Q.1. Explain bulk micromachining and surface micromachining.

BULK MICROMACHINING
The term bulk micromachining comes from the fact that this type of micromachining is used to realize
micromechanical structures within the bulk of a single crystal silicon wafer by selectively removing (etching) wafer
material.

It allows the selective removal of significant amounts of silicon from a substrate to form membranes on one side of a
wafer, a variety of trenches, holes, or other structures.

The bulk micromachining technique can be divided into wet etching and dry etching of silicon according to the phase
of etchants.

Liquid etchants, almost exclusively relying on aqueous chemicals, are referred to as wet etching,while vapor and
plasma etchants are referred to as dry etching.

Bulk silicon micromachining:  (a) isotropic etching;

 (b) anisotropic etching;  (c) anisotropic etching
with buried etch-stop layer;  (d) dielectric
membrane released by back- side bulk etching; 
(e) dopant dependent wet etching.

Most common etchants used for anisotropic

etching of silicon include alkali hydroxide etchants
(KOH, NaOH, etc.), ammonium-based solutions
{NH4OH, TMAH [(CH3)4NOH], etc.},
Tetramethylammoniumhydroxide (TMAH) and EDP
(ethylene diamine pyrocatechol, and water).

By combining anisotropic etching with boron

implantation (P+ etchstop), and electrochemical
etch-stop technique, varied silicon microstructures
can be bulk machined.

The most common dry etching of bulk silicon is plasma etching and reactive ion etching (RIE) etching, where the
external energy in the form of RF power drives chemical reactions in low-pressure reaction chambers.

A wide variety of chlorofluorocarbon gases, sulfur hexafluoride, bromine compounds and oxygen are commonly used
as reactants.

The anisotropic dry etching processes are widely used in MEMS because of the geometry flexibility and less chemical
contamination than in wet etching sometimes.

SURFACE MICROMACHINING:
Surface micromachining does not shape the bulk silicon but instead builds structures on the surface of the silicon by
depositing thin films of sacrificial layers and structural layers and by removing eventually the sacrificial layers to
release the mechanical structures.

Surface micromachining requires a compatible set of structural materials, sacrificial materials and chemical etchants.

The structural materials must possess the physical and chemical properties that are suitable for the desired
application.
In addition, they must have satisfactory mechanical
properties; e.g., high yield and fracture stresses,
minimal creep and fatigue and good wear
resistance.

The sacrificial materials must have good mechanical

properties to avoid device failure during fabrication.

(1) polysilicon/Silicon dioxide; low pressure

chemical vapor deposition (LPCVD)
deposited polysilicon as the structural
material and LPCVD deposited oxide as the
sacrificial material. The oxide is readily
dissolved in HF solution without the
polysilicon being affected. Together with
this material system, silicon nitride is often
used for electrical insulation.
(2) Polyimide/aluminum; in this case polyimide
is the structural material and aluminum is the sacrificial material. Acid-based etchants are used to dissolve
the aluminum sacrificial layer.
(3) Silicon nitride/polysilicon; silicon nitride is used as the structural material, whereas polysilicon is the
sacrificial material. For this material system, silicon anisotropic etchants such as KOH and EDP are used to
dissolve polysilicon
(4) Tungsten/silicon dioxide; CVD deposited tungsten is used as the structural material with oxide as the
sacrificial material. HF solution is used to remove the sacrificial oxide.
(5) Other IC-compatible materials such as silicon carbide, diamond-like carbon, zinc oxide, gold, etc. are also
used.

Surface micromachining could also be performed using dry etching methods. Plasma etching of the silicon
substrate with SF6/O2-based and CF4/H2-based gas mixtures is advantageous since high selectivities for
photoresist, silicon dioxide and aluminum masks can be achieved. However, when using plasma etching, a large
undercut of the mask is observed.

Q.2 Explain the Czochralski method with diagram

Single crystal growth from melt precursor(s).

Crystal seed of the material to be grown placed in contact

with surface of melt.

Temperature of melt is kept just above melting point, highest

viscosity, lowest vapour pressure favours crystal growth.

Seed gradually pulled out of the melt, 1mm per hour

Melt solidifies on surface of seed.

Melt & seed usually rotated counterclockwise with respect to

each other to maintain constant temperature and to facilitate
uniformity of the melt during crystal growth, 10 rpm.

Produces higher quality crystals, less defects.

Inert atmosphere, often under pressure around growing crystal and melt to prevent any materials loss and
undesirable reactions like oxidation, nitridation etc.

Examples – Si, Ge, GaAs, LiNbO3. Large single crystals grown in the form of rods.
Q.3 Explain each step of Lithography process flow
Photolithography is a patterning process where a photosensitive polymer is selectively exposed to light through a
mask, thus creating a latent image (or pattern) in the polymer that can then be developed and selectively dissolved
to expose the desired parts of the underlying substrate.

Basics of the Photolithography Process

In the photolithography process, a light source and collimating optical system are used to create an image of a
patterned mask onto a substrate coated with a photosensitive polymer layer (photoresist). This illuminated pattern is
then transferred into the substrate by a subsequent etching process.

Thin silicon wafers are utilized as substrates in most photolithographic applications. The entire process comprises
several steps executed sequentially at specific conditions and for a certain duration, depending on the desired
outcome of the patterning process.

It is worth noting that photolithography works best on flat substrates, and the process is unsuitable for patterning
high-curvature surfaces and creating complex 3D structures.

Key Steps in Photolithography

The photolithographic process involves substrate preparation, photoresist application, soft baking, mask alignment,
exposure and development, post-exposure baking, and pattern transfer (etching or replica molding).

Substrate Preparation

In the first step, the wafer is baked at elevated temperatures (200 - 400°C) for 30 - 60 minutes to evaporate any water
present on the surface. Next, any particulate matter and any traces of organic, ionic, and metallic impurities are
removed from the wafer surface. The cleaning process depends on the physical and chemical properties of the
substrate materials and can involve wet cleaning (chemical bath) or dry-cleaning steps (plasma cleaning or UV
irradiation).

The purpose of this step is to prepare the substrate to accept the photoresist by providing a clean, highly adhesive
surface. Depending on the type of substrate and photoresist, a barrier layer (usually silicon dioxide) or adhesion
promoter might be deposited on the cleaned wafer surface.

Photoresist Coating

After the wafer preparation, a uniform layer of

photoresist is applied to the wafer surface. Most industrial
photolithographic processes employ the spin coating technique,
where the substrate rapidly rotates. The centrifugal force
spreads evenly the photoresist solution, followed by solvent
evaporation and formation of a uniform thin
photoresist layer (0.1 – 10 μm in thickness).

Two types of photoresists can be employed to transfer

the pattern onto the substrate. When using a positive-
tone photoresist, the exposed region of the
photoresist becomes soluble to the photoresist developer.
This type of photoresist enables higher spatial resolution
and better control of the sidewall roughness of the patterned
structures.

In contrast, upon exposure to light, a negative-tone

photoresist crosslinks and becomes insoluble during the
development step. This type of photoresist is employed when high-aspect-ratio features are needed (and require
thick resist layers).
Soft Baking

During the soft baking step, most of the solvent is removed from the photoresist. This step is very important as it
renders the resist layer photosensitive. Positive resists might be incompletely exposed if a significant amount of
residual solvent is present in the coating.

Under-baked positive resists can be attacked by the developer in both exposed and unexposed areas, degrading the
etching resistance of the exposed resist. Overbaking at this stage can degrade the photosensitivity of the resist by
damaging the photosensitizer molecules in the resist layer.

Photomask Alignment and Pattern Exposure

Typically, the photomask is a quartz or glass plate patterned with the desired features, usually as a metal (chromium
or molybdenum) coating. The mask can have a repeating pattern that covers the entire wafer, thus creating a large
number of identical patterns (or dies), or cover a small portion of the wafer and create just a few dies (such masks
are known as reticules).

The mask or the reticule needs to be aligned and locked into the photolithographic equipment. When a reticule is
used, it is translated stepwise parallel to the wafer surface, exposing a small portion of the wafer with each step. This
type of photolithographic equipment is called a 'stepper'.

The mask pattern can be transferred through direct contact, proximity, or projection exposure. In the case of direct
contact, the mask is placed directly onto the photoresist surface, resulting in high spatial resolution but also
increasing the risk of mask damage and reducing the process throughput. Proximity exposure keeps the mask a short
distance away from the photoresist, resulting in lower spatial resolution. In projection exposure, an optical system
forms a scaled-down image of the mask onto the resist surface.

Modern photolithographic processes employ catadioptric projection optics, consisting of both refractive (lenses) and
reflective (mirrors) elements, together with deep-UV (193 nm) or extreme-UV (13.5 nm) light sources to produce
pattern features with characteristic dimensions of less than 10 nm.

The development is a wet process that dissolves areas of the photoresist using a developer (combination of solvents,
such as tetramethylammonium hydroxide, and surfactants). The duration of the development process is critical, as
underdeveloped resist could prevent access to the underlying substrate by leaving a residual resist layer on the wafer.
Conversely, an overdeveloped resist can distort the pattern transferred to the wafer. To terminate the development
process, the wafer is rinsed with deionized water and spin-dried.

Post-Exposure Baking and Pattern Transfer

Finally, the photoresist is subjected to a baking process to harden and strengthen the remaining resist material so
that it can withstand the following pattern transfer steps without feature degradation. At this point, the
photolithographic process is complete, and the wafer is ready for wet or dry etching, selective metal deposition, ion
implantation, or used for replica molding.

Q.4 What is Etching and its types? Explain how etching of Si and SiO2 can be achieved?
Etching is a process used in semiconductor fabrication, microelectronics, and microfabrication to selectively remove
material from the surface of a substrate, typically a silicon wafer or a thin film, in a controlled and precise manner.
Etching is essential for creating patterns and structures on the surface of these materials, which are integral to the
manufacturing of electronic devices and integrated circuits.

There are several types of etching processes, two of the most common being wet etching and dry etching:

1. **Wet Etching**:

Wet etching involves immersing the substrate in a liquid chemical solution (etchant) that selectively dissolves the
material being removed. Some common types of wet etching include:
 - **Isotropic Etching**: In this type of etching, the material is removed uniformly in all directions, resulting in
rounded or sloped edges. Isotropic etching is not well-suited for creating precise, well-defined features.

- **Anisotropic Etching**: Anisotropic etching is more directional, removing material primarily in one direction.
This process can create well-defined, straight-walled features.

2. **Dry Etching**:

Dry etching is a more precise and controllable process compared to wet etching. It involves using a plasma, typically
in a reactive gas environment, to selectively remove material from the substrate's surface. Some common types of
dry etching include:

- **Reactive Ion Etching (RIE)**: RIE uses chemically reactive ions to etch material. It is highly anisotropic and
provides better control over etch profiles compared to wet etching.

- **Plasma Etching**: In this process, a plasma is used to react with and remove the material from the substrate. It
can be either isotropic or anisotropic, depending on the specific parameters and chemistry used.

Now, let's discuss how etching of silicon (Si) and silicon dioxide (SiO2) can be achieved:

1. **Etching Silicon (Si)**:

- Wet etching of silicon can be done using solutions such as potassium hydroxide (KOH) or tetramethylammonium
hydroxide (TMAH). KOH is often used for anisotropic etching of silicon, while TMAH can provide more isotropic
etching.

- Dry etching of silicon is commonly achieved using RIE or plasma etching with gases like SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride) or
CF4 (carbon tetrafluoride). The choice of gas and process parameters determines the etch rate and profile.

2. **Etching Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)**:

- Wet etching of silicon dioxide can be done using hydrofluoric acid (HF). HF selectively removes SiO2 without
affecting silicon. This process is widely used for creating silicon dioxide patterns.

- Dry etching of SiO2 is commonly performed using RIE or plasma etching with gases like CHF3 (trifluoromethane)
or CF4. These gases react with the silicon dioxide to create volatile compounds that are removed from the surface.

The specific etching method and conditions depend on the desired etch rate, selectivity, etch profile, and the
material's composition. Engineers and researchers choose the etching technique that best suits their fabrication
needs while considering the advantages and limitations of each method.

Q.5 Explain the deposition of SiO2 layer over Si substrate with diagram.
Silicon dioxide is produced by thermal oxidation in an
electric resistance furnace.

The furnace consists of a large fused quartz tube with

resistance heating coils surround the tube to provide the
necessary high temperature in the tube

In the thermal oxidation process, wafers are placed in fused

quartz cassettes that are pushed into the preheated furnace
tube at a temperature in the range of 900 to 1200 deg C.

Oxygen is blown into the tubular furnace for the oxidation

of wafer surfaces. Often, steam is used instead of oxygen for accelerated oxidation.

The timing, temperature, and gas flow are strictly controlled in order to achieve the desired quality and thickness of
the Si02 film.
Q.6 Write short notes on RF MEMS
**RF MEMS (Radio-Frequency Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems)** are a type of micro-electro-mechanical systems
(MEMS) technology designed for radio-frequency (RF) and microwave applications. They combine electrical and
mechanical components on a tiny scale to control or manipulate RF signals. Here are some key points about RF
MEMS:

1. **Miniaturization and Integration**: RF MEMS devices are highly

miniaturized and integrat ed components that are used in RF and
microwave systems. They are often designed to be part of a larger
integrated circuit or system-on-chip (SoC).

2. **Switching and Tuning**: The primary functions of RF MEMS

devices include switching and tuning RF signals. They are used to route
or switch signals between different paths or to tune the resonance
frequency of RF circuits.

3. **Microscopic Actuators**: RF MEMS devices rely on

tiny mechanical components, such as micro-actuators,
that move or deform in response to electrical signals.
These movements can open or close RF paths, change the
length of transmission lines, or modify the capacitance of
resonators.

4. **Low Loss and High-Quality Factors**: RF MEMS devices are known for their low insertion loss, high linearity, and
high-quality factors. This makes them ideal for applications where signal quality is critical, such as in RF filters and
switches.

5. **Applications**: RF MEMS technology finds applications in various RF and microwave systems, including:

- **RF Switches**: Used for signal routing and switching in communication systems.

- **Tunable Filters**: These devices allow for the adjustment of filter characteristics to match changing RF
conditions.

- **Phase Shifters**: Used in phased-array antennas to control the direction of RF beams.

- **Resonators**: RF MEMS resonators can be used for frequency-selective applications.

6. **Advantages**:

- Low power consumption.

- High linearity and isolation.

- Fast switching times.

- High reliability and long operational lifetimes.

- Compatibility with semiconductor fabrication processes.

7. **Challenges**:

- MEMS devices can be sensitive to mechanical shock and vibrations.

- Fabrication processes may be complex and costly.

- Ensuring long-term reliability can be a challenge in some applications.

RF MEMS technology is continually evolving and finding new applications in wireless communication, radar systems,
and other RF and microwave domains. Its ability to provide low-loss, high-quality RF components in a compact form
factor makes it an attractive choice for many RF engineers and system designers.
Q.7 Write short notes on SMA
**Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)** are a unique class of materials that
can "remember" their original shape and return to it when subjected
to certain stimuli, such as changes in temperature or stress. They are
often used in various engineering applications where the ability to
recover a specific shape is desirable. Two of the most common SMAs
are Nitinol (an alloy of nickel and titanium) and Cu-Al-Ni (copper-
aluminum-nickel).

Key characteristics and properties of SMAs:

1. **Shape Memory Effect (SME)**: SMAs exhibit a reversible phase

transformation between two distinct crystalline phases, which allows them to recover their original shape after
deformation. The SME is usually triggered by a change in temperature.

2. **Superelasticity**: SMAs can also exhibit superelastic behavior, allowing them to return to their original shape
after substantial deformation. This property is useful in applications like stents, where materials must withstand
cyclic loading.

3. **High Damping Capacity**: SMAs possess high damping capacity, making them useful in vibration-damping
applications.

4. **Work Output**: SMAs can generate substantial work output during the phase transformation, which is
advantageous in applications like actuators.

**Austenitic and Martensitic Phases**:

The behavior of SMAs is mainly due to the transformation between two crystalline phases: austenite and martensite.

1. **Austenitic Phase (Parent Phase)**:

- The austenitic phase is the high-temperature phase and the stable

state of the SMA at elevated temperatures.

- In this phase, the alloy's atoms are arranged in a more regular and
symmetric manner.

- When the SMA is deformed at a high temperature and then

cooled, it transitions into the martensitic phase.

2. **Martensitic Phase (Deformed Phase)**:

- The martensitic phase is the low-temperature phase, formed when the SMA is subjected to mechanical
deformation while in the austenitic phase.

- The atomic arrangement in the martensitic phase is less symmetric and more irregular compared to the austenitic
phase.

- When the SMA is heated, it transforms back into the austenitic phase, causing the material to return to its original
shape.

The transition between these phases is reversible, allowing the SMA to repeatedly deform and recover its shape as
the external conditions (usually temperature) change. The specific temperature range at which this transformation
occurs is known as the "transition temperature."

In summary, SMAs are fascinating materials that exhibit the shape memory effect due to the reversible
transformation between austenitic and martensitic phases, allowing them to recover their original shape when
exposed to the right conditions. These properties have led to a wide range of applications, from medical devices to
aerospace and robotics.
Q.8 Explain Piezoresistance and piezoelectricity with diagrams.
**Piezoresistance**:
*Piezoresistance* is a phenomenon in which the electrical resistance of a material changes in response to
mechanical stress or strain. This effect is observed in a variety of materials, including semiconductors and metals, and
it plays a crucial role in the operation of many electronic devices and sensors. In this comprehensive explanation, I
will delve into the concept of piezoresistance, its advantages and disadvantages, and its applications.

**Principle of Piezoresistance**:

Piezoresistance is a property that is especially pronounced in semiconductors. When

mechanical stress is applied to a semiconductor material, it causes changes in the
band structure, which in turn affects the material's electrical properties. The most
commonly observed piezoresistive effect is a change in the material's electrical
resistance.

In silicon, for example, the piezoresistive effect is significant. When you apply
mechanical stress to a silicon crystal, it results in the stretching or compression of the
atomic lattice. This, in turn, changes the band gap of silicon, affecting its electrical
conductivity. There are two primary piezoresistive effects:

1. **Longitudinal Piezoresistance**: This effect is observed when the stress is applied

in the direction of current flow. In silicon, this effect is represented by the
piezoresistive coefficients π11 and π12

2. **Transverse Piezoresistance**: This effect is observed when the

stress is applied perpendicular to the current flow direction. In
silicon, this is represented by the piezoresistive coefficient π44.

**Advantages of Piezoresistance**:

1. **High Sensitivity**: Piezoresistive materials, especially

semiconductors like silicon, exhibit high sensitivity to mechanical
stress. This makes them suitable for use in highly precise sensors and
devices.

2. **Linearity**: Piezoresistance often displays a linear relationship between stress and resistance change,
simplifying the calibration and interpretation of sensor data.

3. **Wide Range of Applications**: Piezoresistive sensors are widely used in a variety of applications, including
pressure sensors, accelerometers, and strain gauges.

4. **Miniaturization**: Due to the small size of semiconductor

components, piezoresistive sensors can be easily miniaturized, making
them suitable for compact devices and microelectromechanical systems
(MEMS).

5. **Temperature Compensation**: By utilizing multiple piezoresistive

elements with different piezoresistive coefficients, it's possible to create
temperature-compensated sensors, which can provide accurate
measurements over a wide temperature range.

**Disadvantages of Piezoresistance**:

1. **Temperature Sensitivity**: While piezoresistive materials can be temperature-compensated, they are still
sensitive to temperature changes. This can introduce errors in measurements, especially in extreme temperature
conditions.
2. **Hysteresis**: Piezoresistive materials may exhibit hysteresis, meaning that their resistance may not return
precisely to its original value after mechanical stress is removed.

3. **Complex Calibration**: Achieving precise measurements often requires careful calibration of piezoresistive
sensors.

4. **Limited to Certain Materials**: The piezoresistive effect is most pronounced in specific materials, particularly
semiconductors like silicon. This limits the choice of materials for certain applications.

**Applications of Piezoresistance**:

1. **Pressure Sensors**: Piezoresistive pressure sensors are widely used in various applications, from automotive
tire pressure monitoring systems to industrial process control.

2. **Accelerometers**: Accelerometers, used in devices such as smartphones, airbags, and industrial machinery, rely
on piezoresistive sensors to detect changes in acceleration.

3. **Strain Gauges**: Piezoresistive strain gauges are used to measure mechanical deformation in structures and
materials. They are commonly employed in structural health monitoring and material testing.

4. **Force Sensors**: These sensors are used to measure forces in applications like robotics, medical devices, and
industrial automation.

5. **Touch Screens**: Some touch screens utilize piezoresistive technology to detect touch and pressure, enabling
multi-touch functionality.

6. **Biomechanical Sensors**: Piezoresistive sensors are used in medical applications, such as measuring blood
pressure and monitoring heart rate.

In summary, piezoresistance is a fundamental property of materials, especially semiconductors like silicon, where
electrical resistance changes in response to mechanical stress. Its advantages include high sensitivity, linearity, and a
wide range of applications, while its disadvantages include temperature sensitivity and the need for careful
calibration. Its applications span from pressure sensors to accelerometers and strain gauges, with a broad impact on
various industries.

**Piezoelectricity**:
*Piezoelectricity* is a fascinating property exhibited by certain
materials in which they generate an electric charge in response to
mechanical stress or deformation. Conversely, these materials can
deform when an electric field is applied to them. Th is remarkable
property has a wide range of applications, from sensors and actuators
to energy harvesting and medical devices. This comprehensive
explanation will delve into the concept of piezoelectricity, its
advantages and disadvantages, and its applications.

**Principle of Piezoelectricity**:

Piezoelectric materials, such as quartz, certain ceramics, and some

polymers, possess a unique crystal structure that allows them to
generate electric charges when subjected to mechanical stress. This is
due to the displacement of charged ions within the crystal lattice. The
primary piezoelectric effect is known as the direct piezoelectric
effect, where mechanical stress leads to charge separation.

Conversely, piezoelectric materials can also undergo deformation

when subjected to an electric field. This is known as the inverse
piezoelectric effect. These effects are reversible and depend on the
orientation and arrangement of the crystal's atomic structure.

**Advantages of Piezoelectricity**:

1. **High Sensitivity**: Piezoelectric materials are highly sensitive and can generate a relatively large electric charge
or deformation in response to mechanical stress or electric field.

2. **Wide Frequency Range**: Piezoelectric devices can operate over a wide frequency range, from very low
frequencies (e.g., for energy harvesting) to ultrasonic frequencies (e.g., for medical imaging).

3. **Rapid Response Time**: Piezoelectric materials can respond rapidly to changes in stress or electric fields,
making them suitable for applications requiring quick responses.

4. **Energy Harvesting**: Piezoelectric materials can convert mechanical vibrations and movements into electrical
energy. This property is exploited in devices like piezoelectric generators to power sensors and low-energy
electronics.

5. **Actuators**: Piezoelectric actuators are used in precision positioning systems, such as in optics and
nanotechnology.

6. **Sensors**: Piezoelectric sensors are utilized in a wide range of applications, including ultrasonic distance
measurement, sonar, and non-destructive testing.

**Disadvantages of Piezoelectricity**:

1. **Limited Materials**: Piezoelectricity is exhibited by a limited range of materials, and some of these materials
are relatively expensive.

2. **Temperature Sensitivity**: The piezoelectric effect can be sensitive to temperature changes, which can impact
the accuracy of measurements.

3. **Brittleness**: Some piezoelectric materials, like ceramics, are brittle and can fracture under