Coca Cultivation and Cocaine Processing:

An Overview
 Contents
Contents................................................................................................................................................................................ 2
Executive Summary .............................................................................................................................................................. 3
1. The Coca Plant.............................................................................................................................................................. 3
2. Cultivation .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1. Peru ..................................................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. Bolivia .................................................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3. Colombia ............................................................................................................................................................. 7
3. Cocaine Processing ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
3.1. Coca Leaves to Coca Paste .................................................................................................................................. 8
3.2. Coca Paste to Cocaine Base ................................................................................................................................. 9
3.3. Cocaine Base to Cocaine Hydrochloride (HCI) ..................................................................................................... 9
4. Natural Enemies and Eradication Efforts ................................................................................................................... 10
 Executive Summary
Two of thelesserunderstood aspects of the illicit cocaine traffic are the cultivation of the coca plant and the conversion
of the coca leaf into cocaine hydrochloride (HCl). While the coca plant can be found throughout most of Latin America,
varieties containing the cocaine alkaloid (the basis for cocaine HCl) are cultivated and converted primarily in Peru,
Bolivia and Colombia.
There are two different species and several different varieties of coca plants which contain the cocaine alkaloid and
these varieties prosper under quite different climatic conditions. At the same time, the methods used to cultivate and
harvest coca leaf differ depending on climate, tradition, and other factors. The conversion ofcocaleaf into coca paste,
cocaine base, and cocaine hydrochloride is also a varied process with many steps involved and many chemicals
necessary.

The Coca Plant

It has been estimated that there are over 200 Andes from Bolivia in the south to as far north as
Erythroxylum species growing in the Western central Ecuador. This area of the Andes has a tropical
Hemisphere. Only 17 species can be utilized to produce climate and experiences high amounts of rainfall. Coca
cocaine. Fifteen of the 17 species contain relatively low in this region is usually grown between 1,650 and
levels. of cocaine alkaloid and subsequently are not 4,950 feet in elevation.
cultivated. In South America two species and two
E. novogranatense var. novogranatense thrives in the
varieties within each of these species are cultivated.
drier regions of Colombia and, to a lesser extent,
They are:
Venezuela. It is also grown at lower elevations where
E. coca Species E. novogranatense Species the climate' is generally hotter. The main variety of
E.novogranatense, var. truxillense, is grown up to an
var. coca var. novogranatense
elevation of 4,950 feet. The last variety, E. coca var.
var. ipadu var. truxillense ipadu, is found in southern Colombia, northeastern
Peru, and western Brazil in the Amazon basin. E. coca
var. ipadu is primarily cultivated by Indians for their
These varieties are traditionally cultivated in the areas own consumption and is not as high in cocaine
identified in Table 1. alkaloids as the other three.
Table 1 It is not an easy task, even for an expert, to readily
distinguish between the different varieties of coca
Country Variety
plants. One of the ways to identify the variety is to look
Bolivia E. coca var. coca at the leaves. Both varieties of E. coca (E. coca var. coca
and E. coca var. ipadu) have broadly elliptic leaves. The
Peru E. coca var. coca
leaf of var. ipadu has a rounded apex, whereas the
E. novogranatense var. apex of var. coca is more pointed. The leaf of var. coca
truxillense is large, thick and dark green in color.
E. coca var. ipadu The leaf of E. novogranatense var. novogranatense is
Colombia E. novogranatense var. pale green with a rounded apex and is somewhat
novogranatense narrower and thinner than the leafof var. ipadu and
var. coca. E. novogranatense var. truxillense is very
E. coca var. ipadu similar to var. novogranatense except that it does not
E. novogranatense var. possess the lines parallel to the central vein of the leaf
truxillense that are characteristic to so many varieties of coca
plant.
The cocaine alkaloid content of the E. coca and the E.
The most widely grown variety of coca is E. coca var. novogranatense species also serves to distinguish be-
coca which is cultivated on the eastern slope of the
tween these species and the many other species of
wild coca that grow in Latin America. These other
species contain much lower levels of cocaine alkaloid.
The usual cocaine alkaloid content of a sample of coca
leaf material is between 0.1 and 0.8 percent. The
cocaine alkaloid content can go much higher, however,
as was shown in one simple of coca leaf from the
Chapare region in Bolivia that measured 1.2 percent.
Coca grown on the upper slopes of the Andes also
contain more cocaine alkaloids than coca grown. in
low-lying areas. It is therefore believed that the best
quality coca is grown at higher altitudes.

Erythroxylum coca var: truxillense.

Erythroxylum coca var: coca.

Erythroxylum novogranatense var: novogranatense.

 Erythroxylum coca var: ipadu.

Cultivation
While methods of cultivating the coca plant are similar ranging from two to three years in age. They are often
in many ways throughout Peru, Bolivia, and Colombia, poured into water at the onset to identify bad seeds,
there are differences in techniques because of terrain, which will usually float to the top and are discarded.
tradition, and other factors.
The good seeds are planted in small plots that are kept
Some coca plantations have been in existence for shaded from the sun. Seeds are sown about two inches
years, In other areas, however, such as Peru's Upper apart at a depth of approximately one half inch in
Huallaga Valley, new plantations are being established humus- enriched soil. .These seedbeds are kept well
daily. A typical farmer who is preparing a field for coca watered and weeded frequently arid the seeds will
will usually pick an area that slopes slightly so that usually germinate within 20 to 30 days. Sometimes the
water will not drown his plants. He will then begin seeds are presoaked in water to hasten germination
clearing his field, normally by cutting trees and stumps which will then occur in about ten days.
and setting fire to the debris, a clearing method known
Seedlings usually reach transplanting size in about two
as slash and bum. The felled trees are left in the field
months. At this age they are about 12 inches tall. While
and the coca is simply planted around them. The
the measurements vary, seedlings generally are
farmer has no motivation to move the logs since there
planted in holes about a foot deep and about one and-
is no market for the timber. Logs are absent from the
one-half feet from each other within rows about three
older fields because of rot or because the farmer
feet apart.
gradually cleared his field.
Another popular method of establishing new fields of
Once the field is cleared for cultivation, the farmer can
E. ipadu involves taking a cutting from an established
ready his crop for planting. The first step in cultivation
coca bush and planting it in the ground. This method
generally begins with the seed. Seeds are usually
(cloning) is getting more popular as it gives the farmer
gathered from December through March from plants
a head start. There are two methods of planting a
cutting. One involves sticking several branches a couple floor. The next day, the leaves are taken to a flat area,
of feet long into the ground. The other method is to where they are spread in thin layers on a tarpaulin in
cut three or four inch cuttings from a branch, each one direct sunlight and left to dry. If there is a lot of
with protruding smaller branches. The cutting is soaked sunshine and minimal cloud cover, the drying phase
in water a day or so and then planted in loose, fertile can be completed in six hours. During inclement
soil. Itis reported that coca leaf can be harvested from weather, it takes much longer because at the first sign
these plants within six months and seeds develop on of rain the leaves are gathered up and taken into
these plants after one year but the seeds lack embryos shelter. If a load of coca leaves is caught by a rainstorm
and are not viable. during drying, it could ruin the whole load. This is
because the leaves will ferment if the moisture goes
A coca plant cultivated from seed will generally reach
over 14 percent. This tends to cause a breakdown of
full maturity and its leaves harvested between 12 and
the cocaine alkaloids.
24 months after being transplanted. Even though coca
growing in the wild has been known to reach heights of After the drying phase is completed, the coca leaves
up to 30 feet, that which is cultivated is usually pruned are swept into large piles and left for about three days
back to facilitate harvesting the coca leaf. Cultivated before being taken to market and/or processing
fields are usually kept at a height of three to six feet. facilities. The weight of packaged leaves varies from
All picking of coca leafs done by hand. Harvesters have the 100 pound "carga''in the Bolivian Chapare, to the
to be very quick in their work yet careful not to 25pound "arroba" in Peru's Upper Huallaga Valley. In
damage the leaf buds on the bush while stripping off Colombia, coca leaves are not usually sold; however,
the leaves. Leaves are said to be ready for harvest when dried coca leaves are sold, it is usually in
when they take on a yellowish tint and have a packages of 25 pounds.
tendency to crack when bent. Coca leaf can be
harvested between two and six times per year
depending on climatic conditions. Coca growing at
lower altitudes will usually be harvested more often
than coca growing at higher altitudes. The most
abundant harvest, sometimes accounting for about
half of the total yearly harvest, takes place after the
rains in March. Subsequent harvests take place in
June/July and November, the normal dry season in
South America.
Some harvesting, however, takes place all year round.
When the leaves are harvested, they are put in sacks
and taken to a closed room and spread out on the Typical coca leaf drying area.

Peru
Peru, the world's largest source of coca, has both licit Huanta and La Mar along the Rio Apurimac in the
and illicit cultivation. Licit coca is cultivated by farmers department of Ayachucho. There are also smaller
registered with the National Coca Monopoly (ENACO). growing areas located in the departments of Puno and
ENACO buys and sells it to retailers either for resale Pasco.
domestically, for chewing or for herbal tea, or for
The Upper Huallaga Valley is a tropical area with a mild
export to produce soft drink flavoring or
climate that receives an average of 12.44 feet of rain
pharmaceuticals. The 18,000 hectares that have been
during the year. June through September is the dry
registered for licit coca cultivation are centered in the
season when the region gets very little rainfall. The
department of Cuzco. illicit coca cultivation occurs
mean annual temperature is 55 degrees Fahrenheit.
primarily in the Upper Huallaga Valley region of
Coca is usually grown here between 1,980 to 2,640 feet
northern Peru including the departments of San
above sea level but is sometimes planted up to 6,270
Martin, Huanuco, and Ucayali. Other areas under
feet in altitude.
cultivation include the valleys of La Convencion and
Lares in the department of Cuzco, and the provinces of Peru
The soil in the Upper Huallaga Valley is well drained 2,409 and 4,257 feet above sea level. The soil is
and rich in iron, an important element for all plant life. especially poor in iron content.
The area surrounding Cuzco has an average rainfall of A semi-tropical climate with warm days and abundant
between 1.32 and 5.94 feet annually which usually falls rain fall, between 6.6 and 7.26 feet per annum,
between the months of October and April. The average characterizes the Ayacucho area. Coca is usually grown
temperatures in this region are greater than 53 on steep slopes which require terracing at an elevation
degrees Fahrenheit. Coca is generally grown between of between 1,650 and 4,290 feet. Soils in this area are
red and high in iron.

Bolivia
Bolivia is the world's second largest source of coca leaf. Parts of the Yungas have been cultivated for hundreds
There is both licit and illicit coca cultivation occur- ring of years. Coca is planted at between 4,800 and 6,000
in this country as well. Inmid-1988, a law became feet in altitude on terraced fields, generally on steep
effective that made coca cultivation illegal in most of slopes.
the country. The law also established legal, transitional,
Some of these fields have a slope of more than 45
and illegal zones of cultivation and declared that
degrees. The Yungas is characterized by a five-month
12,000 hectares of coca would be the amount grown to
rainy season that runs from December to April
meet the traditional demand for coca.
receiving about 4 feet of rainfall per year, followed by
There are roughly three main growing areas in Bolivia. seven dry months. The soil content is poor, and this
The three areas are the Yungas de La Paz, the Chapare, area has suffered severe erosion problems.
and the Apolo. Coca cultivation in the Yungas de La Paz
In the Chapare, the weather is continually wet and
is located between the cities of Guanay and Inquisivi,
warm, with an annual rainfall averaging around 13 fe
northeast of La Paz on the eastern slope of the Andes.
et. The growing areas in this region are broad, low
Cultivation in the Chapare occurs in the provinces of
plains containing some hills. Coca is cultivated at
Carrasco, Chapare, and Arani in the department of
between 660 and 1,650 feet above sea level where the
Cochabamba, east of La Paz. The small area of Apolo is
temperature averages around 57 degrees Fahrenheit.
in the La Paz department north of the city of La Paz.
The soil is clay based, rich alluvial (sediment deposited
Nearly all the licit coca is grown in the traditional by flowing water).
growing areas of the Yungas. The overwhelming
The Apolo, located in La Paz department, is also a
amount of illicit coca is grown in the Chapare where it
noteworthy coca-growing region of Bolivia. Coca in the
is estimated that about 75 percent of the country's
Apolo region is often interplanted with coffee, a major
coca crop is cultivated. The amount of coca grown in
crop in the area. Soil in the Apolo is not suited very
the Apolo is much less than in either of the two other
well to coca; the longevity of a coca bush there is only
areas.
from five to eight years. Coca plants in the Apolo are
therefore constantly replaced.

Colombia
Colombia ranks third in worldwide coca leaf production Colombia as well as areas of cultivation in the south
with all cultivation being illicit. There is widespread and southwest part of the country.
cultivation in the eastern plains region of the Llanos
In the southern coca-growing region, the temperature
which encompasses about one-half of Colombia. The
averages between 49.5 and 52 degrees Fahrenheit and
heaviest areas of cultivation are located in. the
there is light rainfall. Coca is normally grown between
departments of Putumayo, Caqueta, Guaviare, and
3,300 and 6,600 feet above sea level. The soil in this
Vaupes. There is substantial expansion of the coca crop
region is iron rich; however, there is some erosion.
in the Bolivar department in the north-central area of

Cocaine Processing
The conversion of coca leaves to coca paste, cocaine Hydrochlorid Hydrochlori Methyl Ethyl
e de Acid Ketone,
base, and cocaine hydrochloride occurs primarily in
Hydrogen Chloride
Bolivia, Colombia, and Peru. Peru and Bolivia are the Gas
primary locations for the conversion of leaf to coca
paste and cocaine base, while Colombia is the primary Table 2
location for the final conversion to cocaine Coca processing can be broken down into three stages.
hydrochloride. It is believed that both Peruvian and The first is the conversion of the coca leaf into coca
Bolivian traffickers have begun increasing their paste; this is almost always done very close to the coca
production of HCl in the last few years. fields to cut down on the transport of the coca leaves.
There are a number of chemicals and solvents which The second phase is the conversion of coca paste into
play vital roles in the processing of coca leaves to cocaine base. This step is usually omitted in Colombia
paste, base and HCl. Many of these chemicals are quite and the process is taken straight through from paste to
common; all are theoretically substitutable and all cocaine HCl. The final stage is conversion of base to
have legitimate uses making them difficult to control. HCl.
These chemicals and solvents, along with their
substitutes, are identified in Table 2. Also identified are
the processing steps in which they are utilized.
Step Chemical Substitute
Coca Leaves To Kerosene, Gasoline,
Coca Paste Sulfuric Benzene,
Acid, Hydrochloric Acid,
Sodium Sodium Hydroxide
Bicarbonate

Coca Paste Sulfuric Acid, Hydrochloric

to Cocaine Potassium Acid,
Permanganat Potassium
Base e, Ammonia Dichromate,
Hydroxide Sodium
Hydroxide

Cocaine Base Ethyl Ether, Chloroform, Coca paste pit.

to Cocaine Acetone,

Coca Leaves to Coca Paste

The conversion of coca leaf into coca paste is The following recipe for coca paste is but one of many.
accomplished in a coca paste pit, or "pozo." A typical
Recipes will differ depending on where the laboratory
coca paste pit is a very crude structure located near the
is located. Some will opt not to use water in the first
harvesting site and consists of only a very few items.
step and amounts and mixing times vary widely.
Some paste pits have even been reported in peasants'
However,this remains a good benchmark formula.
houses. The paste pit is usually a hole in the ground,
lined with thick, heavy plastic, or may even be a SS- Step 1
gallon drum with the top cut out. Paste pits are often The coca leaves are put in an above-ground container
located near streams so that the processors will have a or in a plastic lined pit. An alkaline material (sodium
constant supply of fresh water, which is used in the carbonate) and water are added to the leaves. Here
first stage of processing. The process of converting the alkaline material enables the cocaine alkaloid
leaves to paste usually takes a few days. Often, present in the leaf to be extracted into kerosene.
however, the leaves will be "worked" or "stomped" for
only a few hours rendering less paste than if “worked" Step 2
for several days. It is apparently sometimes more A water immiscible solvent (kerosene) is added to
desirable to move the paste out than to get more paste water, solution, and leaves. The mixture is then
per kilogram of coca leaf. Depending on the size of the agitated. Usually this is accomplished by having several
pit and the amount of leaf, the whole process will people stomp on the leaves. The solvent acts to extract
require the energy of two to five workers.
water- insoluble cocaine alkaloids from the alkaline Cocaine alkaloids are extracted from the kerosene into
solution. a dilute acid solution. Alkaline material (sodium
carbonate) is added to the remaining solution which
Step 3
causes a precipitate to form. The acid and the water
Cocaine alkaloids and kerosene separate from water are drained off and the precipitate is filtered and dried
and leaves. The water and leaves are then drained off, to produce coca paste, a chunky, off-white to light
Step4 brown, putty-like substance.

Coca Paste to Cocaine Base

The processing of coca paste into cocaine base is more found in large concentrations in E. novogranatense
complicated than paste production, requiring more varieties. If the coca paste has a high concentration of
sophisticated equipment and added skills. Cocaine this alkaloid and potassium permanganate is not used,
base can be processed at the paste facility, but base then crystalli- zation of cocaine HC1 will be very
laboratories may be located away from the cultivation difficult.
zones. Usually the base laboratories are located near
Step 3
rivers or have a clandestine airstrip located in the
vicinity to facilitate both the movement of coca paste This mixture is allowed to stand for about six hours.
into the base laboratory, but also the movement of Step4
cocaine base to cocaine HO laboratories.
The solution is filtered and the precipitate is discarded.
As with the paste recipes, the base recipes have many Ammonia water is added to the filtered solution and
versions. This one is one of the more common and a another precipitate is formed.
continuation of the paste recipe.
Step 5
Step 1
The liquid is drained from the solution and the
The coca paste is added to sulfuric acid or hydrochloric remaining precipitate is usually dried with heating
acid and water. The paste is dissolved into the acid lamps. The resulting powder is cocaine base.
solution.
It is common in Colombia to skip the base stage of
Step .2 cocaine processing and go right from coca paste to
Potassium permanganate is combined with water. This cocaine HCL This can be accomplished by eliminating
mixture is added to the coca paste and acid solution. the last part of step number four in coca paste
Potassium permanganate. is used in this step to extract processing and skipping to step number two of the
other alkaloids and material that is undesired in the cocaine base phase where the coca paste is added to
final product. In particular, potassium permanganate is the potassium permanganate solution.
used to break down the alkaloid ciscinnamoylcocaine

Cocaine Base to Cocaine Hydrochloride (HCI)

The final stage of cocaine processing requires even airstrip. The following recipe is a continuation of the
more skill and equipment, and is much more above two. At this point the methods of processing
dangerous than the previously mentioned steps. Unlike vary only slightly.
paste and base processing, cocaine HCl processing calls
Step 1
for expensive chemicals that are harder to find and
often not manufactured in the processing country. Acetone or ether is added to dissolve the cocaine base
and the solution is filtered to remove undesired
The HCl laboratory usually consists of several buildings
material.
including dormitories, eating facilities, an office,
storage facilities, and the laboratory itself. Also usually Step2
found at HCl laboratories are communications opera- Hydrochloric acid diluted in acetone or ether is added
tions, generators, filtering and drying equipment, and, to the cocaine solution. The addition of the
more recently, chemical recycling facilities. The HCl hydrochloric acid causes the cocaine to precipitate
laboratory will sometimes have direct access to an
(crystallize) out of the solution as cocaine Interior view of HCl lab showing drying tables and heat
hydrochloride. lamps.
Step 3 Chemical containers discarded near an HCl lab.
The remaining acetone/ether solvent can be discarded View of an HCl lab showing filtering tables.
or reused.
Step 4
Cocaine HCl is dried under heat lamps, laid out to dry
with the aid of fans, or dried in microwave ovens.

Ether and acetone containers seized in a raid on an HCl

lab.

Natural Enemies and Eradication Efforts

Although the coca bush is a very strong plant and will usually only abundant from December to April. Coca
live for many years and produce many harvests of leaf, growers are using insecticides to eradicate Eloria.
it will do better if taken care of, fertilized, and treated
with herbicides and insecticides.
Occasionally, a coca field will become infected with
one of the plant's natural enemies. The main pests and
the effect that they are known to have on the plant are
discussed below.
The larvae of the moth Eloria Noyesi presents the most
serious threat to the coca plant. This moth lives
throughout the coca-growing region of South America
and seems to feed almost exclusively on E. coca. It has
also been recorded feeding on E. novogranatense in
Colombia and northern Peru. The larva will develop in
about a month and will eat up to 50 leaves in its
lifetime. The larva will also eat the shoots of the bush
that grow out after harvest. If Eloria attacks a plant
repeatedly, even a strong plant will die. The moth is
Adult moth, Eloria Noyesi. most pests. Nevertheless, sometimes insects such as
spider mites, grasshoppers, leafhoppers, and beetles
The larvae of Eucleodora Coca, a fly, seems to cause
find it necessary to eat coca.
harm only to Trujillo coca. (There have been major
infestations of this insect in the past usually occurring The coca plant is also susceptible to numerous species
from April to August.) The larvae spend their entire of pathogenic fungi. Fungi seem to present the
lives on the plant, feeding on the leaves and shoots. As greatest threat to a plant during the wet season. The
with the Eloria, Eucleodora is being controlled with most serious threat seems to come from a fungus
insecticides. Very little is known about the effect of the called "witches broom." The exact effect of this fungus
leaf-cutting ant, Acromyrmex, on coca. Growers in the on the coca plant is not clear because of the limited
Upper Huallaga Valley report that serious damage in amount of study which has been done on this fungus
the past has been done to their coca cultivation. The infesting coca plantations. Natural enemies hold hope
damage is often controlled with the use of insecticides for control of the coca plant in the future. At present,
and flooding. however, the most successful methods in controlling
the growth of coca are herbicides and manual
eradication.
As of early 1990, all eradication of the coca plant in
Bolivia and Colombia was being done manually. The
usual method has been for a team of eradication
workers to go into a field and pull up the bushes plant
by plant. In Peru, manual eradication of coca is often
suspended because of security reasons. Prior to that
time, a number of gasoline-powered cutters had been
supplied to the workers making it easier and much
quicker to cut the coca. The problem with this method
is that sometimes the coca bush will sprout from the
Ant, Acromynnex. stump within 12 to 18 months. As such, the cutting
The beetle, Aegoidus Pacificus, also poses a threat to must be made very close to the ground to insure that
Trujillo coca. The adult beetle lays her eggs in the bark the plant does not sprout again. A number of
of the coca plant, and the larva later burrows into the herbicides have been tested for use in eradicating the
stem of the plant. This usually results in an infestation coca plant including hexazinone and tebuthiuron
of pathogenic fungi which is ultimately responsible for (spike). Application of both has been deemed
the death of the coca plant. As with the other pests, successful in killing the plant as long as they are
the beetle can also be controlled with insecticides. applied in the correct manner and amount. Within ten
to twenty days after application of hexazinone or
tebuthiuron the coca bush sheds all its leaves and
usually within 60 to 90 days the coca plant will be
completely dead.
The United States is working with some South
American governments to develop an herbicidal
eradication program; Bolivia, however, has prohibited
the use of herbicides for this purpose.

Adult beetle, Aegoidus Pacificus.

Most of the other insects which attack coca only do so
when there are shortages of their normal food supply.
Some scientists believe that cocaine and other
alkaloids may present some natural defense against