Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.

A English)

Grammar for IELTS

Relative Clauses

Difference between Defining and Non-Defining Relative Clauses

It is likely you might use both defining and non-defining relative clauses in your IELTS Writing Task 2
essay. Defining and non-defining clauses differ in a number of ways. Defining relative clauses define,
or ‘identify’, the noun they relate to; they provide essential information. Non-defining clauses, by
contrast, only give additional information. They also have a different punctuation.
Consider these two sentences:
A. Doctors who often work long hours are more likely to suffer from burnout.
B. Doctors, who often work long hours, are essential to the future of a country.

A) Defining
In Sentence A, the underlined relative clause gives essential information about the subject. It tells
you which doctors are more likely to suffer from burnout. It shows that only the doctors who work
long hours are likely to get burnout.
If we remove the clause “who often work long hours”, the whole meaning of the sentence changes:
“Doctors are more likely to suffer from burnout.” Now the sentence implies that all doctors might get
burnout. From this we can see that the defining relative clause is essential to the sentence.

• The underlined clause in Sentence A is therefore called a defining relative clause.

• Punctuation: It requires no comma(s).

B) Non-Defining
In Sentence B, by contrast, the underlined relative clause only adds extra information and is not
actually vital to the meaning in the sentence. The sentence is about doctors being essential to the
future of the country. It refers to all doctors. The clause “who often work long hours” is only extra
information and does not affect the subject(doctors) at all.
If we remove the clause “who often work long hours”, the meaning of the sentence would still be the
same: “Doctors are essential to the future of a country.”
We use these types of clauses to add information for interest and not for necessity.

• The underlined clause in Sentence B is therefore called a non-defining relative clause.

• Punctuation: It requires a comma before and after it.

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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

Defining Relative Clauses

In defining relative clauses, who, which and that can be either the subject or the object of the verb in
the relative clause.
A) When who, which or that is the Subject of the Verb

1. Children who watch TV for long hours every day are likely to develop concentration problems.
2. There are a number of measures which should be implemented to deal with criminal reoffenders.
If we look at Sentence 1, it is clear that the writer is talking about a specific group of children and not
about all children. It is not the case that all children are likely to develop concentration problems,
only some of them.
The question is: ‘Which children are likely to develop concentration problems?’… and the answer is in
the relative clause: ‘Those who watch TV for long hours every day.’
We can see that the relative clause defines which children we are talking about; it defines the
subject.
The word children is the subject and who relates to this subject.

Children who watch TV for long hours every day are likely to develop concentration problems.
When you write defining relative clauses, always pay attention to subject-verb-agreement.

Children who watch TV for long hours every day are likely to develop concentration problems.

A child who watches TV for long hours every day is likely to develop concentration problems.
In this case, who (or which and that) cannot be omitted. You must have them in your sentence.
Note:
In Sentence 2, that can be used instead of which as shown below. Both versions are equally
acceptable in essay writing.
(In spoken English, that can also be used instead of who in defining relative clauses. However, do not
do this in your essay. Always use who for people in writing.)
➢ There are a number of measures which should be implemented to deal with criminal reoffenders.
➢ There are a number of measures that should be implemented to deal with criminal reoffenders.
Important: NEVER use which for a person.

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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

B) When who, which or that is the Object of the Verb in the Relative Clause

3. We have to be sure we have the qualities needed to be successful in the career which we have
chosen.
We can see in Sentence 3, the word which relates to the word career (the object of the verb). The
clause word which can be replaced by that.
➢ We have to be sure we have the qualities needed to be successful in the career which we have
chosen.
➢ We have to be sure we have the qualities needed to be successful in the career that we have
chosen.
➢ We have to be sure we have the qualities needed to be successful in the career we have chosen.
In the final sentence above, which (or that) can be omitted. It is possible to remove them from the
sentence. However, if you feel uncertain about doing this, it is best to use them in order to avoid
possible errors.
Sentence 4 below is another example where the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the
defining relative clause.
4. The teachers who we remember best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.
The teachers we remember best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.
We can see that the word who relates to the teachers. If we rewrite the sentence as ‘We remember
best the teachers who are enthusiastic and dedicated,’ we can see clearly that ‘the teachers who …’ is
the object of the verb ‘remember’.
Notes: Always pay attention to subject-verb- agreement. As you can see from the examples below,
the form of the verb in both the main clause and the relative clause is determined by the subject.
The teachers who we remember best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.

The teacher who I remember best is the enthusiastic and dedicated one.

The teachers he remembers best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.

When who is the object of the verb in the relative clause, whom is sometimes used instead, especially
in formal written English.
➢ The teachers who we remember best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.
➢ The teachers whom we remember best are the enthusiastic and dedicated ones.
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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

C) Defining Relative Clauses with whose

The relative pronoun whose is a possessive and can stand for his, her or their. It is used mostly for
people.
5. A father whose work takes him away from his children will often have bitter regrets later in life.
This could be paraphrased as “A father will often have bitter regrets later in life if his work takes him
away from his children'.
6. Marie Curie was a scientist whose work was crucial in developing the use of X-rays in medicine.
This could be paraphrased as “Marie Curie was a scientist. Her work was crucial in developing the use of
X-rays in medicine.”
7. Parents whose children only play computer games should encourage them to be more physically
active.
This could be paraphrased as “Parents should encourage their children to be more physically active.
This is especially the case if their children only play computer games".

D) Defining Relative Clauses with Prepositions

The preposition comes at the end of the relative clause. In formal written English, the preposition
can also come just before the relative pronoun. Both structures are equally acceptable in essay
writing.
8. The strangers whom teenagers chat online with are not always trustworthy.
The strangers with whom teenagers chat online are not always trustworthy.

Note: In an informal style, when the preposition comes at the end, who can be used instead of
whom: ‘The strangers who teenagers chat online with are not always trustworthy.’
However, if the preposition comes before the relative pronoun, the form whom must always be
used.
To simplify things, in essay writing always use the form whom in clauses with a preposition.
9. Politicians seem to ignore the issues which young people feel most passionate about.
Politicians seem to ignore the issues about which young people feel most passionate.
It is common to use defining relative clauses in IELTS Writing Task 2. However, you need to be aware
of your own limitations. If your grammar is not strong at all, you might want to avoid using relative
clauses. If your grammar is at intermediate level, you might want to use some relative clauses while
avoiding the more complex ones.
At all times, you must only use the grammar features that you are comfortable with and that you
know you can produce with accuracy. There is no point using clauses and producing errors at the
same time.

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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

Non-Defining Relative Clause

A non-defining clause is not vital to the meaning of a sentence. It is a clause which adds extra
information. The clause can safely be omitted without changing the meaning of the main sentence.
This can be useful in IELTS Writing Task 2.
Example:
➢ English may cause certain minority languages to disappear.
We may wish to add extra information to this about English; for example, we could add that English
is now the main global language.
➢ English may cause certain minority languages to disappear. English is now the main global
language.
The second sentence is additional information that is not necessary to add. We add it because it adds
an interesting point about the English language. Therefore, we can insert that additional information
as a non-defining clause:
➢ English, which is now the main global language, may cause certain minority languages to
disappear.
Note that the subject in both sentences is the same: English. Also notice that the non-defining clause
must be between commas.

A) When which or who are the Subject

We have just seen in our first example that which relates to the subject of the clause.
1. English, which is now the main global language, may cause certain minority languages to
disappear.
Below are some more examples:
2. Online social media, which are becoming increasingly common, can bring people together across
vast geographical distances.
3. Budget holidays, which are becoming increasingly cheaper, are resulting in more people
travelling by air and thus adding to the problem of air pollution.
4. A student from a more modest backgrounds, who often has to work and study at the same time,
sometimes feels less integrated into campus life than their peers.
5. Students from more modest background, who often have to work and study at the same time,
sometimes feel less integrated into campus life than their peers.
In Sentences 1-5, who and which are the subject of the verb in the relative clause. They cannot be
omitted or replaced by another word. This means you cannot use that instead of which. You cannot
use whom instead of who.
Also notice subject-verb agreement: singular subject- singular verb in Sentences 1 and 4; plural
subject-plural verb in Sentences 2,3 and 5.
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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

B) When which or who are the Object

6. Ex-convicts, whom society tends to push aside, mostly want to return to normal life.
7. Practical industry experience, which many students try to gain at university, is highly valued by
employers.
In Sentences 6 and 7, whom and which are the object of the verb in the relative clause. They cannot
be omitted or replaced by another word. This means it is not possible to use who in Sentence 6
instead of whom and you cannot use that in Sentence 7 instead of which.
Let’s look how Sentence 6 is created. Sentence 6 is made of two sentences, as shown below. You
can see that the two sentences begin with different subjects. In the first sentence, the subject is ex-
convicts and in the second sentence the subject is society.
Ex-convicts mostly want to return to normal life. Society tends to push them aside.
The word them in the second sentence is the object of the verb in the sentence. It refers to ex-
convicts.

Ex-convicts mostly want to return to normal life. Society tends to push them aside.
Below we can see that it is possible to add the information in the second sentence as a non-defining
relative clause to the main sentence. It is non-defining because it only provides additional
information.

Ex-convicts …mostly want to return to normal life. Society tends to push them aside.

As you can see below, the word whom in the non-defining clause relates to the word them, which we
must now delete.

Ex-convicts, whom society tends to push[them] aside, mostly want to return to normal life.

Ex-convicts, whom society tends to push aside, mostly want to return to normal life.
This means the word whom in the non-defining clause relates to the object in the clause. When we
use non-defining relative clause, we will use whom instead of who if it relates to the object.
Let’s now look more closely at how Sentence 7 is created. We can add the extra information given in
the second sentence as a non-defining clause. Again, you can see that the two sentences have
different subjects: practical industry experience and many students.

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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

Practical industry experience … is highly valued by employers. Many students try to gain
practical industry experience while at university.
Practical industry experience, which many students try to gain while at university, is highly
valued by employers.
As you can see above, we have inserted the second sentence as a clause. We have used the word
which to refer to practical industry experience (the object of the clause). It is important to note that
we cannot use that. We must use which when it refers to the object in a non-defining relative clause.

C) Non-Defining Relative Clauses with whose

It is also possible to use whose in a non-defining relative clause. We use whose to refer to something
that belongs or is related to the subject of the main clause. See Sentence 8 and 9 below.
8. Marie Curie, whose work on radioactivity was pioneering, was the first woman to win a Nobel
Prize.
9. Firefighters, coastguards and doctors, whose mission is to save human lives, should definitely
earn more than pop stars and footballers.

In Sentence 8 and 9, whose cannot be omitted or replaced by another word. Let’s see how to create
Sentence 8 and 9 by combining two sentences.
Sentence 8:
Marie Curie was the first woman to win Nobel Prize. Her work on radioactivity was pioneering.

Marie Curie … was the first woman to win Nobel Prize. Her work on radioactivity was pioneering.
Marie Curie, whose work on radioactivity was pioneering, was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize.
Sentence 9:
Firefighters, coastguards and doctors … should definitely earn more than pop stars and footballers.
Their mission is to save human lives.
Firefighters, coastguards and doctors, whose mission is to save human lives, should definitely earn
more than pop stars and footballers.

D) Non-Defining Relative Clauses with Prepositions

The preposition comes at the end of the relative clause. In formal written English, the preposition
often comes just before the relative pronouns. Both structures are equally acceptable in essay
writing.
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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

10. Tropical rainforests, which the future of the planet partly depends on, are being destroyed by
commercial logging.
Tropical rainforests, on which the future of the planet partly depends, are being destroyed by
commercial logging.

11. People such as doctors and teachers, whom society could not function properly without, are very
often underpaid.
People such as doctors and teachers, without whom society could not function properly, are often
underpaid.

E) Non-Defining Clauses Using which to Refer to a Whole Sentence

In all our examples so far, which was used to refer to the noun before it. Very often, particularly in
written English, which can also be used to refer the whole sentence before it.
12. Plastic bags are rarely disposed of properly, which causes them to end up in rivers and lakes.
In Sentence 12, which does not relate to the word bags but to the whole sentence before it. We can
see the subject of causes cannot be the plural noun bags. The subject of causes is the singular noun
phrase ‘the fact that plastic bags are rarely disposed of properly’.
Sentence 12 could be paraphrased as
The fact that plastic bags are rarely disposed of properly causes them to end up in rivers and lakes.
or
Plastic bags are rarely disposed of properly. This causes them to end up in rivers and lakes.

F) Defining or non-defining clauses with when or where

These words can be used in both defining and non-defining relative clauses.
Consider these examples:
➢ Most people remember the day when they received their first wages. (defining)

➢ Many artists and scientists fled to the United States in the 1930s, when Europe was about to be
engulfed in a terrible war. (non-defining)

➢ Tourists usually like visiting the houses where famous people were born. (defining)

➢ More and more Western university graduates now go to China, where employment
opportunities are often better. (non-defining)

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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

Relative Clauses: Exercises

1. Complete the sentences with a suitable relative pronoun. Add commas where necessary.

1 On average, children in the West only do sport twice a week ________________ is not enough
to counter the effects of their otherwise sedentary lifestyle.
2 Some people fear that the spread of English ________________ is now the global lingua
franca may result in the disappearance of many other languages.
3 Countries ________________ rely on tourism as a source of income always suffer from the
effects of a recession.
4 A large number of offenders ________________ serve their first sentence turn to crime again
as soon as they leave prison.
5 Children ________________ have the opportunity to learn art at school might become more
creative and imaginative adults than those ________________ do not.
6 Young children ________________ astonishing ability to absorb information seems universally
recognised are not necessarily better at learning a foreign language than adults.
7 Social networking sites make it easy to create groups ________________ enable people
________________ share similar interests to meet and communicate.
8 The best way to deal with criminals ________________ reoffend is to supervise them closely
once they are back in society.
9 Job seekers ________________ have an academic qualification can apply for more
responsible roles.
10 Public sector doctors and teachers ________________ provide indispensable services to
society deserve to earn more than celebrities.

2. Identify the sentences in Exercise 1 which contain a defining relative clause.

3. Put the underlined relative pronoun in brackets wherever it can be left out.

1 Social media users now spend a considerable amount of time online with people who they
have never met face to face and who they will probably never meet.
2 Children who have to work are robbed of what makes childhood unique and beautiful.
3 Social media users sometimes tend to forget that information and photos that they share
with others can remain online forever.
4 Teenagers are not always aware that the strangers with whom they communicate online may
not be trustworthy.
5 The practical experience that students gain when doing an internship can help them land a
better job later.
6 Promotion opportunities can have a decisive influence on the career path which people
choose.
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Grammar for IELTS Daw Thuzar Latt (M.A English)

7 One of the greatest joys that this world has to offer is the diversity of cultures.
8 Sometimes, tourists who visit historical or religious buildings behave inappropriately.
9 A modern transport infrastructure is essential in countries that depend on tourism for their
economy.
10 The CV is the first impression that an employer has of a job applicant.

4. Tick the sentences that are grammatically correct and cross out the incorrect ones.

1 Assertiveness is a quality that can be learned through training and practice.

2 Assertiveness is a quality which can be learned through training and practice.
3 People used to believe that giftedness was a quality that you inherit.
4 People used to believe that giftedness was a quality which you inherit.
5 People used to believe that giftedness was a quality you inherit.
6 Film and football stars are the kind of celebrities whose teenagers often like to take as role model.
7 Film and football stars are the kind of celebrities which teenagers often like to take as role model.
8 Film and football stars are the kind of celebrities who teenagers often like to take as role model.
9 Film and football stars are the kind of celebrities whom teenagers often like to take as role model.
10 I do not believe that people have inborn qualities make them successful.
11 I do not believe that people have inborn qualities that make them successful.
12 I do not believe that people have inborn qualities which make them successful.

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