Aggregates 24

2.3.2 Coarse Aggregates 26
2.3.2.1 Normal-Weight Aggregate 26
2.3.2.2 Heavy-Weight Aggregates 27
2.3.2.3 Light-Weight Aggregates 28
2.4 Properties of Ceramic Tiles 28
2.4.1 Composition of Ceramic Tiles. 29
2.4.2 Classification of Ceramic Wastes 29
2.4.3 Chemical Composition 29
2.4.4 Ceramic Materials in Concrete 30
2.5 Production of Concrete 30
2.5.1 Process of Concrete Production 30
2.5.2 Batching 31
2.5.2 Volume Batching 31
2.5.3 Weigh Batching 31
2.5.4 Mixing 32
2.5.5 Transportation 32
2.5.6 Placing 33
2.5.7 Compaction 33
2.5.8 Curing 34
2.5.9 Finishing 34
2.5.10 Workability 35
CHAPTER THREE 36
MATERIALS AND METHODS 36
3.0 Introduction 36
3.1 Material Used For Experiment 36
3.1.1 Aggregate (BS 882-103.1:1992) 36
3.1.2 Water 37
3.1.3 Cement (BS 12:1996) 37
3.1.4 Ceramic tile 37
3.1.5 Fine aggregate (Natural sand) 38
3.2 Method 38
 12

3.2.1 Bulk Density Test 38

3.2.2 Sieve Analysis 39
3.2.3 Water absorption Test (BS 812 Part 3: 1975) 40
Test Procedures 40
3.2.4 Aggregate impact value Test (BS 812 Part 3:1975) 41
3.2.5 Specific Test Gravity (Bs 4530 part 3: 1978) 41
3.2.6 Mixing 42
3.2.7 Batch Computation 43
3.2.8 Slump Test 46
3.2.9 Demoulding of Cubes 48
3.2.10 Curing Cubes 48
3.2.11 Crushing Test (BS 1881:1983) 48
CHAPTER FOUR 49
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 49
4.1 Preamble 49
4.2 Discussion 49
4.2.1 Result of physical properties of material 49
4.2.2 Impact Value Test 49
4.2.3 Specific Gravity Test 50
4.2.4 Slump Test 50
4.2.5 Compressive Strength Test 50
4.2.6 Sieve Analysis 54
CHAPTER FIVE 57
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 57
4.1 Conclusion 57
4.2 Recommendations 58
References 59
APPENDIX 61
 13

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preamble

Concrete is a composite material composed mainly of water, aggregate and cement.

Often additives and reinforcements are included in the mixture to achieve the desired
physical and mechanical properties of the finished material. Cement and aggregate (river
sand and crushed stone) are the most important constituent used in concrete production.
This inevitably leads to a continuous and increasing demand of natural materials used
for concrete production. Parallel to the need for the utilization of the natural resources
emerges a growing concern for protecting the environment and a need to preserve
natural resources, such as aggregate, by using alternative materials that are either
recycled or discarded as a waste. The construction industries rely heavily on
conventional material such as cement, granite and sand for the production of concrete.
The high and increasing cost of these materials greatly hindered the development of
shelter and other infrastructural facilities in developing countries. These arise the need
for engineering consideration for the use of cheaper and locally available materials to
meet desired needs, enhanced self-efficiency and lead to an overall reduction in
 14

construction cost for sustainable development (senthamari et al 2005). So therefore,

Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients water,
aggregate, cement, and any additives to produce concrete. Concrete production is time
sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before
it hardens.(Gomes DeBrito, 2009)

● Water
In the production of concrete, water is an indispensable ingredient for cement hydration
reactions. Water is used to control many of the properties of plastic and hardened
concrete such as workability, compressive strength, permeability, water tightness,
durability, drying shrinkage and cracking.

● Cement
In the production of concrete, water is an indispensable ingredient for cement hydration
reactions. Water is used to control many of the properties of plastic and hardened
concrete such as workability, compressive strength, permeability, water tightness,
durability, drying shrinkage and cracking.

● Coarse aggregate
Generally coarse aggregate is blended with finer aggregates (such as sand) to fill in the
spaces left between the large pieces and to “lock” the larger pieces together. This
reduces the amount of cement paste required and decreases the amount of shrinkage that
could occur.

● Ceramic tile
Ceramic waste is durable, hard and highly resistant to biological, chemical and physical
degradation forces as the ceramic waste is piling up every day, there is pressure on the
ceramic industries to deal with these wastes (pachero and jalali, 2010). The need to
develop concrete with non-conventional aggregate is urgent for environment as well as
economic reasons. Construction industries are the end users of almost all the ceramic
material, is well poised to solve the environmental problems which is partly its own. The
 15

use of waste products in concrete is not only economical but also solves some of the
waste disposal issues.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

With the Nigeria or global economic recession coupled with the market inflationary
trends, the materials used for building structures has result to a very high cost of
construction. Therefore, researchers in material science and engineering are committed
to finding local materials or waste materials that will fully or partially replace these
costly conventional materials. So many achievements have been made in these regards
and the subject is attracting attention due to it functional benefit of waste reusable and
sustainable development. The ability to produced ceramic tile as alternative material and
reduction in construction cost in structures are added advantages in concrete production.

1.3 Justification of the Research

As a result of high demand for shelter in Nigeria, there is an increase technological

advancement and inevitable demand for shelter in Nigeria, there is a remarkable increase
in the volume of construction materials that cannot be over emphasized since it will, at
least reduce cost. Tones of waste materials are deposited into environment, due to
this increasing industrial and agricultural activities; Some of these materials are not
easily degradable and their accumulation is a threat to the environment. An example for
some of these waste materials includes; Rice husk, saw dust, maize comb, palm kernel
shell, coconut shell, periwinkle shell, ceramic waste and groundnut shell. A way of
solving this environment hazards caused by these waste materials is by having them
employed as a useful construction materials.
 16

1.4 Aim and objectives

1.4.1 Aim

The aim of this research is to determine or assess the properties of concrete when coarse
aggregate is partially replaced with ceramic tile.

1.4.2 Objectives

The objectives of this research include:

1. To determine the effect of ceramic tile on the properties of concrete such as
strength, workability and durability etc.
2. To impact knowledge to others on what percentage replacement will affect the
properties of concrete.
3. The result of this project can serve as a base for further research on how ceramic
tile can effectively be used to improve the characteristic performance of
concrete.
4. To know the percentage of ceramic tile that will be appropriate in concrete.
5. The result that will be obtained from this research, may serve as base upon which
the engineer will know the areas which the use of ceramic tile will be employed
in concrete work.
6. Curing of hardened concrete for a period of 7, 14, 21 and 28 days as well as
obtaining their mechanical properties.
 17

1.5 Scope and Limitation

1.5.1 Scope

The scope of this research work involve the determination of the physical properties of
aggregate such as sieve analysis, specific gravity, water absorption test and the
suitability of the use of ceramic tile in the production of concrete.

1.5.2 Limitation

The limitation of this project work involves the determination of physical properties of
both aggregates and concrete test that are to be carried out. The test involve the
following;
● Sieve analysis
● Specific gravity
● Water absorption test
● Bulk density
● Porosity
● Slump rest
● Specific surface of materials

1.6 Methodology

The procedure of this research would involve carrying out identification test on the
aggregate broken ceramics tiles and crushed granite. The results of this test would be
compared to standard given in tests. These tests would include sieve analysis, specific
gravity, water absorption, and buck density. The fresh concrete mixes will be tested for
workability, slump and compaction factors. cubes of size (100mm x 100mm x 100mm
or 150mm x 150mm x 150mm)with mix proportion 1:2:4 will be casted for every mix
ratio that is ceramic tiles to crushed stone ratio ( 5% l0% 20% 30%40% 50%). with
constant water cement ratio of 0:55. After 24 hours, the cubes will be removed from
 18

mould and cured in water the cubes were cured for different period of time (7, 14, 21
and 28 days) respectively. The cubes will then weighed and crushed under machine to
determine their compressive strength. 3 cubes will be crushed per mix ratio per curing
age.
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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURES REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

Concrete is a composite construction material made primarily with fine and coarse
aggregate, cement and water in required proportions, It is the most widely used
construction material in the world. The mixture when placed in forms and allowed to
cure becomes hard like stone. This is caused by a chemical action between cement and
water due to which concrete stronger with age. The strength, density and other
characteristics of coarse depends upon the properties of its ingredients, proportion of the
mix, the method of compaction and other control during placing, compaction and curing.
Although concrete is the most popular construction material, it has some limited
properties: low tensile strength, low ductility low energy absorption, shrinkage and
cracking associated with hardening and curing (Wang et 2000).
 20

2.1 Concrete

Concrete has attained the status of a major building material in all branches of civil
engineering and modern construction because of the following reasons:
1. It can be easily molded into durable structural items of various sizes and shapes
at practically no considerable labor expenditure.
2. It is possible to control the properties of cement concrete within a wide range by
using appropriate ingredients and by applying special process techniques.
3. It is possible to mechanize completely its preparation and placing processes.
4. It is possesses adequate plasticity for mechanical working ( Nevile, 1997).

2.1.1 Properties of Concrete

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile, and as
such is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The
elasticity of concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at
higher stress levels as matrix cracking develop. Concrete has a very low coefficient of
thermal expansion, and as it matures concrete shrinks. All concrete structures will crack
to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension concrete which is subjected to long
duration forces is prove to creep.

2.1.2 Types of Concrete

1. Ordinary Portland cement concrete which is a mixture of cement, water, fine

aggregate and coarse aggregates.
2. Reinforced concrete is also a common form of concrete in which steel is used as
reinforcement. It comprises of cement, water, sand, gravel and reinforcement
steel.
3. Pre stresses concrete in which internal stress cables known as tendons are used.
 21

2.1.3 Characteristics of Concrete

A good concrete should possess the following characteristics

● It should have high compressive strength (so that it can resist the heavy loads of
the structures). The compressive strength should not be less than 15.5N/mm².
● On hardening it should exhibit minimum shrinkage.
● It must be adequately dense, the density of a good concrete should be about
24KN/m³.
● It should be economical for the desired strength.
● It should be sufficiently hard and provide enough resistance to abrasion
● It must be adequately durable to resist the effect of weathering agencies (e.g.
rain, frost action, variation in temperature etc.).

2.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of concrete

▪ Advantages:
Concrete as a construction material entails the following advantages
1. It has a high compressive strength, and the corrosive and weathering effects are
minimal.
2. Its strength equals that of a hard material stone when properly prepared.
3. As compared to other materials, concrete is economical in the long run
4. It is durable and fire resistant and requires very little maintenance
5. Concrete can be pumped and hence it can be laid in different positions also.

▪ Disadvantages:

The following are the disadvantages of concrete

1. Concrete is to be reinforced with steel bars or meshes since it has low tensile
strength and cracks easily
2. Provision for contraction joints has to be made to avoid the development of
cracks due to drying shrinkage and moisture movement in fresh concrete
3. Concrete is liable to disintegrate by alkali and sulphate attack.
 22

4. Concrete as a material lacks ductility and this factor proves disadvantageous with
respect to earthquake resistance design.

2.1.5 Uses of Concrete.

Concrete is used in the construction of the following:

● Foundation
● Building
● Road
● Airfield
● Water retaining structures
● Docks and harbor
● Dams
● Bridges
● Bunkers
● Silos etc.

2.1.6 Classification of Concrete

The concrete are classified follows

● According to binding material.
● According to design.
● According to purpose.
According to binding material
The concretes, according to binding material, are classified as follows;
● Cement concrete.
● Lime concrete.
According to design.
The concretes, according to design are classified as follows
● Plain cement concrete
● Reinforced cement concrete (RCC).
● Prestressed cement concrete (PCC).
 23

According to purpose
The concrete, according to purpose is classified into various types;
1. light-weight concrete.
2. Cellular or aerated concrete.
3. Sawdust concrete.
4. Vacuum concrete.
5. White and colored concrete.
6. High early strength concrete.
7. No fines concrete.

2.2 Cement

Cement is a fine grey powder of calcined limestone and clay which when mixed with
sand and water, gives cement mortar, and with water, sand and gravels (coarse
aggregate) gives cement concrete. A cement is any material that hardens and becomes
strongly adhesive after application in plastic form (Yahaya.khadeejah, 2011). The term
cement is often used interchangeably with glue and adhesive.
In building and engineering constructions, it is referred to as a fine manufactured
powdered substance consisting of gypsum plaster or Portland cement that hardens and
adheres after being mixed with water cements are used for various purposes such as
binding sand and gravel together with Portland cement to form concrete, for uniting or
coating surfaces of various materials to protect them from chemical attack. The most
common cement used is the ordinary Portland cement. Typical Portland cement
inmixture of; Tricalcium silicate (3CaO.Si,O;), Tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al;0;), and
Dicalcium Silicate (2Ca0.SiO;). in varying proportions together with small amounts of
magnesium and iron compounds. Gypsum is often added to slow the hardening process
and sometimes Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (4CaO.AlO.FeO) is also added. The main
constituents of a typical Portland cement and their percentages in weight (Hewlett,
1941).
 24

2.3 Aggregates

Aggregates alone constitute about 70% of the entire concrete mix. Aggregates are a
combination of distinct parts gathered into a mass or a whole. Generally, in civil
engineering, the term aggregate means a mass of crushed stone, gravel, sand etc
predominantly composed of individual particles, but in some cases including clays and
silts.
Two main uses of aggregates in civil engineering works include:
● As an underlying material for foundations and road pavements,
● As ingredient in Portland cement concrete. (Michael and John, 2006)

Aggregates are granular mineral particles used either in combination with various types
of cementing materials to form concretes, or alone as road bases, backfill and so on.
Some typical uses of aggregates are Portland cement concrete, asphalt concrete and
surfaces, road bases and sub bases, railroad ballast, fill under floor slabs, concrete
blocks, water filtration beds, drainage structures just to mention a few. (Neville, 1997).
Aggregates are classified based on their geological origin, size, shape, and unit weight.
Based on geological origin, there are natural and artificial aggregates. By size, we have
fine, coarse and all-in aggregates. According to shape, rounded, irregular or partly
round, angular or flaky. Normal-weight. heavy-weight and light-weight aggregates are
classifications according to unit weight. For the purpose of this work, two main classes
of aggregates according to size and unit weight will be considered.

2.3.1 Fine Aggregates

These form the smaller grain sized aggregates with particle sizes of which majority are
less than 5.0mm but greater than 0.75mm. They could be natural or artificially crushed
material, in which case the natural type is mostly used. The property of fine aggregate
(sand) is important as it affects the strength of concrete workability and also the yield or
output. (Yahaya, 2011).
 25

Fine aggregate is a type of construction material used in concrete and mortar. It

consists of small particles like sand, crushed stone, or gravel with particle sizes typically
ranging from 0.075mm to 4.75mm. Fine aggregate helps to fill the voids between larger
coarse aggregates, providing stability, strength, and workability to the concrete mix.
Remember, the choice of fine aggregate should align with the project's requirements and
local regulations. Properly selected and used, fine aggregate contributes to the overall
performance, strength, and durability of construction materials.
Fine aggregate, also known as sand, is one of the two main types of aggregate used in
construction. It is typically composed of small particles ranging from 0.075mm to
4.75mm in size. Fine aggregate is commonly used in concrete and mortar to fill voids,
improve workability, and contribute to the strength and durability of the construction
materials.
Certainly! Fine aggregate plays a crucial role in construction materials due to its various
properties and uses. Here are some more details about fine aggregate:
1. Type: Fine aggregate can be categorized into natural sand, manufactured sand
(also known as M-sand), or a combination of both. Natural sand is obtained from
riverbeds or coastal areas, while M-sand is produced through crushing rocks or
quarry stones.
2. Gradation: The particle size distribution of fine aggregate is an essential factor in
determining the quality of concrete. Proper gradation ensures a dense and strong
concrete mix with minimal voids.
3. Shape: The shape of fine aggregate particles influences the workability and
strength of concrete. Well-rounded and smooth particles tend to have better
workability, while angular particles contribute to higher strength.
4. Workability: Fine aggregate enhances the workability of concrete by reducing its
water demand. This helps in achieving better cohesiveness and ease of placing
and finishing the concrete.
5. Durability: The quality of fine aggregate affects the durability of concrete,
especially in harsh environmental conditions. A proper selection of fine
 26

aggregate can improve resistance to freeze-thaw cycles, chemical attacks, and

abrasion.
6. Proportion: Fine aggregate typically constitutes around 30% to 40% of the total
volume of concrete. The correct proportion is essential to achieve the desired
concrete strength and performance.
7. Grading Zones: In some regions, fine aggregate is classified into different
grading zones based on particle size distribution. The specific zone selection
depends on the construction requirements.
8. Construction Applications: Fine aggregate is not only used in concrete but also
in mortar for masonry work, plastering, and as a bedding material for laying
paving blocks or tiles.
9. Availability: The availability of fine aggregate can vary depending on the
location andlocal resources. In some areas, natural sand might be scarce, leading
to the increased use of manufactured sand.

2.3.2 Coarse Aggregates

These are the large grain size aggregates with particle sizes of which majority are greater
than 5.0mm. They could also be natural such as gravel, crushed rock or stone, or
artificially which include blast furnaces slag. broken bricks e.t.c. But the artificial ones
are most commonly used (Khaloo 1995).
Coarse aggregate is the other main type of aggregate used in construction, alongside fine
aggregate. It is a material composed of larger particles, typically ranging from 4.75mm
to 80mm in size. Coarse aggregate is an essential component in concrete, providing
strength and stability to the construction material. It is commonly used in various
construction applications, such as in the production of concrete for buildings, roads,
bridges, and other infrastructure projects. The size and shape of coarse aggregate
particles influence the properties of concrete, including its strength and workability.
Similar to fine aggregate, proper selection and proportioning of coarse aggregate are
 27

vital for achieving the desired concrete performance. Common sources of coarse
aggregate include crushed stone, gravel, and recycled concrete materials.

2.3.2.1 Normal-Weight Aggregate

These are the commonly used which have specific gravities between 2.5 to 2.7 produce
concrete unit weight ranging from 23 KN/m to 26 KN/m and crushing strength at 28
days between 15 to 40 N/mm.
Normal weight aggregates, also known as natural aggregates or dense
aggregates, are types of aggregates that have a standard or typical density within a
specific range. These aggregates are commonly used in construction materials like
concrete and asphalt.The term "normal weight" is used to differentiate these aggregates
from lightweight aggregates, which have lower density and are used in specific
applications where weight reduction is a priority.
Normal weight aggregates are typically sourced from natural resources like
crushed stone, gravel, sand, or a combination of these materials. They provide the
necessary bulk and strength to concrete while maintaining a reasonable density.
The specific density of normal weight aggregates can vary depending on the source and
the materials used. The density of most natural aggregates falls within the range of
2,200 to 2,900 kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or 140 to 180 pounds per cubic foot
(lb/ft³).These aggregates are widely available, cost-effective, and commonly used in
construction projects for their desirable properties and overall reliable.

2.3.2.2 Heavy-Weight Aggregates

Some Heavy-Weight aggregates having specific gravities ranging from 2.8 to 2.9 and
unit weights from 28 to 29 KN/mm such as magnetite are used in the manufacture of
heavy weight concretes which is more elective as a radiation shield and weight coating
of submerged pipelined.
 28

Heavyweight aggregates are a type of aggregate that have a significantly higher

density compared to normal weight aggregates. They are used in specialized applications
where high density is required, such as in nuclear power plants, radiation shielding, and
certain types of heavy concrete constructions.
The increased density of heavyweight aggregates provides added benefits, such
as improved radiation shielding capabilities, increased resistance to impact and abrasion,
and enhanced thermal properties. These properties make heavyweight concrete suitable
for applications where standard concrete would not meet the requirements. Common
materials used as heavyweight aggregates include high-density minerals like barite,
magnetite, hematite, and steel punchings. These materials have a specific gravity much
higher than normal aggregate components, which contributes to the overall weight of the
concrete mix.
It is important to note that heavyweight concrete may have reduced workability
due to the increased weight of the aggregates. Proper mix design and handling
techniques are essential to ensure the concrete can be placed and finished successfully.
Due to their specialized nature, heavyweight aggregates are not commonly used in
everyday construction projects. They are typically reserved for specific applications that
demand their unique properties, such as in nuclear facilities, radiation therapy rooms, or
for counterweights in certain structures.

2.3.2.3 Light-Weight Aggregates

These have unit weights up to 12KN/m and are used in the manufacture of structural
concrete and blocks for reduction of self-weight of the structure such as diatomite and
pumice (Michael and John, 2006), Various tests on aggregates are carried out to know
the particle size distributions of the aggregates and to know their strengths. This
includes:
● Sieve analysis (which helps to determine the particle size distribution of
the coarse and fine aggregates)
● Bulk density
● absorption
 29

● Aggregate impact value

● Aggregate abrasion value
● Aggregate crushing value

2.4 Properties of Ceramic Tiles

1. Water Absorption: Ceramic tiles have high water absorption due to their high
porosity, those with little water absorption are resistant to freezing.
2. Resistance to chemical substances used in households.
3. Resistance to acids and bases
4. Resistance to abrasion.

2.4.1 Composition of Ceramic Tiles.

Ceramic tiles are building materials used as finishing products and designed to cover
floors and walls. A very ancient manufactured product, ceramic tiles are still used today
in the most modern and advanced applications. Ceramic tiles are slabs of various
formats and variable dimensions (sides of lengths from a few centimeters to a meter and
beyond, thicknesses from 5 to over 25mm), made mixtures of clay, sand and other
natural substances fired at high temperatures. This mixture of materials establishes the
ceramic nature of the tiles. These mixtures are then molded into the required shapes
through special shaping processes, and finally fired in kilns at extremely high
temperatures (between 1000 and 1250°C) (ZongjinLamidi, ayclabo la (2014)

2.4.2 Classification of Ceramic Wastes

Ceramic wastes can be separated in two categories in accordance with the source of raw
materials. The first, being fired wastes generated by the structural ceramic factories that
use only red pastes to manufacture their products, such as brick, blocks and roof tiles.
The second one is all fired waste produced in stoneware ceramic such as wall, floor tiles
 30

and sanitary ware. In each category the fired ceramic waste are classified according to
the production process. (Torgal and Jalali. 2010).

2.4.3 Chemical Composition

The chemical compositions of ceramic paste are classified in silica and alumina are the
most significant oxides present in the ceramic pastes. The variation of proportion of thc
silica and alumina is due to the clay used. It should be noted that the red paste show high
proportion of iron oxide responsible for the red color of the products. Ceramic wastes
were crushed to make the ceramic aggregate (Yahaya, 2011).

2.4.4 Ceramic Materials in Concrete

(Khaloo, 1995) investigated the use of crushed tile as a source of coarse aggregate in
concrete. The crushed tile had a lower density and a much higher water absorption value
compared to those of natural crushed stones. The resulting concrete made with
100% crushed tile as the coarse aggregate had a lower density and higher compressive
(+2%), tensile (+70%) and flexural (+29%) strengths. (Tavakoli, 2012) Using ceramic
wastage in concrete production causes no remarkable negative effect in the properties of
concrete. The optimal case of using tile wastage as sand are amounts of 25% to
50%, besides, the best case of their use as coarse aggregate are as amounts of 10% -
20%. In these measures, not only an increase happens in compressive strength, but also a
decrease in unit weight and lack of remarkable negative effect on water absorption is
reported.
 31

2.5 Production of Concrete

2.5.1 Process of Concrete Production

A good quality concrete is essential a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine
aggregates and water which constituents has a specific function. The coarse aggregate
acts as a filler. The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse
aggregate. The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder. The mobility of the
mixture is aided by the cement paste, and now a day, increasingly by the use of
admixtures. Most of the properties of the hardened concrete depend on the care
exercised at every stage of the manufacture of concrete, A rational proportioning of the
ingredients of concrete are essence of the mix design. low ever, it may not guarantee of
having achieved the objective of the quality concrete work. The aim of quality concrete
is to ensure the production of concrete of uniform strength from batch to batch. These
require some rules to be followed in the various stages of concrete production and are
discussed as follows (Duggal, 2008).

2.5.2 Batching

For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quality of all the ingredients should be
used. The aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of 43
percent of batch quality and the admixtures by 5% of the batch quantity. There are two
prevalent methods of batching materials the volume batching and the weight batching.
The factors affecting the choice of batching method are the size of job, required
production rate and required standards of batching performance. For most important
works weight batching is recommended.
 32

2.5.2 Volume Batching

Volume batching is generally recommended for small jobs only. The amount of cach
solid ingredient is measured by loose volume using standard box known as gauge box.
The amount of solid granular materials in a cubic meter will be an indefinite quantity.
As an example, volume of moist sand in a loose condition weigh much less than the
same volume of dry compacted sand. Cement is always measure by weight irrespective
of the method of batching.While water is measured cither in kilograms or liters since the
density of water is in kg/L.

2.5.3 Weigh Batching

For all important works weigh batching is used. Different types of weigh batchers are
used. For smaller works manual batching is done. And thc operations of weighing and
batching of the ingredients are done manually. The weighing may also be done by
ordinary platform weighing machines. For large size works weigh buckets equipment
are used. The weigh buckets are fed from hoppers and these discharge the aggregate by
gravity, straight into the mixer. Automatic batching plants ranging from small to large
capacity and manually or electrically operated are available. However, the weighing of
all the different materials is put into motion and the flow of cach is cut-off cach material
delivered to each batch. In weigh batching water is not added by graduated buckets as
the water may spill over during its addition. A horizontal or vertical tank is fitted to the
mixer. The filling is so designed to have a control to admit any desired quantity of water.
(Duggal, 2008).

2.5.4 Mixing

The main objective of mixing is to make the concrete mass homogeneous and uniform in
color and consistency. All the aggregate particles should have a coat of cement paste and
 33

all the ingredients of the concrete should blend into a uniform mass. The mixing is done
either by hand with shovel or by machine called mixer.

2.5.5 Transportation

Concrete should be transported to the place of deposition at the earliest without the loss
of homogeneity obtained at the time of mixing. A maximum of 2 hours from the time of
mixing is permitted if trucks with agitator and 1 hour if trucks without agitators are used
for transporting concrete. Also it should be ensured that segregation does not take place
during transportation and placement. The methods adopted for transporting concrete
depend upon the size and importance of the job, the distance of the deposition place
from the mixing place and the nature of the terrain. Some of the methods of transporting
Concrete are: the used of Mortar pan, Wheel Barrow, Chutes, Dumpers, Bucket and
Rope way, belt Conveyors, Skip and Hoist, in Pumping and the likes.

2.5.6 Placing

To achieve quality concrete it should be placed with utmost care securing the
homogeneity achieved during nixing and the avoidances of segregation in transporting.
"Research has shown that a delay placing of concrete results in a gain in ultimate
compressive strength provided the concrete can be adequately compacted. For dry mixes
in hot weather delay of half to one hour is allowed whereas for wet mixes in cold
weather it may be severally hours." (Duggal, 2008).

2.5.7 Compaction

After concrete is placed at the desired location the next step in the process of concrete
production is its compaction. And accordingly to Shetty, (2004) define compaction of
concrete as the process adopted for Expelling the entrapped air from the concrete. i.e. it
 34

is the process of getting rid of the entrapped air and voids, elimination of segregation
occurred and to form a homogeneous dense mass. "Compaction consolidates fresh
concrete within the moulds or frame works and around embedded parts and
reinforcement steel. Considerable quantity of air is cntrappcd in concrete during its
production and there is possible partial segregation also. Both of these adversely affect
the quality of concrete. It has been found that 5% voids in hardened concrete reduce the
strength by over 30% and 10% voids reduce the strength by over 50%. Therefore, the
density and consequently the strength and durability of concrete largely depend upon the
degree of compaction. For maximum strength driest possible concrete should be
competed 100%", (Duggal, 2008). Duggal also explain that voids increase the
permeability of concrete, Loss of impermeability creates easy passage of moisture,
Oxygen, chloride and other aggressive chemicals into the concrete. This causes rusting
of steel and spalling (disintegrating) of concrete i.e. loss of durability. However the
compaction of concrete can be achieved by: the hand compaction using rammer,
compaction using vibrating machine, compaction by roller and the likes.

2.5.8 Curing

Cement gains strength and hardness because of the chemical action between cement and
water. This chemical reaction requires moisture. favorable temperature and time referred
to as the curing period (Duggal, 2008). According to Shetty. 2004. Curing can also be
described as keeping the concrete moist and worm enough so that the hydration of
cement can continues until the desired properties are developed to a sufficient degree to
meet the requirement of service, curing is being given a place of increasing importance
as the demand for high quality concrete is increase. It has been recognized that the
quality of concrete shows all round improvement with efficient uninterrupted curing. If
curing is neglected in the early period of hydration, the quality of concrete will
experience a sort of irreparable loss. An efficient curing in the early period of hydration
can be compared to a good and a wholesome feeding given to a new born baby.
 35

Therefore the objectives is to prevent the loss of moisture from concrete due to
evaporation or any other reason, curing must be done for at least three weeks and in no
case for less than ten days. Curing method can be divided broadly into four categories
such as:
● Water curing
● Membrane curing
● Application of heat
● Miscellaneous

2.5.9 Finishing

Finishing is the last operation in making concrete. Finishing in real sense does not apply
to all concrete operations. For a beam concreting. finishing may not be applicable;
whereas for the concrete road pavement airfield pavement or for the flooring of a
domestics building, careful finishing of great importance is apply. Concrete is often
dubbed as a drab material in capabIe of offering pleasant architectural appearances and
finish. This shortcoming of concrete is being rectified and concrete these days are made
to exhibit pleasant surface insides. Particularly, many types of prefabricated concrete
panels used as floor slab or wall unit are made in such a way as to give very attractive
architectural effect. In recent years there has been a growing tendency to develop and
use various surface treatment which permit concrete structures to proudly proclaim its
nature instead of covering itself with an expensive veneer. Surface finishes may be
grouped as under;
a. Form work finishes
b. Surface treatment
c. Applied finishes (Shetty, 2004)

2.5.10 Workability

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mould properly
with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality.
 36

Workability depends on the water content, aggregates grading (shape and size
distribution), cementitious content and age (length or degree of hydration) and they can
also be modified by the addition of chemical admixtures. Raising the water content or
adding chemical admixtures will increase concrete's workability. Excessive water will
lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and or segregation of aggregates (when the
cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having a reduced
quality.

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.0 Introduction

This chapter deals with various materials and method which have been used in carrying
out the project. The materials used for this project are cement, water, fine aggregate,
coarse aggregate and broken bottles. These different materials were incorporated
together, in order to know the strength of concrete when coarse aggregate is partially
replaced with different percentages of broken ceramic tile.
 37

3.1 Material Used For Experiment

The various material needed for concrete specimen preparation in this research work are
ceramic waste (tiles), ordinary Portland cement (OPC), fine aggregate (natural sand),
coarse aggregate (gravel or granite) and water . However, these materials were batched
using weight method of batching.

3.1.1 Aggregate (BS 882-103.1:1992)

Aggregate are classified as fine and coarse aggregates. The fine aggregates are those
that pass through the 4.75mm British standard sieve, and is known as sharp sand and
those that are retained on the 4.75mm British standard sieve are referred to as coarse
aggregate. The fine aggregate used was obtained from Baddegi River, Bida, Niger State.
And it was air dried for 72 hours in other drive out moisture present in it.

3.1.2 Water

Water helps in mixing, placing and compaction at fresh concrete. Water used for
concrete should be free from all the impurities. Tap water obtained from Civil
engineering structural and soil lap, Federal Polytechnic Bida, was used for mixing of
concrete and curing of the concrete cubes during the course of the project.

3.1.3 Cement (BS 12:1996)

The cement used was ordinary Portland cement (OPC). The cement was produced from
industrial decomposition of calcium carbonate with addition of other constituents such
as aluminum oxide, silicone oxide and other granular materials in a calculated
proportion in accordance to (B.S 12:1996) . Dangote brand of ordinary Portland cement
gotten along Small gate at Federal Polytechnic Bida was used in this project.
 38

3.1.4 Ceramic tile

The ceramic tiles was obtained from a nearby construction site and broken to required
sizes and shape. The coarse aggregate was then passed through B.S sieve, there by
obtaining the required aggregate needed for concrete production. It can be classified as
single-sized (19mm) aggregate in accordance to (B.S 882-103.l: 1992).

3.1.5 Fine aggregate (Natural sand)

Aggregate passing B.S sieve 4.75mm.The sand used was obtained from river, air dried
for 72 hours in other to drive out the moisture present in it. The dried sand was then used
in the concrete production. The natural sand can be classified as coarse sand. medium
sand and fine Sand in accordance to (B.S 882-103.1: 1992).

3.2 Method

3.2.1 Bulk Density Test

Aim: The aim of this test is to know the weight of an aggregate that will fill a unit
volume of a container when aggregate is to be actually batched by volume. It is
necessary to know the weight of aggregate that will fill a unit volume, This is known as
the bulk density of an aggregate, and this density is used to convert quantities by weight
to quantities by volume. The bulk density clearly depend on how density the aggregate
is packed and it follows that for materials at a given specific gravity the bulk density
depend on the size distribution and the shape of the particles. The shape of these
particles greatly affects the closeness of packing that can be achieved for a coarse
aggregate of a given specific gravity, a higher bulk density measure that there are fewer
voids to be filled with sand and cement and the bulk density has been employed as a
basis of proportioning of mixes.
 39

Apparatus
i. A Cylinder mould
ii. A weighing balance
iii. A strength metal tamping rod
iv. Spatula

Procedure:
Loose or uncompacted bulk density. The dried aggregate are gently placed in the
container to overflow and then levelled by rolling a rod across the top. Care was taken
to prevent as far as possible segregation of the particle size of which the sample is
composed. The net weight of the aggregate in the mould divided by it volume, then
represents the bulk density for the uncompacted aggregates. ii. Compacted bulk
density; the metal cylinder mould is filled in the three layers. Each layer is rolled 25
times with a 16mm diameter rod. Again, the overflows is removed. The net weight of
the aggregate of the mould divided by its volume gives the compacted bulk density.

●The bulk density of the compacted sample is higher than that of loose sample
●The bulk density for compacted coarse aggregate is greater than the compacted fine
aggregate.
Bulk density = wt of mass
Volume

3.2.2 Sieve Analysis

Aim: To determine the grading of fine aggregate as provided by B.S 812 part 1:1975

Apparatus:

● Set of sieves
● mechanical shaker
● weighing balance
 40

● iron brush

Test Procedure:
The weight of the sample was measured and recorded. The sample is then pour into the
set of arrange sieves which was arrayed in accordance with the BS812: The sieves was
placed in the mechanical sieve shaker for 10minutes. The weight of sample retained on
each sieve was measured and recorded.

3.2.3 Water absorption Test (BS 812 Part 3: 1975)

Aim: To determine the water absorption capacity of the aggregate.

Apparatus:
● Weighing balance
● drying oven
Theory:
Water absorption refers to the increase in mass of a 3sample of aggregate due to
the penetration of water into the water accessible voids of the oven dried
aggregate i.e. the ratio of decrease in the mass between a saturated sample and a
surface dry aggregate after oven drying for 24 hours to the mass of the oven
dried sample expressed as a percentage. porosity and absorption of aggregate
will affect the w/c ratio, workability and durability of concrete when is subjected
to freezing and thawing and also chemically aggressive liquids. The test is in
accordance to BS 812: Part 107: 1995.
Test Procedures

1. The weighing balance was tarred zero and empty cylinder was weighed and
recorded.
2. A measured of the oven dried aggregate was then placed inside the cylinder, then
weighed and recorded as (M1).
3. Then water was added to the aggregate in the cylinder and left for 24 hours.
4. Finally, the weight in the aggregate in the cylinder was then taken after removing
 41

the water from the cylinder and ensuring an aggregate surface dried condition.
This weight is taken as (M2).
Calculation
Water Absorption = M2 - M1 x 100
M1
Where M – M1 = Decrease in mass and M = Mass of dry sample

3.2.4 Aggregate impact value Test (BS 812 Part 3:1975)

Aim: To determine the resistance to sudden shock.

Apparatus:
● Hand scoop
● set of BS sieves
● weighing balance
● tamping rod
● cylinder
● metal mould
● impact testing machine.
Procedure:
A sample of aggregate passing a 14mm sieve but retained on a 10mm sieve was
preferred. The aggregate material retained in the 1Omm sieve then poured into the
mould and tamped in three (3) layers, each layer receiving 25 blows from a height of
300mm. the mould and its content was weighed and recorded as mass A.
The aggregate later poured into a steel cup, and subjected to 15blows from the hammer
of the impact machine at a height of 300mm. the crushed aggregate then poured into the
sieve of 2.36mm to obtain the finer sample, the mass of the sample retained weighed.
The mass of the sample passing weighed also and recorded as mass B.
Aggregate impact value = (B/A) × 100%
 42

3.2.5 Specific Test Gravity (Bs 4530 part 3: 1978)

Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of sold to the weight of equal volume of water
at a states temperature (Neville 2010)

Aim: To determine the specific gravity of sample [sand, gravel and broken ceramic tile]
Materials; Fine aggregate, coarse aggregate and water
Apparatus

1. Weighing balance
2. Evaporated dish
3. Gas jar
4 .water bottle
5. Hand scope
Procedure: The gas jar was place on a glass plate and the weight of both was taken as M 1
some quantity of the sand sample was put inside the glass jar and place on the gas plate
and the weight was taken as M 2, water is then added to the brim and it was weighed as
M3, also the weight of the gas jar water inside was place on the glass plate was taken as
M4 the procedure was repeated for second test.
Specific gravity = M2 - M1

.
(M4 - M1) - (M3 - M2)

3.2.6 Mixing

Mixing of materials was carried out by normal mixing in the laboratory. The surface
platform where the mixing will be carryout was clean. The required weight of the was
first measured, after which a percentage of broken bottles is measured and with known
weight of cement was mixed together, then the coarse aggregate was added after mixing
has been done thoroughly with required quantity of water until the mix appeared
uniform and consistent.
 43

Apparatus:
● Shovel, Hand Scoop
● Slump cone 30mm high
● tamping rod
● weighing balance
● wooden meter rule
● steel mould (100 x 100 x 100) internal diameter and spatula.

Procedure:
The material to be mixed together were weighed. A pan was used to weight the fine
aggregate, cement, ceramic tile. Coarse aggregate and water. The weight of each
materials was gotten by weighing each of the materials with pan and subtracting these
weight from that of the empty pan. This was done for one water/cement ratio and one
mix ratio.

3.2.7 Batch Computation

The absolute volume method (A.V.M) (lydon, 2006);batching was adopted in this work,
and it is expressed by the formular below;

W/C C FA CA
_______ + _______ + ________ + _________ = 1m³ of concrete
1000GS 1000GSC 1000GSFA 1000GSCA

Where;
W = weight of water per m3 of concrete
C = weight of Cement per m3 of concrete
Af = weight at fine aggregate per m3 of concrete
Ac = weight of coarse aggregate per m3of concrete
Gs = specific gravity of aggregate
 44

Mix ratio is 1:2:4 water

cement ratio (w) =0.55
Specific gravity of Cement = 3.15
Specific gravity of fine aggregate = 2.49
Specific gravity of coarse aggregate = 2.59

0.55C 1C 2C 4C
________ + _______ + _____ + _________ = 1m³
(1000 x 1) (1000 x 3.15) (1000x2.49) (1000x2.59)

0.55C 1C 2C 4C
________ + _______ + _____ + _________ = 1m³
(1000) (3150) (2490) (2590)

1.73C + 1C + 2.53C +4.86C = 1m³

3150

10.12C=1m³
3150

10.12C = 3150

C= 3150
10.12

C = 311.26kg for 1m³ of concrete

10 % of wastage
10 ÷ 100 x 311.26

0.1 x 311.26
 45

34.24kg

Therefore : 311.26 + 34.24 = C

C = 345.5kg

Using 100 x 100 x 100 mould

Volume of cube = 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.001m³

Volume of 12 cube = 12 x 0.001 = 0.012m³

Volume of 60 cubes = 60 x 0.001 = 0.06m³

Using mix Ratio 1:2:4
Cement = 1 x 345.5 x 0.001 = 0.3455kg
Fine aggregate = 2 x 0.3455 = 0.691kg
Coarse aggregate = 4 x 0.3455 =1.382kg
Volume of 12 cubes = 12 x 0.001 = 0.012 m3
Mass of cement per 12cubes = 0.012 x 345.5= 4.15kg

The coarse aggregate will be replaced by broken bottles at 15%, 30%, 45, and 60%
respectively.

At 0% replacement

Weight of cement = 1 x 4.15= 4.15kg

Weight of sand = 2 x 4.15 = 8.30kg
Weight of coarse aggregate = 4 x 4.15 = 16.6kg

At 15% replacement

Weight of cement = 1 x 4.15= 4.15kg

Weight of sand = 2 x 4.15 = 8.30kg
Weight of course aggregate = 85 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 14.11kg
 46

Weight of broken ceramic tile = 15 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 2.49kg

At 30% replacement

Weight of cement = 1 x 4.15= 4.15kg

Weight of sand = 2 x 4.15 = 8.30kg
Weight of course aggregate = 70 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 11.62kg
Weight of broken ceramic tile = 30 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 4.98kg

At 45% replacement

Weight of cement = 1 x 4.15= 4.15kg

Weight of sand = 2 x 4.15 = 8.30kg
Weight of course aggregate = 55 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 9.13kg
Weight of broken ceramic tile = 45 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 7.47kg

At 60% replacement

Weight of cement = 1 x 4.15= 4.15kg

Weight of sand = 2 x 4.15 = 8.30kg
Weight of course aggregate = 40 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 6.64kg
Weight of broken ceramic tile = 60 ÷ 100 x 16.6 = 9.96kg

Summary

Total weight of cement = 5 x 4.15 = 20.8kg

Total weight of sand 5 x 8.3 = 41.5 kg
Total weight coarse aggregate = 16.6 + 14.1 + 11.62 + 9.13 + 6.64
= 58.09kg
 47

Total weight of broken bottles = 2.49 + 4.98 + 7.47 + 9.96

= 25kg

3.2.8 Slump Test

The test carried on fresh concrete, in this study, was developed in 1903 by Cahmen in
U.S.A, it was defined as the simplest form of workability test and still used extensively
on site, but this is not totally a very reliable method of determining workability. This test
is useful in detecting variation in the uniformity of a mix given normal proportions. The
aim of slump test was not only to gave knowledge of the consistency of the mix but also
to know if it agreed with the slump assumed in the mix produced by weight batching.
The degree of workability for slump test increase with increase in the difference
between the original height of the cone and the new height of the slump concrete
provided its result in tone slump.

Aim: To determine the workability of concrete.

Apparatus:

● Truncated conical mould, (100mm diameter at the 200mm at the bottom and
300mm height)
● steel tamping rod 11m.
Theory: Slump is the difference between the height of concrete 3.2.2.3.1
before removing the slump cone and after removing it.
Procedure
The inside of the mould is cleaned before each test and the mould was placed on a head,
flat impervious surface. The mould was filled in three layers of concrete of
approximately equal depth. Each layer was tamped with 25 strokes of the rounded end
of the tamping rod, after the top layer has been tamped, the surface of the concrete was
struck off with a towel. Any spillage was cleaned away from around the base of the
 48

mould and the mould was then vertically removed from the concrete and the difference
in height is measured. The three types of Slump observed after the removal of the cone
are; true slump, shear slump and collapse slump.
A true slump test is observed with cohesive and rich mixes than in such one and
Indicates with harsh mix. While collapse slump is associated with very wet mix and is
generally indicated of poor quality content and results for segregation of its constituent.
There were no value gotten from the slump test and it is normal with mix ratio of 1:2:4
and water cement ratio of 0.55.

3.2.9 Demoulding of Cubes

The mould used for the experiment was demoulded after 24hours when the concrete has
finally set.

3.2.10 Curing Cubes

Curing of the compressive specimen was done as specified by 188: Part. 116:1983. The
sample were demoulding after 24hours of casting and the sample were placed under
water for 7, 14, 21 and 28days respectively.

3.2.11 Crushing Test (BS 1881:1983)

The cubes were air-dried, weighed and axially placed on the crushing machine with the
plate of testing machine the cubes were all crushed and the crushing strength were
determined for 7, 14, 21 and 28 days respectively for the water/cement ratio of 0.55%.
 49

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

4.1 Preamble

This chapter discusses the results obtained from adopting the methods in chapter three.
This represents the detail of the results and analysis of the experimental work carried in
this research by comparing the strength of concrete when it's partially replaced with
broken ceramic tile at different percentages. The properties which were discussed under
this chapter are compressive strength, sieve analysis, specific gravity, bulk density and
impact value tests. The concrete were cured at various curing ages (7, 14, 21 and 28 days
respectively).

4.2 Discussion

4.2.1 Result of physical properties of material

The outcomes of examinations conducted on the physical characteristics of the materials

whereas a comprehensive breakdown of the sieve analysis results is provided in
Appendix A7. The materials employed in these tests consist of sharp sand, coarse
aggregate, and broken ceramic tiles, each possessing specific gravities of 2.55, 2.65, and
2.55, respectively.

4.2.2 Impact Value Test

As per BS 812 part 3: 1990, it is stipulated that the aggregate impact value for concrete
should not surpass 45%. However, when concrete is intended for use as a wearing coarse
 50

or surface, the aggregate impact value should not exceed 30%. In the case of coarse
aggregate and broken ceramic tile, the test results reveal values of 27.94% and 48.96%,
respectively. These findings indicate that the aggregate used complies with the code
requirements but is unsuitable for use in wearing surface applications.

4.2.3 Specific Gravity Test

Regarding fine sand, coarse aggregate, and broken bottles, the specific gravity of fine
sand was determined to be 2.55, the coarse aggregate was measured at 2.65, and the
broken ceramic tile exhibited a specific gravity of 2.55. These values are within the
range typically expected for natural aggregates with specific gravity falling between 2.6
and 2.7, with the exception of the broken bottle, as indicated by Shetty (2005).

4.2.4 Slump Test

The slump test is a standard test used in the field of civil engineering and construction to
assess the workability of fresh concrete. It measures the consistency and fluidity of the
concrete mix, which can affect how easy it is to place, compact, and finish the concrete
during construction. According to Shetty's research from 2005, concrete that shows zero
slump indicates very limited workability, making it a suitable choice for road
construction, where compaction is accomplished through power-operated machinery. In
certain cases within this category of low workability concrete, manual compaction using
hand-operated equipment may also be applicable.

4.2.5 Compressive Strength Test

The compressive strength test of concrete cubes was conducted with a water/cement
ratio of 0.55, which served as the control (0% replacement). The strength results after 7,
 51

14, 21, and 28 days of curing were 16.8N/mm², 18N/mm², 19.3N/mm², and 19.7N/mm²,
respectively, meeting the recommended standards for concrete strength at 28 days.

Compressive strength of concrete at 0%

20 19.7
Mean strength(N/mm2)

19.5 19.3
19
18.5
18
18
17.5
17 16.8
16.5
16
15.5
15
7 14 21 28

Curing age(Day)

Fig: 1 Graph of compressive strength for 0%

When 15% of broken ceramic tiles replaced the control, the mean compressive strength
at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days was 14.9N/mm², 13.1N/mm², 12.9N/mm², and 6.9N/mm².
 52

Compressive strength of concrete at 15%

16 14.9
Mean strength(N/mm2) 14 13.1 12.9
12
10
8 6.7
6
4
2
0
7 14 21 28

Curing age(Day)

Fig: 2 Graph of compressive strength for 15%

With 30% broken ceramic tile replacement at the same water/cement ratio, the mean
compressive strength was 11.2N/mm², 6.6N/mm², 5.8N/mm², and 4.3N/mm² for the
respective curing durations.

Fig:3 compressive strength for 30%

 53

At a 45% replacement level, the mean compressive strength results were 5.7N/mm²,
6.3N/mm²,
8.5N/mm², and 8.8N/mm² for the same curing periods and water/cement ratio.

Fig: 4 Graph of compressive strength for 45%

Finally, at a 60% replacement rate, the mean compressive strength values were
3.5N/mm²,
6.0N/mm², 6.5N/mm², and 7.0N/mm² for the specified curing times and water/cement
ratio.
 54

Fig: 5 Graph of compressive strength for 60%

4.2.6 Sieve Analysis

Based on the result of the sieve analysis test, the sample of fine aggregate was

confirmed to be uniformly graded and belong to Zone two in accordance to BS

812-103:1975. The sieve was arranged from the highest diameter of 4.75mm to

the lowest diameter of 150µm. This also satisfies the curve according to BS code.

And the coarse aggregate was arranged from the highest diameter of 37.5mm to

the lowest diameter of 4.75mm, stratifying the above mentioned code. This

implies that the aggregate used in this research is suitable for construction work.
 55

sieve analysis test for Fine aggregate

120
100
80
60
40
% passing

20
0
15 3 01 18 36 75
0. 0. 0 1. 2. 4.
0 00
0 00
00
00
60
0.

Sieve size (mm)

Fig: 6 Graph of sieve analysis test for Fine aggregate

sieve analysis test for coarse aggregate

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
37.5 13.2 19 9.5 6.7 4.75

Fig: 7 Graph of sieve analysis test for Coarse aggregate

 56

Sieve Analysis Test for broken ceramic tile

120

100

80
%passing

60

40

20

0
37.5 19 13.2 9.5 6.7 4.75
sieve size (mm)

Fig: 6 Graph of sieve analysis test for broken ceramic tile aggregate
 57

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

4.1 Conclusion

Based on the investigation and experimental results, the following conclusion were
made:

● Aggregate type has effect on the compressive strength of normal concrete. It is

suggested that granites may be employed for concrete work in places where

concrete practitioners have variety of choice available following the fact that

sample of broken ceramic tile shows the least strength development at their ages

while the highest compressive strength was achieved from concrete produced

without replacement 0%

● Using waste ceramic tile in concrete production is an effective measure with

regard to reducing the cost of concrete and keeping the environment clean along

with wastage management and decreasing the use of natural raw materials.

● Specific gravity for coarse aggregate 2.65 and broken ceramic tile is 2.55 and
thus it can be said that broken ceramic tile is little lighter than coarse aggregate
 58

● The slump test conducted on the broken ceramic tile shows that it has very low
workability at 45% and 60% replacement so it can be placed as blinding
concrete.
● Compressive strength of concrete is gradually decreasing when the coarse
aggregate is replaced by broken ceramic tile.
● It was observed that the concrete mass density as decreased when compared with
density of a normal concrete.

4.2 Recommendations

Based on experiment results, the following recommendation was made :

Though the results indicated the possible use of broken ceramic tile as a structural
material,
● I recommend that it's long term behavior be investigated to evaluate this
possibility.
● Further research should be conducted to study other mechanical properties via
flexural strength, tensile strength of this category of concrete.
● I recommend that the water cement ratio should be increase, to improve the
workability.
● Using tiles wastage in concrete lead to removal of those material from
environment. Besides, decreasing the use of raw materials, using the wastage is
considered positive economically and hence should be adopted in practice.
● I recommend that proper compaction of the concretes must be ensured, as
compaction is observed to improve the strength of concrete.
.
 59

References

Gruyaert, E., Robeyst, N., & De Belie, N. (2010). Study of the hydration of Portland

cement blended with blast-furnace slag by calorimetry and thermogravimetry.

Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 102(3), 941–951.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10973-010-0841-6

Lamidi, M. K. A., & D., A. (2014). An investigation on the suitability of the broken

ceramic tile as a coarse aggregate in concrete production the international

journal of engineering and science.

Micheal, & John. (2006). Ingredients in Portland cement.

Penteado, C. S. G., Viviani de Carvalho, E., & Lintz, R. C. C. (2016). Reusing ceramic

tile polishing waste in paving block manufacturing. Journal of Cleaner

Production, 112,

514–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.06.142

Silva, & Eduardo, C. (2021). Utilização de material cerâmico proveniente do RCD para

aplicação em concreto: uma revisão. Risco: Revista de Pesquisa Em Arquitetura

Urbanismo, 19, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.11606/1984-4506.risco.2021.162069

Vasanthavigar, M., Srinivasamoorthy, K., Rajiv Ganthi, R., Vijayaraghavan, K., &

Sarma, V. S. (2010). Characterisation and quality assessment of groundwater

with a special emphasis on irrigation utility: Thirumanimuttar sub-basin, Tamil

Nadu, India. Arabian Journal

 60

Geosciences, 5(2), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-010-0190-6

Wang, W. (2000). Hardening and curing.

Williams, O. S., Adul Hamid, R., & Misnan, M. S. (2018). Accident Causal Factors on
the Building Construction Sites: A Review. International Journal of Built Environment
and Sustainability, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.11113/ijbes.v5.n1.248
 61

APPENDIX

Appendix 1: Specific Gravity

Table A1.1: Results of specific gravity test conducted on fine aggregate
TRIALS A B

Mass of glass jar + glass plate (M1) g 175.0 185.5

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample 275.0 285.5

(M2) g

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample + water (M3) g 494.0 505.25

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + water (M4) g 432.5 445

Mass of sample (M1 - M2) 100 100

Water (M4 - M1) - (M3 - M2) 38.5 39.75

Specific Gravity = M2 - M1 (M4 - M1) - (M3 - 2.6 2.5

M2)

Average = 2.6 + 2.5 = 2.55

Table A1.2: Results of specific gravity test conducted on coarse aggregate

 62

TRIALS A B

Mass of glass jar + glass plate (M1) g 175.0 185.5

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample 275.0 285.5

(M2) g

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample + water (M3) g 495.0 506.75

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + water (M4) g 432.5 445.25

Mass of sample (M1 - M2) 100 100

Water (M4 - M1) - (M3 - M2) 37.5 38.5

Specific Gravity = M2 - M1 (M4 - M1) - (M3 - 2.7 2.6

M2)

Average = 2.7 + 2.6 = 2.65

2

Table A1.3: Results of specific gravity test conducted on broken ceramic

 63

TRIALS A B

Mass of glass jar + glass plate (M1) g 175.0 196.0

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample 275. 296.0

(M2) g

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + sample + water (M3) g 492.0 516.5

Mass of glass jar + glass plate + water (M4) g 432.5 458.0

Mass of sample (M1 - M2) 100 100

Water (M4 - M1) - (M3 - M2) 37.5 41.5

Specific Gravity = M2 - M1 (M4 - M1) - (M3 - 2.7 2.4

M2)

Average = 2.7 + 2.4 = 2.55

2

Appendix 2 Impact Value

Test results (Aggregate) Table A2.1 Result of Impact Value Test of aggregate
 64

TRIALS TEST 1 TEST 2

Weight of cylinder (M1) g 685.7 688.9

Weight of cylinder + aggregate (M2) g 1018.4 1006.0

Weight of aggregate (M3) g = M2 - M1 332.7 317.1

Weight of fraction passing 2.36 mm sieve (M4) 103.2 78.9

Aggregate impact value (AIV) = M4/M3 × 31.01% 24.88%

100%

Average (AIV) % = 31.01 + 24.88 = 27.945%

2
Table A2.2 Result of Impact Value Test of broken ceramic
TRIALS TEST 1 TEST 2

Weight of cylinder (M1) g 685.7 688.9

Weight of cylinder + aggregate (M2) g 923.9 904.8

Weight of aggregate (M3) g = M2 - M1 238.2 215.9

Weight of fraction passing 2.36 mm sieve (M4) 108.72 112.7

Aggregate impact value (AIV) = M4/M3 × 45.72% 52.20%

100%

Average (AIV) % = 45.72 + 52.20 = 48.96%

2

Appendix A3 Sieve Analysis

The sieve analysis results of both fine, coarse aggregate and broken ceramic tile are
tabulated in table 4.3.1, 4.3.2, and 4.3.3 respectively.
Mass of sample 500g
Table A3.1 Result of sieve analysis for fine aggregate
 65

Sieve size (mm) Mass of sample Percentage Cumulative % Passing

Retained (%) Retained (%)
retained (g)

4.75 0.1 0.02 0.02 99.76

2.36 2.5 0.5 0.52 99.26

1.18 21.9 4.38 4.9 94.88

600µm 122.2 24.44 29.34 70.44

300µm 249.4 49.8 79.14 20.64

150µm 83.2 16.64 95.78 4

Pan 20 4 99.78 -

Total = 499.3g

Table A3.2 Result of sieve analysis for coarse aggregate

Sieve size (mm) Mass of sample Percentage Cumulative % Passing
Retained (%) Retained (%)
retained (g)

4.75 0 0 0 100.00

6.7 0 0 0 100.00

9.5 73.4 14.68 14.68 85.34

13.2 87.5 17.5 32.18 67.84

19.0 339.2 67.84 100.00 0

37.5 0 0 100.00 0

Pan 0 0 100.00 -

Total = 500g

Table A3.3 Result of sieve analysis for broken ceramic tile

 66

Sieve size (mm) Mass of sample Percentage Cumulative % Passing

Retained (%) Retained (%)
retained (g)

4.75 1.4 0.28 0.28 99.66

6.7 8.4 1.68 1.96 97.98

9.5 28.4 5.68 7.64 92.3

13.2 147.3 29.46 37.1 62.84

19.0 312.7 62.54 99.64 0.3

37.5 0 0 99.64 0.3

Pan 1.5 0.3 99.94 -

Total = 499.7g

Appendix 4 Bulk Density

Table A4.1 Result of Bulk Density conducted on sand (loose sample)

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 769.2 768.2 770.3

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 741.6 740.6 742.7

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1=

(g/cm3) 1.413 1.411 1.415
v
Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 1.413
+3
3(g/cm³)
 67

Table A4.2 Result of Bulk Density conducted on sand (compacted sample)

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 856.2 856.2 859.5

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 828.6 828.6 831.9

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

1.579 1.579 1.585

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1= ( g/cm³)
V

Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 + 3 1.581

=( g/cm³)

Porosity(n) =A/B)×100%

n =(1-1.413÷1.581) ×100

= 11%

Void Ratio (e) = 1- (compacted bulk density (B)) /(specific gravit (Gs) x unit weight of

water) e = 1- ( 1.581)/(2.52 x 9.81) = 0.94

Table A4.3 Result of Bulk Density conducted on Gravel (loose sample)

 68

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 693.2 701.0 691.6

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 665.6 673.4 664.0

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1= 1.268 1.283 1.265

V ( g/cm³)

Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 + 3

=(g/cm³) 1.272

Table A4.4 Result of Bulk Density conducted on Gravel (compacted sample)

 69

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 756.6 754.4 759.9

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 729.0 726.8 732.3

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1= 1.389 1.385 1.396

V ( g/cm³)

Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 + 3 1.390

3(g/cm³)

Porosity (n)=(1-A/B)×100%

n =( 1- 1.272÷1.390)×100 = 8.5%

Void Ratio (e) = 1- ( compacted bulk density (B))/(specific gravity (Gs) x unit weight of

water) e = 1- ( 1.390)/(2.52 x 9.81) = 0.94

Table A4.5 Result of Bulk Density conducted on broken ceramic tile (loose sample)
 70

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 475.6 476.4 473.6

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 448.0 448.8 446.0

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

0.85 0.86 0.85

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1= ( g/cm³)

Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 + 3 0.85

=( g/cm³)

Table A4.6 Result of Bulk Density conducted on broken ceramic tile (compacted
sample)
 71

TRIALS TRIAL 1 TRIAL 2 TRIAL 3

Mass of cylinder (M1)g 27.6 27.6 27.6

Mass of cylinder+ sample (M2)g 549.5 554.0 557.0

Mass of sample M3(M2 - M3)g 521.9 526.4 529.4

Depth of cylinder (h) (cm) 12.2 12.2 12.2

Diameter of cylinder (cm) 7.4 7.4 7.4

Volume of cylinder V =πr²h (cm³) 524.7 524.7 524.7

Bulk Density P =M2 - M1= ( g/cm³) 0.995 1.003 1.009

V

Average of bulk density, P =1 + 2 + 3 1.002

=( g/cm³)
3

Porosity(n)=(1-A/B)100%

n =( 1- 0.85÷1.002) × 100

=15%

Void Ratio (e) = 1- ( compacted bulk density (B))/(specific gravit (Gs) x unit weight of

water) e = 1- ( 1.002)/(2.52 x 9.81) = 0.96

 72

Appendix 5 Water absorption

Table A5.1 Result of water absorption conducted on fine aggregate (200g)

Observation Trial 1 Trial 2

Weight of sample + pan (W1) (W2)g 296.5 245.6

Weight of sample + pan + water (W3) (W4)g 537.9 245.6

Weight of oven dry sample (Wd)g 199.9 199.7

Weight of wet sample (Ww)g 229.6 233.1

Absorption capacity = (Ww - Wd) ÷ Wd 0.1486 0.1673

Average absorption capacity = Trial 1 + Trial 2 ÷ 2 ×100% = 15.8%

Table A5.2 Result of water absorption conducted on coarse aggregate (200g)

 73

Observation Trial 1 Trial 2

Weight of sample + pan (W1) (W2)g 272.1 570.4

Weight of sample + pan + water (W3) (W4)g 249.5 528.5

Weight of oven dry sample (Wd)g 199.7 199.4

Weight of wet sample (Ww)g 202.6 202.8

Absorption capacity = (Ww - Wd) ÷ Wd 0.0145 0.0171

Average absorption capacity = Trial 1 + Trial 2 ÷ 2 ×100% = 1.58%

Table A5.3 Result of water absorption conducted on broken ceramic tile (200g)
Observation Trial 1 Trial 2

Weight of sample + pan (W1) (W2)g 519.4 570.3

Weight of sample + pan + water (W3) (W4)g 245.7 275.7

Weight of oven dry sample (Wd)g 200 199.9

Weight of wet sample (Ww)g 218.8 220.3

Absorption capacity = (Ww - Wd) ÷ Wd 0.094 0.102

Average absorption capacity = Trial 1 + Trial 2÷ 2 ×100% = 9.8%

Appendix 6 Slump test

Table A6.1 slump test for concrete

 74

Mix design Water cement Gravel Slump

Percentage ratio
(mm) (Kg) Broken (mm)
Replacement Ceramic
tile (Kg)
(%)

0 1:2:4 0.55 16.6 0 25.0

15 1:2:4 0.55 14.11 2.49 23.0

30 1:2:4 0.55 11.62 4.98 20.0

45 1:2:4 0.55 9.13 7.47 18.0

60 1:2:4 0.55 6.64 9.96 12.0

Appendix 7 physical properties of material

Table A7.1 Physical Properties of material used

Properties Fine Coarse aggregate Broken ceramic

Aggregate

Specific gravity 2.55 2.65 2.55

Loose bulk density(g/m³) 1.413 1.272 0.85

Compacted bulk density (g/m³) 1.581 1.390 1.002

Water absorption 15.8 1.58 9.8

Porosity(%) 11 8.5 15

Void ratio 0.94 0.94 0.96

 75

Appendix 8 Compressive strength test on concrete

Table A8.1 Result of compressive strength for 0%

Water cement ratio (0.55) Volume of mould Area of mould
1 000000(mm³) 1000(mm²)
Age (days) Cub Weight Density of Load at Compres Average
e No of cube cube si ve compres
failure
(g)
(g/mm³) (KN) strength si ve
(N/mm²) strength
(N/mm²)
7 A 2500 0.0025 164 16.4 16.8
B 2550 0.0026 158 15.8
C 2850 0.0029 182 18.2
14 A 2600 0.0026 122 12.2 18
B 2500 0.0025 205 20.5
C 2750 0.0028 252 25.2
21 A 2750 0.0028 215 21.5
B 2600 0.0026 199 19.9 19.3
C 2800 0.0028 126 12.6
28 A 2450 0.0025 214 21.4 19.7
B 2550 0.0026 173 17.3
 76

C 2600 0.0026 204 20.4

Mean Fcu = 18.5 N/mm²

Table A8.2 Result of compressive strength for 15%

Water cement ratio (0.55) VVolume of mould Area of mould
1 000000(mm³) 1000(mm²)
Age Cube No Weight Density Load at Compre Averag
(days) of cube of cube ssi ve e
failure
(g)
(g/mm³) (KN) strength compre
(N/mm²) ssi ve
strengt
h
(N/mm²)
A 2450 0.0025 104 10.4
B 2900 0.0029 111 11.1
7 C 2550 0.0026 233 23.3 14.9
A 2650 0.0027 125 12.5
B 2650 0.0027 137 13.7
14 C 2600 0.0026 132 13.2 13.1
A 2500 0.0025 142 14.2
B 2500 0.0025 119 11.9
21 12.9
C 2500 0.0025 125 12.5
A 2500 0.0025 69 6.9
B 2600 0.0026 61 6.1
28 C 3000 0.0030 70 7.0 6.7
Mean Fcu = 11.9 N/mm²

Table A8.3 Result of compressive strength for 30%

Water cement ratio (0.55) VVolume of mould Area of mould
1 000000(mm³) 1000(mm²)
 77

Age (days) Cube No Weight of Density of Load at Compress Average

cube (g) cube i ve compress
failure
(g/mm³) (KN) strength i ve
(N/mm²) strength
(N/mm²)
A 2600 0.0026 103 10.3
B 2500 0.0025 126 12.6
7 C 3250 0.0033 107 10.7 11.2
A 2450 0.0025 43 4.3
14 B 2500 0.0025 54 5.4 6.6
C 2650 0.0027 102 10.2
A 2750 0.0028 40 4.0
B 2600 0.0026 37 3.7
21 C 2800 0.0028 98 9.8 5.8
A 2500 0.0025 34 3.4
B 2800 0.0028 50 5.0
28 C 2500 0.0025 45 4.5 4.3
Mean Fcu = 6.98 N/mm²

Table A8.4 Result of compressive strength for 45%

Water cement ratio (0.55) Volume of mould Area of mould
1 000000(mm³) 1000(mm²)
Age Cube No Weight of Density of Load at Compres Average
(days) cube (g) cube si ve compress
failure
(g/mm³) (KN) strength i ve
(N/mm²) strength
(N/mm²)
A 2300 0.0023 37 3.7
B 3000 0.0030 54 5.4
7 C 2500 0.0025 80 8.0 5.7
A 2400 0.0024 50 5.0
B 2500 0.0025 53 5.3

14 6.3
C 2500 0.0025 85 8.5

A 2450 0.0025 102 10.2

B 2450 0.0025 74 7.4
21 C 2900 0.0029 78 7.8 8.5
 78

A 2450 0.0025 87 8.7

B 2750 0.0028 61 6.1
28 C 2800 0.0028 115 11.5 8.8
Mean Fcu = 7.33 N/mm²

Table A8.5 Result of compressive strength for 60%

Water cement ratio (0.55) Volume of mould Area of mould
1 000000(mm³) 1000(mm²)
Age Cube Weight Density Load at Compre Averag
(days) No of cube of cube ssi ve e
failure
(g)
(g/mm³) (KN) strengt compre
h ssi ve
(N/mm²) strengt
h
(N/mm²)
A 2100 0.0021 23 2.3
7 B 2600 0.0026 54 5.4 3.5
C 2350 0.0024 28 2.8
A 2450 0.0025 72 7.2
B 2300 0.0023 46 4.6
14 C 2300 0.0023 61 6.1 6.0
A 2300 0.0023 86 8.6
B 2350 0.0024 60 6.0
21 C 2250 0.0023 49 4.9 6.5
A 2300 0.0023 81 8.1
B 2200 0.0022 48 4.8
28 C 2350 0.0024 82 8.2 7.0
Mean Fcu = 5.75 N/mm²
4.8 Discussion of Result