Library And Its Users

DLIS102

Edited by:
Jovita Kaur
LIBRARY AND ITS USERS
Edited By
Jovita Kaur
 Printed by
LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD.
113, Golden House, Daryaganj,
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DLP-7757-049-LIBRARY & ITS USERS C-4683/012/01

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 SYLLABUS

Library and its Users

Objectives:

• To analyse the needs of library users.

• To promote and provide the service which is required by the users.
• To focus particularly on users' behaviour in the library, the problems they cause or encounter, and how libraries
cope with the same.

Sr. No. Description

1. Changing role of Libraries and their information Needs.
2. Information: Definition and its nature, Categories of information users
3. Information needs of users, Information seeking behavior.
4. Evaluation of library sources and services: Books, periodicals, catalogues.
Effectiveness: Cost Benefit /Cost Effectiveness studies
5. Library Surveys: Purpose and use.
6. Planning surveys, collecting information processing and analysis of data
interpretation and presentation (only basics to be covered), Techniques and
tools of library surveys.
7. User studies: Methods and Techniques, Evaluation of user studies.
8. User Education: Concepts, goals and objectives, Levels, Techniques and
methods.
9. Evaluation of user educational programmes, Information Literacy:
Definition, need, purpose and programmes
10. Public Relation and Marketing: Definition, need, objective and methods.
 CONTENT

Unit 1: Changing Role of Libraries 1

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 2: Library Information 12

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 3: Library Information Needs of Users 16

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 4: Evaluation of Library Sources and Services 21

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University

Unit 5: Library Catalogues 27

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University

Unit 6: Library Surveys 35

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University

Unit 7: Planning Surveys 39

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 8: Techniques and Tools of Library Surveys 46

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 9: User Studies 51

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University

Unit 10: Evaluation of User Studies 57

Seema Sharma, Lovely Professional University

Unit 11: User Education 61

Seema Sharma, Lovely Professional University

Unit 12: Evaluation of User Educational Programmes 73

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 13: Purpose and Programmes of Education 84

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Unit 14: Public Relation and Marketing 93

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University
Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University Unit 1: Changing Role of Libraries

Notes

Unit 1: Changing Role of Libraries

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

1.1 Changing Role of Libraries

1.2 Types of Library Resources

1.3 Changing Role of Library Professional in Digital Age

1.4 Needs of Information

1.5 Summary

1.6 Keywords

1.7 Review Questions

1.8 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the changing role of libraries
• Know the types of libraries resources
• Discuss the changing role of library professional in digital age
• Know about the needs of information.

Introduction
Libraries play a fundamental role in our society. They are the collectors and stewards of our heritage;
they are organizers of the knowledge in the books they collect adding value by cataloguing, classifying
and describing them; and, as public institutions, they assure equality of access for all citizens. They
take the knowledge of the past and present, and lay it down for the future.
Europe’s libraries and archives contain a wealth of material representing the richness of Europe’s
history, acquired over the centuries. These materials cover a range of forms-books, newspapers,
films, photographs and maps. By bringing it online, we make it easier for citizens to appreciate
their own culture as well as our common European history.

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Library and its Users

Notes Library collections in the different countries represent their cultural identities. Language is at the
heart of these identities. The internet provides an incredible opportunity to circulate our heritage to
advantage and to make it known on a world scale.
Economically, cultural industries and cultural heritage are major sectors of activity. For example,
according to statistics collected by the LIBECON study, European libraries employed nearly 337
thousand staff in 2001 and had 138 million registered users. This is almost one third of the entire EU
population. This show the social impact libraries have.

1.1 Changing Role of Libraries

The emergence of a vast storehouse of information on the Internet poses a different kind of conundrum
Librarians, the traditional gatekeepers of knowledge are in danger of being bypassed, their skills are
ignored, their advice unsought. Search engines send user straight to the information they require or
so users may think without any need for an intermediary to classify, catalogue, cross-reference, advice
on sources.
The location and provision of information services has dramatically changed over the last ten years.
There is no need to leave the home or office to locate and access information now readily available
on-line via digital gateways furnished by a wide variety of information providers (e.g. libraries,
electronic, publisher, businesses, organizations, individuals). Information is electronically accessible
from a wide variety of globally distributed information repositories.

Information is no longer simply text and pictures. It is electronically in a wide variety

of formats, many of which are large, complex (i.e., video and audio) and often
integrated (i.e., multimedia).

Traditional Library

Libraries are where the access points such as, library catalogues as well as library collections are print
based and their management is by and large manual.

Automated Library

A library where access points and housekeeping operations are computerized is called an automated
library. The graphic records are still print-on-paper publication.

Electronic Library—Digital Library

The access point as well as the graphic records are in electronic digital form when these electronic
digital libraries are connected via various networks, particularly the INTERNET, this is called virtual
library.
Digital library is not only digitization of physical resources, but also thoughtful organization of
electronic collection for better access. Such organization provides coherence to a massive amount of
shared knowledge base. While the method of access provides convenient information retrieval for a
wide range of global user. Essentially a digital library deals with organization and access of a large
information repository. In all probability, digital libraries are likely to augment traditional libraries,
such as an on-line card catalogue augments, rather than strictly replacing, a book collection. The

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reason for this could be than the digital medium tends to be better for searching and the physical Notes
medium better for reading. Lets us know about digital library and the skills required to build up
digital collection.
According to Wieder hold “A digital library is popularly viewed as an electronic version of a library
where storage is in digital form, allowing direct communication to obtain material and copying it
from a master version.
“Digital Library is a combined technology and information resources to allow remote access, breaking
down the physical barrier between resources”.
Winensky viewed that ‘the digital library will be a collection of distributed information services,
producers will make it available, and consumers will find it through the automated agents.’
Digital Library is a “Collection of digital object (text, video, audio) along with method for access
and retrieval, and also for selection, organization, and maintenance (from the point of view of
librarian).
“The digital library is not merely equivalent to a digitized collection with information management
tools. It is also a series of activities that brings together collections, services and people in support of
the full life cycle of creation, dissemination, use and presentation of date, information and knowledge.

Advantages of Digital Library

Digital library has certain characteristics, which make them different from traditional library. It has
expansive and accurate system of searching with large volumes of text, image and audio-video
resources. Digital libraries do not need physical space to build collection and it can be accessed from
anywhere, any time. Different people can access same source at the same time.
The advantages of digital libraries are mentioned herein below:

Preserve the valuable documents, rare and special collections of libraries, archives and muse-
ums.

Provide faster access to the holding of libraries world wide through automated catalogues.

Help to locate both physical and digitized versions of scholarly articles and books through
single interface.

Search optimization, simultaneous searches of the Internet make possible, preparing com-
mercial databases and library collections.

Offering online learning environment.

Making short the chain from author to user.

Save preparation/conservation cost, space and money.

Digital technology affords multiple, simultaneous user from a single original which are not
possible for materials stored in any other forms

Disadvantages of Digital Library

New technology has brought many advantages but simultaneously it also has certain disadvantage

Costly affair

Technology obsolescence (Hardware and Software)

Storage media relate

Dominance of data creators and publishers

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Library and its Users

Notes
Trained manpower

User education and training

Security against hacking and sabotage.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. The statistics collected by the ...... study suggest that European libraries employed nearly
337 thousand staff in the year 2001.
2. A library where access points and house keeping operations are computerized is called an
...... .
3. Digital library is a collection of ...... .

1.2 Types of Library Resources

The resources provided by the digital libraries can be classified into in-house resources and external
resources. In-house resources are those resources that are stored in the web server locally and made
accessible through the network. E-books, course notes, and application notes, etc., are examples of
the in-house resources.
The external resources are those materials that are not stored in the web server. An external resource
includes online journals, online databases, online e-books, etc., External resources are provided by
different publishers-ASME, ACM, IEEE, Oxford University Press Journal (OUP) and many more
are there. The publisher provides access to their full text materials by two methods:
(i) Username and password
(ii) Internet Protocol (IP) address based Access Control Method.

1.3 Changing Role of Library Professional in Digital Age

Library in Early Days
The collection of written knowledge in some sort of repository is a practice as old as civilization
itself. About 30,000 clay tablets found in ancient Mesopotamia date back more than 5,000 years.
Archaelogists have uncovered papyrus scrolls from 1300-1200bc in the ancient Egyptian cities of
Amarna and Thebes and thousands of clay tablets in the palace of King Sennacherib, Assyrian ruler
from 704-681bc, at Nineveh, his capital city. More evidence turned up with the discovery of the
personal collection of Sennacherib’s grandson, King Ashurbanipal.
The name for the repository eventually became the library. Whether private or public, the library
has been founded, built, destroyed and rebuilt. The library, often championed, has been a survivor
throughout its long history and serves as a testament to the thirst for knowledge.

Literacy Builds Libraries

Early collections may have surfaced from the Near East, but the ancient Greeks propelled the idea
through their heightened interest in literacy and intellectual life. Public and private libraries
flourished through a well-established process: authors wrote on a variety of subjects, scriptoria or
copy shops produced the books, and book dealers sold them. Copying books was an exacting business
and one in high demand, because a book’s “trustworthiness” translated into quality. An Athenian
decree called for a repository of “trustworthy” copies. Though the public library first appeared by

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the fourth century bc, the private library was more prevalent. Aristotle, for instance, amassed a Notes
large private collection. Ancient geographer Strabo said Aristotle “was the first to have put together
a collection of books and to have taught the kings in Egypt how to arrange a library.”

The Great Library

That library, of course, was the Great Library of Alexandria, a public library open to those with the
proper scholarly and literary qualifications, founded about 300bc. When Egypt’s King Ptolemy I
(305-282bc) asked, “How many scrolls do we have?”, Aristotle’s disciple Demetrius of Phalerum
was on hand to answer with the latest count. After all, it was Demetrius who suggested setting up
a universal library to hold copies of all the books in the world. Ptolemy and his successors wanted
to understand the people under their rule and house Latin, Buddhist, Persian, Hebrew, and Egyptian
works-translated into Greek.
The library’s lofty goal was to collect a half-million scrolls and the Ptolemies took serious steps to
accomplish it. Ptolemy I, for example, composed a letter to all the sovereigns and governors he
knew, imploring them “not to hesitate to send him” works by authors of every kind.
The Ptolemies engaged in some unorthodox acquisition methods. Some stories relate that they
confiscated any book not already in the library from passengers arriving in Alexandria. Another
story tells how Ptolemy III (246-222bc) deceived Athenian authorities when they let him borrow
original manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, using silver as collateral. Ptolemy
kept the originals and sent the copies back, letting the authorities keep the silver. More traditional
means included book purchases from the markets of Athens, Rhodes and other Mediterranean cities.
Older copies were the favored acquisitions; the older the better, since they would be considered
more trustworthy. At its height, the library held nearly 750,000 scrolls. There must have been
duplicates since there weren’t that many works.
Much of what is now considered to be literary scholarship began in the Alexandria Library. Funds
from the royal treasury paid the chief librarian and his scholarly staff. Physically, books were not
what we think of today, but rather scrolls, mostly made of papyrus, but sometimes of leather. They
were kept in pigeonholes with titles written on wooden tags hung from their outer ends.
Fires and depredations during the Roman period gradually destroyed the Library. When Julius
Caesar occupied Alexandria in 48bc, Cleopatra urged him to help himself to the books. Obliging, he
shipped tens of thousands to Rome. Marc Antony was rumored to have given Cleopatra the 200,000-
scroll collection of rival library Pergamum to replace Alexandria’s losses.

Library in Rome
By the middle of the second century bc, Rome also boasted rich library resources. Initially comprised
of some scattered private collections, holdings eventually expanded through the spoils of war. Even
Aristotle’s famed collection was among the bounty.

Renaissance of Learning
As Europe emerged from the depths of darkness into the light of learning, its people began to look
to the Greek and Roman artistic and literary classics for inspiration. Many aristocrats of the period
were dedicated to developing their private libraries. Cosimo de Medici of the famous Florentine
family established his own collection, which formed the basis of the Laurentian Library. Also in
Italy, the Vatican Library opened in the 1400s. Accompanying the growth of universities was the
development of university libraries, which, in some cases, were founded on the basis of a personal
donation. For example, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, donated his large collection to Oxford
University in the early 1400s.
Gutenberg’s movable type innovation in the 1400s revolutionized bookmaking. Printed books
replaced handwritten manuscripts and were placed on open shelves.

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Library and its Users

Notes The Golden Age

Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, libraries surged in popularity. They grew as universities developed
and as national, state-supported collections began to appear. Many of these became national libraries.
The ready availability of information on the Internet, and its widespread use, really presents Librarians
with an opportunity, not a threat. Technology Savvy users realize they need help, which Librarians
can provide. Librarians now face difficulties and complicity challenges due to new trends in
information access.
In the present technological Internet era the professionals have to change themselves as the
information profession is being changed. Now information specialists have to work as e-information
resources in which various professional groups are expected to map strategies that lead to produce,
manage, maintain and service the information. Information professional has to work as:
Librarian: In addition to being library manager, they also act as collection development, technical
processors and so on, taking care of information quality.
Information Manager: To meet information need of the user they should know how to manage and
deliver appropriate information services.
Information adviser/instructor: Ensure that user/staff know how to access relevant sources of
information (literacy).
System and Networking: For delivery of information to their users in an appropriate manner develop
and design appropriate systems.

Skills, knowledge, Competencies required for LIS Professionals

The basic goal of library and information profession has always been to provide access to information
to those who need it. The activities realizing this goal have evolved and transformed over the years.
This includes-Available technology, and need of an evolving information society. Information activities
have been guided by the developments in the field of storages, presentation and archiving of
knowledge, collection development and organization of knowledge, information explosion and
computers in information retrieval. Librarian and information professional involved in information
gathering, storage, retrieval and dissemination on one hand and on the other hand the computer
specialists who supports the library and informational professionals in this endeavor. For successful
implementation of Digital Library, it is essential that LIS professionals are well trained and possess
requisite knowledge and skills in this respect.
(I) Knowledge and Skills
Librarians need to know understand:

Knowledge resources (books, journals, i.e., resources, Internet)

Teleological facilities and resources (computer, online catalogues, websites, LANs file servers
etc.)

Financial resources (Budget) Human resources (Skills for manpower training).
(II) Competencies that required possessing in LIS professional

Acceptance of change.

Knowledge of user interaction with knowledge resources.

Provide quality service.

Be adoptive, flexible and resistant.

Be resourceful

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Posses excellent communication skills, constantly update personal knowledge base by keep- Notes
ing in touch with the latest development

Create awareness among the users, make them accept the changes

Be an information management strategist, etc.
(III) Technical Knowledge required

Operating systems-Windows, UNIX, LINUX.

World processing, Graphics, Spread sheet and Presentations.

Database Management Systems including the skills in Bibliographic Database Management
Systems.

General purpose programming, Networking

Web page Development and Content Management

Information Retrieval software for online, CD-ROM and Internet.

Library software packages, acquaintances with Digital Library Tools.
The world of information is undergoing rapid change. An information age at a great turning point
in the history of civilization. The day has arrived when it is most important to learn to access,
analyze apply and evaluate such information. As traditional custodians of information, librarians
need to be aware of the implications of these changes and develop technological and managerial
skills, which will enable them to make effective use of information and to meet their organizations
changing information need.
Development of information technology is playing a crucial role in restructuring of the libraries.
Shift from human dependent operations to machine dependency, mechanization (data processing)
to knowledge processing, stand alone system to network computing, local LAN to wireless access
protocol systems. Document centered information to user (Access) centered information; print media
to electronic (Access) media, data capture methods, human to machine oriented. Library automating
(in-house) to web-enabled services (WAN Access), online information retrieval to CD-ROM databases
to internet. These prolonged shift in application of innovative IT to library and information profession
can be attributed to the changes emanated in the last 2 decades.
The role of librarian has changed in the digital library era. It is, therefore pertinent on the part of the
librarian to acquire new skills required for developing and managing the digital libraries. The library
and information professionals are required to acquire such knowledge and skills as the library is
one of the highly IT influenced service profession. The empowerment of library and information
professionals with IT skills is aimed at providing services that are expected of from the clientele in
the new environment.

Digital age has brought a tremendous change in the way information is stored
and accessed. This has brought about a change in the concept of librarian, their
collection and services. Many new terms viz. Digital Librarian, Libraries without
walls, virtual libraries, are emerging to describe the libraries of digital age.

Mention some of the competencies that required possessing in LIS professional.

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Library and its Users

Notes Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:
4. Who said Aristotle was the first to have put together a collection of books and to have taught
the kings in Egypt how to arrange a library:
(a) Strabo (b) Demetrius
(c) Ashurbanipal (d) Sennacherib.
5. In Italy, the Vatican Library opened in the year:
(a) 1400s (b) 1600s
(c) 1700s (d) 1300s.

1.4 Needs of Information

‘In addition to the factors mentioned by March and Simon, there are two other considerable aspects,
stemming from environmental and organizational dynamics. Firstly, it is not possible to access, collect
and evaluate all environmental information being relevant for taking a certain decision at a reasonable
price, i.e., time and effort. In other words, following a national economic framework, the transaction
cost associated with the information process is too high. Secondly, established organizational rules
and procedures can prevent the taking of the most appropriate decision, i.e., that a sub-optimum
solution is chosen in accordance to organizational rank structure or institutional rules, guidelines
and procedures, an issue that also has been brought forward as a major critique against the principles
of bureaucratic organizations.
According to the Carnegie Mellon School and its followers, information management, i.e., the
organization’s ability to process information is at the core of organizational and managerial
competencies. Consequently, strategies for organization design must be aiming at improved
information processing capability. Jay Galbraith has identified five main organization design
strategies within two categories increased information processing capacity and reduced need for
information processing.
1. Reduction of information processing needs
(a) Environmental management
(b) Creation of slack resources
(c) Creation of self-contained tasks
2. Increasing the organizational information processing capacity
(a) Creation of lateral relations
(b) Vertical information systems

Environmental Management

Instead of adapting to changing environmental circumstances, the organization can seek to modify
its environment. Vertical and horizontal collaboration, i.e., co-operation or integration with other
organizations in the industry value system are typical means of reducing uncertainty. An example of
reducing uncertainty in relation to the prior or demanding stage of the industry system is the concept
of Supplier-Retailer collaboration or Efficient Customer Response.

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Creation of Slack Resources Notes

In order to reduce exceptions, performance levels can be reduced, thus decreasing the information
load on the hierarchy. These additional slack resources, required to reduce information processing in
the hierarchy, represent an additional cost to the organization. The choice of this method clearly
depends on the alternative costs of other strategies.

Creation of Self-contained Tasks

Achieving a conceptual closure of tasks is another way of reducing information processing. In this
case, the task-performing unit has all the resources required to perform the task. This approach is
concerned with task (de-)composition and interaction between different organizational units, i.e.,
organizational and information interfaces.

Creation of Lateral Relations

In this case, lateral decision processes are established that cut across functional organizational units.
The aim is to apply a system of decision subsidiary, i.e. to move decision power to the process, instead
of moving information from the process into the hierarchy for decision-making.

Investment in Vertical Information Systems

Instead of processing information through the existing hierarchical channels, the organization can
establish vertical information systems. In this case, the information flow for a specific task (or set of
tasks) is routed in accordance to the applied business logic, rather than the hierarchical organization.
Following the lateral relations concept, it also becomes possible to employ an organizational form
that is different from the simple hierarchical information. The Matrix organization is aiming at
bringing together the functional and product departmental bases and achieving a balance in
information processing and decision making between the vertical (hierarchical) and the horizontal
(product or project) structure. The creation of a matrix organization can also be considered as
management’s response to a persistent or permanent demand for adaptation to environmental
dynamics, instead of the response to episodic demands.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
6. According to March and Simon, following a national economic framework, the transaction
cost associated with the information process is too high.
7. Jay Galbraith has identified five main organization design strategies within two categories
increased information processing capacity and reduced need for information processing.

1.5 Summary
• A library where access points and house keeping operations are computerized is called an
automated library. The graphic records are still print-on-paper publication.
• The access point as well as the graphic records are in electronic digital form when these elec-
tronic digital libraries are connected via various networks, particularly the INTERNET, this is
called virtual library.

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Library and its Users

Notes • “The digital library is not merely equivalent to a digitized collection with information man-
agement tools. It is also a series of activities that brings together collections, services and
people in support of the full life cycle of creation, dissemination, use and presentation of date,
information and knowledge.
• The resources provided by the digital libraries can be classified into in-house resources and
external resources.
• The basic goal of library and information profession has always been to provide access to
information to those who need it.

1.6 Keywords
Traditional Library : Libraries are where the access points such as, library catalogues as well as library
collections are print based and their management is by and large manual.
Automated Library : A library where access points and housekeeping operations are computerized
is called an automated library.

1.7 Review Questions

1. Write a note on Traditional Library.
2. What is Automated Library?
3. What is electronic library?
4. Define Digital Library.
5. Write the role of Information Manager.
6. What is the function of system and networking?
7. Name some factors Librarians need to know and understand.
8. Analyze the changing role of libraries.
9. Write the types of library resources.
10. What are the Skills, knowledge, competencies required for LIS Professionals?
11. Briefly discuss on Environmental management.
12. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of digital library.
13. Discuss the changing role of library professional in digital age.
14. Explain the needs of information.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. LIBECON 2. automated library
3. digital object 4. (a) 5. (a)
6. True 7. True.

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1.8 Further Readings Notes

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://www.ukoln.ac.uk/services/papers/follett/lesk/paper.html

http://net.educause.edu/ir/library/html/cnc9754/cnc9754.html
http://www.iva.dk/bh/

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Library and its Users Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Notes

Unit 2: Library Information

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

2.1 Definition and its Nature

2.2 Categories of Information Users

2.3 Summary

2.4 Keywords

2.5 Review Questions

2.6 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the definition and its nature
• Know about categories of information users.

Introduction
Information management is the collection and management of information from one or more sources
and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences. This sometimes involves those
who have a stake in, or a right to that information. Management means the organization of and control
over the structure, processing and delivery of information.
Throughout the 1970s this was largely limited to files, file maintenance, and the life cycle
management of paper-based files, other media and records. With the proliferation of information
technology starting in the 1970s, the job of information management took on a new light, and also
began to include the field of Data maintenance. No longer was information management a simple
job that could be performed by almost anyone. An understanding of the technology involved, and
the theory behind it became necessary. As information storage shifted to electronic means, this
became more and more difficult. By the late 1990s when information was regularly disseminated
across computer networks and by other electronic means, network managers, in a sense, became
information managers. Those individuals found themselves tasked with increasingly complex tasks,
hardware and software. With the latest tools available, information management has become a
powerful resource and a large expense for many organizations.

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2.1 Definition and its Nature Notes

Information science is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the analysis,

collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
Practitioners within the field study the application and usage of knowledge in organizations, along
with the interaction between people, organizations and any existing information systems, with the
aim of creating, replacing, improving or understanding information systems. Information science is
often (mistakenly) considered a branch of computer science. However, it is actually a broad,
interdisciplinary field, incorporating not only aspects of computer science, but often diverse fields such
as archival science, cognitive science, commerce, communications, law, library science, musicology,
management, mathematics, philosophy, public policy, and the social sciences.
Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the stakeholders
involved and then applying information and other technologies as needed. In other words, it tackles
systemic problems first rather than individual pieces of technology within that system. In this respect,
information science can be seen as a response to technological determinism, the belief that technology
“develops by its own laws, that it realizes its own potential, limited only by the material resources
available, and must therefore be regarded as an autonomous system controlling and ultimately
permeating all other subsystems of society.” Within information science, attention has been given
in recent years to human–computer interaction, groupware, the semantic web, value sensitive
design, iterative design processes and to the ways people generate, use and find information. Today
this field is called the Field of Information, and there are a growing number of Schools and Colleges
of Information.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... is the collection and management of information from one or more sources.
2. ...... is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the analysis, collection,
classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.

2.2 Categories of Information Users

The users are one type but libraries are different from those of another type. In a public library the
users are mainly children, student’s, housewives, farmers, retired persons, literates and even also
researches. In an academic library the users are students, teachers and researchers, whereas as special
groups of users of whom the library is intended. From what is stated above it can be assumed that
in the public libraries the users are almost heterogeneous and in academic and special libraries the
users are almost homogeneous in nature.

For an effective information service as an information manager, he should ascertain

about the information requirements of his library users.

Information users can be categorized mainly into 4 groups, on the basis of their approach to
information a libraries, they are:
(i) Potential user: One who needs information which can be provided by specific services.
(ii) The expected user: One who is known to have the intention of using certain information
services.

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Library and its Users

Notes (iii) Actual user: One who has actually used an information service regardless of whether he
derived advantages from it or not.
(iv) The beneficiary user: One who derives measurable advantages from information services.
User groups may be divided in a number of ways. They can be divided as administratively into
internal and external users. Another type of classification of user community on the basis of library
service they make use of is the following.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
3. Information users can be categorised mainly into:
(a) 4 groups (b) 3 groups
(c) Two groups (d) One group.
4. One who needs information which can be provided by specific services is called:
(a) Potential user (b) Expected user
(c) Actual user (d) Beneficiary user.

General readers
This type of user group, for example associated with public libraries, generally use light lending
materials.

Subject Readers
This type of user concentrates their use of library materials on subject field they are working or
specializing.

Special Readers
The users placed in this group are those with special needs, the result of disabilities of one kind or
another physical or mental disability may be distinguished.

Non-Readers Users
These are made up of sub groups who make use of library materials, but not reading materials. A
user coming into the library just to borrow a video or audio cassette is the best example of non-
reading user.

What is information users? Explain the different groups of information users.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
5. Subject readers concentrates their use of library materials on subject field they are working
or specializing.
6. Special readers are associated with public libraries.

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 Unit 2: Library Information

2.3 Summary Notes

• Information management is the collection and management of information from one or more
sources and the distribution of that information to one or more audiences.
• Information science is an interdisciplinary science primarily concerned with the analysis,
collection, classification, manipulation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information.
• Information science focuses on understanding problems from the perspective of the
stakeholders involved and then applying information and other technologies as needed.
• The users are one type but libraries are different from those of another type. In a public library
the users are mainly children, student’s, housewives, farmers, retired persons, literates and
even also researches.
• For an effective information service as an information manager, he should ascertain about the
information requirements of his library users.

2.4 Keywords
Potential User : One who needs information which can be provided by specific services.
Expected User : One who is know to have the intention of using certain information services.
Actual User : One who has actually used an information service regardless of whether he derived
advantages from it or not.
Beneficiary User : One who derives measurable advantages from information services.

2.5 Review Questions

1. Write a short note on information management.
2. Define information science.
3. Describe the categories of information users.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Information management 2. Information science 3. (a)
4. (a) 5. True 6. False

2.6 Further Readings

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://web.simmons.edu/~benoit/rc/WhatIsIS-draft1.pdf

www.wikipedia.com

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 15

Library and its Users Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Notes

Unit 3: Library Information Needs of Users

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

3.1 Information Seeking Behavior

3.2 Wilson’s Nested Model of Conceptual Areas

3.3 Summary

3.4 Keywords

3.5 Review Questions

3.6 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Know about the information needs of users
• Understand the information seeking behavior
• Discuss the Wilson’s nested model of conceptual areas.

Introduction
Many disciplines in science are heavily researched, thus topics are changing in a rapid manner. Also,
the literature in science and technology is growing at an exponential rate; therefore, it has become
essential to assess the information needs of the users periodically to customize value-added services
and resources. In a science and technology library, collection development is the third important
function out of five primary functions.
The collection development function entirely depends on the mission and goals of the parent body
in respect to the research, educational, recreational and other day-to-day information requirements
of the users that it serves. It determines the library collection’s scope and depth, and the services
offered. Traditional methods of collection development are: use of librarian or user subject specialists,
user recommendations, and approval plans. The information requirements of users vary with their
educational background, work assignments, time, geography, organization, age, availability of
technological facilities, and other factors. To identify user information needs, librarians conduct
surveys, distribute questionnaires, interview, and also analyze the circulation data, external and

16 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 3: Library Information Needs of Users

internal inter-library loan requests data, and web log data. All these methods help to identify Notes
information needs of users only to some degree, not completely.
RRCAT is a premier research and development organization in the area of lasers, accelerators and
its related disciplines. There are about 500 scientists and engineers engaged in R and D activities,
and 500 scientific/technical support staff. The RRCAT library since its inception is offering various
information services actively to all its users and visitors. ILL is one such service offered to users for
on-demand materials that are not available locally due to the proliferation of material and limited
library budgets. The ILL service is the last of the five main functions of any science and technology
library.
1. The online dictionary for library and information science (ODLIS) defines ILL as, “When
a book or other item needed by a registered borrower is checked out, unavailable for
some other reason, or not owned by the library, a patron may request that it be borrowed
from another library by filling out a printed ILL request form at a service desk, or
electronically via the library’s website. Some libraries also accept ILL requests via e-mail
or by telephone, usually under exceptional circumstances. Materials borrowed on ILL
may usually be renewed on or before the due date”.
2. The term ILL is also referred to as ‘document delivery (DD)’ and ‘resource sharing’. The
term DD is used, rather than ILL, because organizations other than libraries engage in
providing documents, both originals and copies to other organizations.
3. The ILL requests received in the years 2005 and 2006 at RRCAT were analyzed to determine
frequently refer red to journals by the users from those non subscribed journals. The
currency of information sought by the users was also determined by examining the
publication year of all the requested documents.

3.1 Information Seeking Behavior

Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human
and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but yet different from, information
retrieval (IR).

Information Retrieval

Traditionally, IR tools have been designed for IR professionals to enable them to effectively and
efficiently retrieve information from a source. It is assumed that the information exists in the source
and that a well-formed query will retrieve it (and nothing else). It has been argued
that laypersons’ information seeking on the Web is very different from information retrieval as
performed within the IR discourse. Yet, web search engines are built on IR principles. Since the
late 1990s a body of research on how casual users interact with Web search engines has been forming,
but the topic is far from fully understood. IR can be said to be technology-oriented, focusing
on algorithms and issues such as precision and recall.

Information seeking may be understood as a more human-oriented and open-ended

process than information retrieval. In information seeking, one does not know whether
there exists an answer to one’s query, so the process of seeking may provide the
learning required to satisfy one’s information need.

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Library and its Users

Notes In Different Contexts

Much Library and Information Science (LIS) research has focused on the information seeking practices
of practitioners within various fields of professional work. Studies have been carried out into the
information-seeking behaviors of librarians, academics, medical professionals, engineers and
lawyers (among others). Much of this research has drawn on the work done by Leckie, Pettigrew
(now Fisher) and Sylvain, who in 1996 conducted an extensive review of the LIS literature (as well as
the literature of other academic fields) on professionals’ information seeking. The authors proposed
an analytic model of professionals’ information seeking behaviour, intended to be generalizable across
the professions, thus providing a platform for future research in the area. The model was intended to
“prompt new insights... and give rise to more refined and applicable theories of information seeking”
(1996, p. 188). The model has been adapted by Wilkinson (2001) who proposes a model of the
information seeking of lawyers.

Theories of Information Seeking Behavior

A variety of theories of information behavior-e.g. Zipf’s Principle of Least Effort, Brenda Dervin’s
Sense Making, and Elfreda Chatman’s Life in the Round - seek to understand the processes that
surround information seeking.
A review of the literature on information seeking behavior shows that information seeking has
generally been accepted as dynamic and non-linear (Foster, 2005; Kuhlthau 2006). People experience
the information search process as interplay of thoughts, feelings and actions (Kuhlthau, 2006). Donald
O. Case (2007) also wrote a good book that is a review of the literature.
Information seeking has been found to be linked to a variety of interpersonal communication
behaviors beyond question-asking, to include strategies such as candidate answers.
Robinson’s (2010) research suggests that when seeking information at work, people rely on both
other people and information repositories (e.g., documents and databases), and spend similar
amounts of time consulting each (7.8% and 6.4% of work time, respectively; 14.2% in total). However,
the distribution of time among the constituent information seeking stages differs depending on the
source. When consulting other people, people spend less time locating the information source and
information within that source, similar time understanding the information, and more time problem
solving and decision making, than when consulting information repositories. Furthermore, the
research found that people spend substantially more time receiving information passively (i.e.,
information that they have not requested) than actively (i.e., information that they have requested),
and this pattern is also reflected when they provide others with information.

Analyze the information seeking behaviour.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... is a premier research and development organization in the area of lasers, accelerators
and its related disciplines.
2. ...... is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both human and
technological contexts.

18 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 3: Library Information Needs of Users

Notes
3. LIS stands for ...... .
4. ...... research suggests that when seeking information at work, people rely on both other
people and information repositories.

3.2 Wilson’s Nested Model of Conceptual Areas

The concepts of information seeking, information retrieval, and information behaviour are objects of
investigation of information science. Within this scientific discipline a variety of studies has been
undertaken analyzing the interaction of an individual with information sources in case of a
specific information need, task, and context. The research models developed in these studies vary in
their level of scope. Wilson (1999) therefore developed a nested model of conceptual areas, which
visualizes the interrelation of the here mentioned central concepts.

Figure 3.1: Wilson’s Nested Model of Conceptual Areas

Information
behaviour

Information
seeking
behaviour
Information
search behaviour

Wilson defines models of information behavior to be “statements, often in the form of diagrams
that attempt to describe an information-seeking activity, the causes and consequences of that activity,
or the relationships among stages in information-seeking behaviour” (1999: 250).

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
5. Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in context
of ............
(a) Human and Technological (b) Technological
(c) Human (d) None of these.
6. Who developed the nested model of conceptual areas?
(a) Wilson (b) Robinson
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these.

3.3 Summary
• The literature in science and technology is growing at an exponential rate; therefore, it has
become essential to assess the information needs of the users periodically to customize value-
added services and resources.
• The collection development function entirely depends on the mission and goals of the parent
body in respect to the research, educational, recreational and other day-to-day information
requirements of the users that it serves.

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Library and its Users

Notes • Information seeking is the process or activity of attempting to obtain information in both
human and technological contexts. Information seeking is related to, but yet different
from, information retrieval (IR).
• The concepts of information seeking, information retrieval, and information behaviour are
objects of investigation of information science.

3.4 Keywords
ODLIS : Online Dictionary for library and Information Science.
Information Retrieval : IR tools have been designed for IR professionals to enable them to effectively
and efficiently retrieve information from a source.

3.5 Review Questions

1. What is meant by management?
2. What is information system evaluation?
3. Define library survey.
4. Write a paragraph on Information needs of users.
5. Explain the Wilson’s nested model of conceptual areas.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. RRCAT 2. Information seeking
3. Library and Information Science 4. Robinson’s
5. (a) 6. (a)

3.6 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/papers/1999JDoc.html

http://informationr.net/ir/11-4/paper269.html

20 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University Unit 4: Evaluation of Library Sources and Services

Notes

Unit 4: Evaluation of Library Sources and Services

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

4.1 Evolution of Library Science and Services

4.2 Periodicals

4.3 Summary

4.4 Keywords

4.5 Review Questions

4.6 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Discuss the evolution of library science and services
• Know about the periodicals.

Introduction
Evaluation of the performance of library and information systems is one of the major concerns and
an integral part of the library and information systems manager’s job. It is widely recognised as an
important issue, although it has been looked at or defined variously. Many librarian decision makers
need to know about the quality of existing services, they also want to know how well the library
meets stated goals and objectives and information needs of its users, Evaluation provides decision
makers an insights into service, collections and staff which can be used to produce changes and
improve planning.
Evaluation is the process of identifying and collecting data about specific services or activities,
establishing criteria by which their success can be assessed.
Performance evaluation of a library and information system or its components can be required for
different reasons. For example, the evaluation of the performance of library and information systems
and the resulting data could be used to assess how well the system meets its objectives or for
justification of continuance of a service.

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Library and its Users

Notes 4.1 Evolution of Library Science and Services

Library science is an interdisciplinary field that applies the practices, perspectives, and tools of
management, information technology, education, and other areas to libraries; the collection,
organization, preservation, and dissemination of information resources; and the political economy
of information. The first school for library science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia
University in 1887.
Historically, library science has also included archival science. This includes how information
resources are organized to serve the needs of select user groups, how people interact with
classification systems and technology, how information is acquired, evaluated and applied by people
in and outside of libraries as well as cross-culturally, how people are trained and educated for
careers in libraries, the ethics that guide library service and organization, the legal status of libraries
and information resources, and the applied science of computer technology used in documentation
and records management. Academic courses in library science typically include collection
management, information systems and technology, research methods, cataloging and classification,
preservation, reference, statistics and management. Library science is constantly evolving,
incorporating new topics like database management, information architecture and knowledge
management, among others.
There is no generally agreed-upon distinction between the terms library science, librarianship, and
library and information science, and to a certain extent they are interchangeable, perhaps differing
most significantly in connotation. The term library and information science (LIS) is most often used;
most librarians consider it as only a terminological variation, intended to emphasize the scientific
and technical foundations of the subject and its relationship with information science. LIS should
not be confused with information theory, the mathematical study of the concept of information. LIS
can also be seen as an integration of the two fields, library science and information science, which
were separate at one point. Library philosophy has been contrasted with library science as the study
of the aims and justifications of librarianship as opposed to the development and refinement of
techniques.

History
The history of the library, it may be argued, began with the first effort to organize a collection of
information and provide access to that information.

Early History
At Ugarit in Syria excavations have revealed a palace library, temple library, and two private libraries
which dated back to around 1200 BC, containing diplomatic texts as well as poetry and other literary
forms. In the 7th century, King Ashurbanipal of Assyria assembled what is considered the first
systematically collected library at Nineveh; previous collections functioned more as passive archives.
The legendary Library of Alexandria is perhaps the best known example of an early library,
flourishing in the 3rd century BC and possibly inspired by Demetrius Phalereus.

Ancient Information Retrieval

One of the curators of the imperial library in the Han Dynasty is believed to have been the first to
establish a library classification system and the first book notation system. At this time the library
catalog was written on scrolls of fine silk and stored in silk bags.

22 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 4: Evaluation of Library Sources and Services

Self Assessment Notes

Fill in the blanks:

1. The first school for library science was founded by Melvil Dewey at Columbia University in
the year ...... .
2. In the 7th century ...... is considered the first systematically collected library at Nineveh.
3. One of the curators of the imperial library in the ...... is believed to have been the first to
establish a library classification system and the first book notation system.

19th Century
Thomas Jefferson, whose library at Monticello consisted of thousands of books, devised a
classification system inspired by the Baconian method, which grouped books more or less by subject
rather than alphabetically, as it was previously done. Jefferson’s collection became the nucleus of
the first national collection of the United States when it was transferred to Congress after a fire
destroyed the Congressional Library during the War of 1812. The Jefferson collection was the start
of what we now know as the Library of Congress. The first textbook on library science was published
1808 by Martin Schrettinger, followed by books of Johann Georg Seizinger and others.

20th Century
In the English speaking world the term “library science” seems to have been used for the first time
in a book in 1916 in the “Punjab Library Primer” written by Asa Don Dickinson and published by
the University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan. This university was the first in Asia to begin teaching
‘library science’. The “Punjab Library Primer” was the first textbook on library science published in
English anywhere in the world. The first textbook in the United States was the “Manual of Library
Economy” which was published in 1929. Later, the term was used in the title of S. R. Ranganathan’s
The Five Laws of Library Science, published in 1931, and in the title of Lee Pierce Butler’s 1933
book, An introduction to library science (University of Chicago Press). Butler’s new approach
advocated research using quantitative methods and ideas in the social sciences with the aim of
using librarianship to address society’s information needs. This research agenda went against the
more procedure-based approach of “library economy,” which was mostly confined to practical
problems in the administration of libraries. While Ranganathan’s approach was philosophical it
was tied more to the day-to-day business of running a library. A reworking of Raganathan’s laws
was published in 1995 which removes the constant references to books. Michael Gorman’s Five
New Laws of Librarianship, incorporate knowledge and information in all their forms, allowing for
digital information to be considered.

In more recent years, with the growth of digital technology, the field has been
greatly influenced by information science concepts. Although a basic
understanding is critical to library research and practical work (for example in
the use of online social networks by libraries), the area of information science
has remained largely distinct both in training and in research interests.

Explain the evolution of library science and services in 20th century.

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 23

Library and its Users

Notes This Evaluation was asked both to look at the efficiency and effectiveness of how the Library has
achieved its developments, along with a strategic consideration of the organizational and operational
environment within which the Library can best innovate for the future needs of its user community.
The specific evaluation objectives were to:
• Assess the current services of the Library in view of its place in the current global information
environment;
• Provide the Library with a strategic focus for the expansion of documentation, and the quality
of direct services for the target user populations;
• Define the technical and human resources, and budget that would allow the Library to achieve
these goals. In addressing the objectives the evaluation methodology used the following
information gathering activities:
• An Online Survey, and Focus Groups where users and non-users were able to provide opinions
about their information needs, (for users) their experiences when using Library services, and
their recommendations about how the Library could develop services to meet their information
needs;
• Interviews with an extensive range of Library staff, and with information specialists in other
Commission Libraries and Information Centers.
• Desk Research including documentation/Information provided by the Central Library and
material gathered to ascertain how other institutional libraries were developing their services.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
4. The first textbook on library science was published in the year:
(a) 1808 (b) 1916
(c) 1812 (d) 1807.
5. Which university was the first in Asia to begin teaching library science:
(a) University of Punjab (b) University of Delhi
(c) University of Carneige (d) None of these.
6. The Five Laws of Library Science, published in the year:
(a) 1931 (b) 1808
(c) 1916 (d) 1925.
7. A reworking of Raganathan’s laws was published, which removes the constant references
to books in the year:
(a) 1995 (b) 1931
(c) 1916 (d) 1808.

4.2 Periodicals
Periodicals include newspapers, journals and magazines, and collections and bulletins published
in series. Serials and yearbooks are grouped together with periodicals in library classifications,
catalogs, and holdings. The chief characteristics of periodicals are their regularity and continuity of

24 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 4: Evaluation of Library Sources and Services

publication; an identical name on all issues; and successive numbering of volumes, issues, and Notes
years of publication. Periodicals usually consist of a collection of articles, which may range from a
single page story in a magazine to a 40 page study in a scholarly journal. Periodicals have an editor,
a combined editor and publisher, or an editorial staff headed by an editor in chief.
Periodicals are not limited to the print format. Some periodicals are published as online, digitized
information residing in a remote database or in CD-ROM or other optical disc format.
Journals and magazines are published weekly, once every two weeks, monthly, once every two
months, or quarterly. Years of publication are numbered successively, and the issues are composed
of sewn sheets. Newspapers are printed at intervals generally ranging from once a day to once a
month. Most are published daily, triweekly, or weekly; UNESCO defines a daily newspaper as one
published at least four times a week.

Newspapers are numbered successively and printed in newspaper format on folded

sheets. Bulletins are published up to once a month and have a format smaller than
that of most journals.

The Advantages of Using Periodicals

• Because they are published frequently, periodicals are the best sources for current information.
• Current events are usually discussed in periodicals long before they become the subject of a
book.
• Periodicals often contain information on the latest trends, products, research and theories.
• Periodicals are the best source for ephemeral or very specialized information.
• Periodicals exist for every field and every interest, providing access to a variety of hard-to
find information.
• Due to the shorter length of periodical articles, more topics may be covered within one volume
of a periodical than in one book.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
8. Periodicals include newspapers, journals and magazines, and collections and bulletins
published in series.
9. UNESCO defines a daily newspaper as one published at least four times a week.

4.3 Summary
• Evaluation of the performance of library and information systems is one of the major concerns
and an integral part of the library and information systems manager’s job.
• Evaluation is the process of identifying and collecting data about specific services or activities,
establishing criteria by which their success can be assessed.
• The history of the library, it may be argued, began with the first effort to organize a collection
of information and provide access to that information.

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Library and its Users

Notes • Periodicals are not limited to the print format. Some periodicals are published as online,
digitized information residing in a remote database or in CD-ROM or other optical disc format.

4.4 Keywords
LIS : Library and Information Science.
Periodicals : Periodicals include newspapers, journals and magazines.

4.5 Review Questions

1. What do you mean by evolution of library science and services? Explain.
2. Explain the evolution of library science and services in 19th century.
3. Write a short note on periodicals.
4. Discuss the advantages of using periodicals.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. 1887 2. King Ashurbanipal of Assyria assembled
3. Han Dynasty 4. (a)
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (a)
8. True 9. True.

4.6 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodical_literature

http://www.arkgroupaustralia.com.au/
http://www.uff.br/ppgci/editais/historyofis.pdf

26 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University Unit 5: Library Catalogues

Notes

Unit 5: Library Catalogues

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

5.1 Catalog Card

5.2 Effectiveness

5.3 Summary

5.4 Keywords

5.5 Review Questions

5.6 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Know about the library catalog
• Discuss the different types of catalog
• Understand the effectiveness of cost benefit.

Introduction
A library catalog (or library catalogue) is a register of all bibliographic items found in a library or
group of libraries, such as a network of libraries at several locations. A bibliographic item can be any
information entity (e.g., books, computer files, graphics, regalia, cartographic materials, etc.) that is
considered library material (e.g., a single novel in an anthology), or a group of library materials (e.g.,
atrilogy), or linked from the catalog (e.g., a webpage) as far as it is relevant to the catalog and to the
users (patrons) of the library.
The card catalog was a familiar sight to library users for generations, but it has been effectively
replaced by the online public access catalog (OPAC). Some still refer to the online catalog as a “card
catalog”. Some libraries with OPAC access still have card catalogs on site, but these are now strictly
a secondary resource and are seldom updated. Many of the libraries that have retained their physical
card catalog post a sign advising the last year that the card catalog was updated. Some libraries
have eliminated their card catalog in favour of the OPAC for the purpose of saving space for other
use, such as additional shelving.

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Library and its Users

Notes Charles Ammi Cutter made the first explicit statement regarding the objectives of a bibliographic
system in his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalog in 1876. According to Cutter, those objectives
were
1. To enable a person to find a book of which either (Identifying objective)
• the author
• the title
• the subject
• the category is known.
2. To show what the library has (Collocating objective)
• by a given author
• on a given subject
• in a given kind of literature
3. To assist in the choice of a book (Evaluating objective)
• as to its edition (bibliographically)
• as to its character (literary or topical)
These objectives can still be recognized in more modern definitions formulated throughout the 20th
century. 1960/61 Cutter’s objectives were revised by Lubetzky and the Conference on Cataloging
Principles (CCP) in Paris.

The latest attempt to describe a library catalog’s goals and functions was made in
1998 with Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) which defines
four user tasks: find, identify, select, and obtain.

5.1 Catalog Card

Main Entry e.g.,

Arif, Abdul Majid.

Political structure in a changing Pakistani
villages / by Abdul Majid and Basharat Hafeez
Andaleeb. — 2nd ed. — Lahore : ABC Press, 1985.
xvi, 367p. : ill. ; 22 cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 969-8612-02-8 (hbk.)

Types
Traditionally, there are the following types of catalog:
• Author card: a formal catalog, sorted alphabetically according to the authors’ or editors’ names
of the entries.

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 Unit 5: Library Catalogues

• Title catalog: a formal catalog, sorted alphabetically according to the title of the entries. Notes
• Dictionary catalog: a catalog in which all entries (author, title, subject, series) are interfiled in
a single alphabetical order. This was the primary form of card catalog in North American
libraries just prior to the introduction of the computer-based catalog.
• Keyword catalog: a subject catalog, sorted alphabetically according to some system of key-
words.
• Mixed alphabetic catalog forms: sometimes, one finds a mixed author/title, or an author/
title/keyword catalog.
• Systematic catalog: a subject catalog, sorted according to some systematic subdivision of sub-
jects. Also called a classified catalog.
• Shelf list catalog: a formal catalog with entries sorted in the same order as bibliographic
items are shelved. This catalog may also serve as the primary inventory for the library.
Library catalogs originated as manuscript lists, arranged by format (folio, quarto, etc.) or in a rough
alphabetical arrangement by author. Printed catalogs, sometimes called dictionary catalogs enabled
scholars outside a library to gain an idea of its contents. These would sometimes be interleaved
with blank leaves on which additions could be recorded, or bound as guard books in which slips of
paper were bound in for new entries. Slips could also be kept loose in cardboard or tin boxes, stored
on shelves. The first card catalogs appeared in the nineteenth century, enabling much more flexibility,
and towards the end of the twentieth century the OPAC was developed.
• c. 245 BC: Callimachus is considered the first bibliographer and is the one that organized the
library by authors and subjects. The Pinakes was the first ever library catalogue. Variations
on this system were used in libraries until the late 1800s when Melvil Dewey developed
the Dewey Decimal Classification in 1876, which is still in use today.
• c. 800: Library catalogues are introduced in the House of Wisdom and other medieval
Islamic libraries where books are organized into specific genres and categories.
• 1595: Nomenclator of Leiden University Library appears the first printed catalog of an insti-
tutional library.
• 1674: Thomas Hyde’s catalog for the Bodleian Library.
More about the early history of library catalogs has been collected in 1956 by Strout.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... made the first explicit statement regarding the objectives of a bibliographic system in
his Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalog in 1876.
2. ...... is considered the first bibliographer and is the one that organized the library by authors
and subjects.
3. ...... appears the first printed catalog of an institutional library.

Cataloging Rules
Cataloging (or cataloguing) rules have been defined to allow for consistent cataloging of various
library materials across several persons of a cataloging team and across time. Users can use them to
clarify how to find an entry and how to interpret the data in an entry. Cataloging rules prescribe →

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 29

Library and its Users

Notes which information from a bibliographic item is included in the entry; → how this information is
presented on a catalog card or in a cataloging record; → how the entries should be sorted in the
catalog. The larger a collection, the more elaborate cataloging rules are needed. Users cannot and do
not want to examine hundreds of catalog entries or even dozens of library items to find the one item
they need.
Currently, most cataloging rules are similar to, or even based on, the International Standard
Bibliographic Description(ISBD), a set of rules produced by the International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions (IFLA) to describe a wide range of library materials. These rules
organize the bibliographic description of an item in the following areas: title and statement of
responsibility (author or editor), edition, material specific details (for example, the scale of a map),
publication and distribution, physical description (for example, number of pages), series, notes,
and standard number (ISBN). The most commonly used set of cataloging rules in the English speaking
world are the Anglo-American Cataloguing Rules, 2nd Edition, or AACR2 for short. In the German-
speaking world there exists the Regeln für die alphabetische Katalogisierung, abbreviated RAK.
AACR2 has been translated into many languages, however, for use around the world. AACR2
provides rules for descriptive cataloging only and does not touch upon subject cataloging.
Library items that are written in a foreign script are, in some cases, transliterated to the script of the
catalog.
Cataloging terms
• Main entry: Generally refers to the first author named on the item. Additional authors are
added as “added entries.” In cases where no clear author is named, the title of the work is
considered the main entry.

Library Sorting

In a title catalog, one can distinguish two sort orders:

• In the grammatical sort order (used mainly in older catalogs), the most important word of the
title is the first sort term. The importance of a word is measured by grammatical rules; for
example, the first noun may be defined to be the most important word.
• In the mechanical sort order, the first word of the title is the first sort term. Most new catalogs
use this scheme, but still include a trace of the grammatical sort order: they neglect an article
(The, A, etc.) at the beginning of the title.
The grammatical sort order has the advantage that often, the most important word of the title is also
a good keyword (question 3), and it is the word most users remember first when their memory is
incomplete. However, it has the disadvantage that many elaborate grammatical rules are needed,
so that only expert users may be able to search the catalog without help from a librarian.
In some catalogs, person’s names are standardized, i.e., the name of the person is always (cataloged
and) sorted in a standard form, even if it appears differently in the library material. This
standardization is achieved by a process called authority control. An advantage of the authority
control is that it is easier to answer question 2 (which works of some author does the library have?).
On the other hand, it may be more difficult to answer question 1 (does the library have some specific
material?) if the material spells the author in a peculiar variant. For the cataloguer, it may incur
(too) much work to check whether Smith, J. is Smith, John or Smith, Jack.
For some works, even the title can be standardized. The technical term for this is uniform title. For
example, translations and re editions are sometimes sorted under their original title. In many catalogs,
parts of the Bible are sorted under the standard name of the book(s) they contain. The plays of
William Shakespeare are another frequently cited example of the role played by a uniform title in
the library catalog.

30 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 5: Library Catalogues

Many complications about alphabetic sorting of entries arise. Some examples: Notes

• Some languages know sorting conventions that differ from the language of the catalog. For
example, some Dutch catalogs sort IJ as Y. Should an English catalog follow this suit? And
should a Dutch catalog sort non-Dutch words the same way?
• Some titles contain numbers, for example 2001: A Space Odyssey. Should they be sorted as
numbers, or spelled out as Two thousand and one?
• de Balzac, Honoré or Balzac, Honoré de? Ortega y Gasset, José or Gasset, José Ortega y?
For a fuller discussion, see collation
In a subject catalog, one has to decide on which classification system to use. The cataloguer will
select appropriate subject headings for the bibliographic item and a unique classification number
(sometimes known as a “call number”) which is used not only for identification but also for the
purposes of shelving, placing items with similar subjects near one another, which aids in browsing
by library users, who are thus often able to take advantage of serendipity in their search process.

Analyze the card cataloguing rules.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
4. A formal catalog, sorted alphabetically according to the authors’ or editors’ names of the
entries is called:
(a) Author card (b) Title catalog
(c) Dictionary catalogue (d) None of these.
5. IFLA stands for:
(a) International Federation of Library Association
(b) International Federation of Laboratory Association
(c) International Federation of Laboratory Associates
(d) International Federation of Law Association.

5.2 Effectiveness

Cost benefit/cost effectiveness studies

Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative costs
and outcomes (effects) of two or more courses of action. Cost-effectiveness analysis is distinct from cost-
benefit analysis, which assigns a monetary value to the measure of effect. Cost-effectiveness analysis
is often used in the field of health services, where it may be inappropriate to monetize health effect.
Typically the CEA is expressed in terms of a ratio where the denominator is a gain in health from a
measure (years of life, premature births averted, sight-years gained) and the numerator is the cost
associated with the health gain. The most commonly used outcome measure is quality-adjusted life
years (QALY). Cost-utility analysis is similar to cost-effectiveness analysis.

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Library and its Users

Notes General application

The concept of cost effectiveness is applied to the planning and management of many types of organized
activity. In the acquisition of military tanks, for example, competing designs are compared not only
for purchase price, but also for such factors as their operating radius, top speed, rate of fire, armor
protection, and caliber and armor penetration of their guns. If a tank’s performance in these areas is
equal or even slightly inferior to its competitor, but substantially less expensive and easier to produce,
military planners may select it as more cost effective than the competitor. Conversely, if the difference
in price is near zero, but the more costly competitor would convey an enormous battlefield advantage
through special ammunition, radar fire control and laser range finding, enabling it to destroy enemy
tanks accurately at extreme ranges, military planners may choose it instead—based on the same cost
effectiveness principle.
Cost effectiveness analysis is also applied to many other areas of human activity, including
the economics of automobile usage.

CEA in pharmacoeconomics

In the context of pharmacoeconomics, the cost-effectiveness of a therapeutic or preventive intervention

is the ratio of the cost of the intervention to a relevant measure of its effect. Cost refers to the resource
expended for the intervention, usually measured in monetary terms such as dollars or pounds. The
measure of effects depends on the intervention being considered. Examples include the number of
people cured of a disease, the mm Hg reduction in diastolic blood pressure and the number of
symptom-free days experienced by a patient. The selection of the appropriate effect measure should
be based on clinical judgment in the context of the intervention being considered.
A special case of CEA is cost-utility analysis, where the effects are measured in terms of years of full
health lived, using a measure such as quality-adjusted life years or disability-adjusted life years.
Cost-effectiveness is typically expressed as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER), the ratio
of change in costs to the change in effects.
A complete compilation of cost-utility analyses in the peer reviewed medical literature is available
from the Cost-Effectiveness Analysis Registry website.
A 1995 study of the cost-effectiveness of over 500 life-saving medical interventions found that the
median cost per intervention was $42,000 per life-year saved. A 2006 systematic review found that
industry-funded studies often concluded with cost effective ratios below $20,000 per QALY and
low quality studies and those conducted outside the US and EU were less likely to be below this
threshold. While the two conclusions of this article may indicate that industry-funded ICER measures
are lower methodological quality than those published by non-industry sources, there is also a
possibility that, due to the nature of retrospective or other non-public work, publication bias may
exist rather than methodology biases. There may be incentive for an organization not to develop or
publish an analysis that does not demonstrate the value of their product. Additionally, peer reviewed
journal articles should have a strong and defendable methodology, as that is the expectation of the
peer-review process.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
6. Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative
costs and outcomes (effects) of two or more courses of action.
7. The concept of cost effectiveness is applied to the planning and management of many types
of organized activity.

32 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 5: Library Catalogues

8. Cost-effectiveness is typically expressed as an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER). Notes

9. A 1996 study of the cost-effectiveness of over 500 life-saving medical interventions found
that the median cost per intervention was $42,000 per life-year saved.

5.3 Summary
• The card catalog was a familiar sight to library users for generations, but it has been effec-
tively replaced by the online public access catalog (OPAC).
• The latest attempt to describe a library catalog’s goals and functions was made in 1998
with Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records (FRBR) which defines four user tasks:
find, identify, select, and obtain.
• Cataloging (or cataloguing) rules have been defined to allow for consistent cataloging of vari-
ous library materials across several persons of a cataloging team and across time.
• Cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) is a form of economic analysis that compares the relative
costs and outcomes (effects) of two or more courses of action. Cost-effectiveness analysis is
distinct from cost-benefit analysis, which assigns a monetary value to the measure of effect.
• Cost effectiveness analysis is also applied to many other areas of human activity, including
the economics of automobile usage.

5.4 Keywords
IFLA : International Federation of Library Association.
ISBD : International Standard Bibliographic Description.

5.5 Review Questions

1. What is the shelf list catalog?
2. Define the systematic catalog.
3. Which is the first ever cataloging?
4. Explain the types of card catalogue.
5. Write in detail library sorting method.
6. Discuss in detail library catalogues.
7. Explain the Charles Ammi Cutter bibliographic system.
8. Examine the cost effectiveness analysis.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Charles Ammi Cutter 2. Callimachus
3. Nomenclator of Leiden University Library 4. (a)
5. (a) 6. True 7. True
8. True 9. False.

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Library and its Users

Notes 5.6 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://www.library.illinois.edu/rex/guides/cardcat/index.html

http://files.dcp2.org/pdf/PIH/PIH03.pdfs
http://www.ehow.com/info_8140399_library-types-cards-card-catalog.html

34 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University Unit 6: Library Surveys

Notes

Unit 6: Library Surveys

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

6.1 Library Surveys—Purpose and Uses

6.2 Summary

6.3 Keywords

6.4 Review Questions

6.5 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand the meaning of library surveys
• Know about the library surveys—purpose and uses.

Introduction
As the geo scientific activities of the organization increased, output of geosciences literature also
increased, resulting in natural outcome of series of publications like Memoirs (1856), Records (1868),
Palaeontologia Indica (1861) and other miscellaneous publications. Besides, a number of Indian
geological literatures were also published in different periodicals of India and abroad. Therefore,
collection of the library grew rapidly in that period and number increased to 23,000 in 1885.
International activities by GSI include some landmark events, which helped in recognition of GSIs
contribution in the field of geology. Mention may be made about the organization of the 22nd
International Geological Congress, which was held in Delhi in 1964 for the first time in Asia.
Subsequently a number of International Seminars were organized by the International Division of
GSI, the most important being the International Gondwana Symposium in Calcutta and the
International Himalayan Geology Conference at Delhi in 1976. International Division also organized
the Fourth South Asia Geological Congress (GEOSAS-IV) at New Delhi in November 2002.

LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY 35

Library and its Users

Notes

From the very inception, library was getting due importance so that “Accession” to
the library was included as a distinct item in the first Record of Geological Survey of
India (1868) and was continued every year. The collection was developing so rapidly
that Mr. Bion, the Librarian had to compile in 1888 a complete catalogue of the library
holding of Geological Survey of India.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. 22nd International Geological Congress, was held in Delhi in the year ...... .
2. International Division organized the Fourth South Asia Geological Congress (GEOSAS-IV)
at New Delhi in November ...... .

6.1 Library Surveys—Purpose and Uses

The academic library is the nerve centre or the hub around which scholarship revolves. It is an
indispensable instrument for intellectual development. A well stocked academic library is a storehouse
of information, or a record of human experience to which users may turn to for data or information.
Jubb and Green (2007) observe that academic libraries have for centuries played critically important
roles in supporting research in all subjects and disciplines within their host universities or colleges.
Opara (2001) posits that the library stands in the same relationship to the society as the memory of an
individual by making available and accessible to its users information required for teaching and
independent study. The main purpose of an academic library as stated by Aina (2004) is to support
the objectives of an academic environment in the areas of learning, teaching, research, and service.
Oyesiku and Oduwole (2004) assert that in academic communities, libraries are indispensable. Guskin
(1996) notes that the use of university libraries promotes active learning, thus contributing to students
ability to think critically and work well independently or in group. An academic environment without
a library is tantamount to a person without a brain. It would be pertinent to discover whether
academic libraries are indeed living up to their objectives. The effectiveness and efficiency of services
provided in academic libraries are mainly determined by library users. Behling and Cudd (1967)
assert that the library user is regarded as the most logical source to determine whether the library is
playing its role satisfactorily or not.
Perera (2005) submits that satisfying user needs is essential to the management of libraries. The
management staff of a library should be aware of the current needs of their users, which may vary
from one library to another as well as from time to time. Therefore, carrying out regular surveys on
user needs at regular intervals on various aspects of library usage will be an invaluable guide in
determining the future directions of library developments. Popoola (2001) observes that information
availability does not mean accessibility and use and that academic libraries should stimulate primary
demand for their products and services. This view is upheld by Mason (2010), who opines that
librarians must be sympathetic and helpful to all students on the one hand and that on the other
hand, students must be aware that librarians and faculty members are there to instruct and encourage
their intellectual odyssey and should be seen as facilitators.
Several authors have written on the use of academic library. Amkpa (2000) in his study of the use of
the University of Maiduguri Library discovered that a majority of students did not use the library
effectively because they did not use the library catalogues. In a study on students and faculty use of

36 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 6: Library Surveys

academic libraries in Nigeria, with particular reference to Delta State University, Okiy (2000) found Notes
that respondents used books more than other materials and that they browsed the shelves to locate
these materials. Williams (1992) and Julien (2000), on the other hand, observed that regular library
users are active learners who participate more in class, and read, write and study more. In a similar
study on the use of Olabisi Onabanjo University Libraries, Oyesiku and Oduwole (2004) discovered
that male students used the library more frequently than their female counterparts.
Ugah (2001) found out that textbooks account for most library visits. Don (2006) discovered that
library computer access is utilized by students far more than faculty, while interlibrary loan services
are used more by faculty members. He also noted that both undergraduates and faculty members
appeared to be confident about finding needed print materials and accessing electronic resources at
their institutions’ libraries. It is evident that quite a few studies have been carried out on the use of
academic libraries. This paper aims to reveal how the Covenant University Library has been used
by its faculty and students.

Explain the main purpose of academic library.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
3. The main purpose of an academic library is to support the objectives of an academic envi-
ronment in the areas of learning, teaching, research, and service is stated by:
(a) Aina (b) Jubh
(c) Amkpa (d) Oye siku.
4. Who submits that satisfying user needs is essential to the management of libraries:
(a) Perera (b) Opara
(c) Popoola (d) Mason.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
5. Williams (1992) and Julien (2000), observed that regular library users are active learners
who participate more in class, and read, write and study more.
6. Amkpa (2000) in his study of the use of the University of Maiduguri Library discovered that
a majority of students did not use the library effectively because they did not use the library
catalogues.

6.2 Summary
• As the geo scientific activities of the organization increased, output of geosciences literature
also increased, resulting in natural outcome of series of publications like Memoirs (1856),
Records (1868), Palaeontologia Indica (1861) and other miscellaneous publications.

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Library and its Users

Notes • International activities by GSI include some landmark events, which helped in recognition of
GSIs contribution in the field of geology.
• The academic library is the nerve centre or the hub around which scholarship revolves. It is
an indispensable instrument for intellectual development. A well stocked academic library is
a storehouse of information, or a record of human experience to which users may turn to for
data or information.

6.3 Keywords
Academic Library : Academic library is a storehouse of information.
GSI : Geological Survey of India.

6.4 Review Questions

1. Write a short note on academic library.
2. What is library survey?
3. Explain the purpose and uses of library survey.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. 1964 2. 2002 3. (a)
4. (a) 5. True 6. True.

6.5 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://skyways.lib.ks.us/pathway/cameo/chap7.html

http://www.daisy.org/projects/

38 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University Unit 7: Planning Surveys

Notes
Unit 7: Planning Surveys

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

7.1 Use of Planning Surveys

7.2 Collecting Information Processing

7.3 Analysis of Data Interpretation

7.4 Summary

7.5 Keywords

7.6 Review Questions

7.7 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Know about the planning surveys
• Understand the Collecting Information Processing
• Discuss the Analysis of Data Interpretation.

Introduction
The C.F. Goodwin Public Library, in Royse City, is completing a Three Year Strategic Plan
(2012-2015) and is offering Royse City Residents the opportunity to have a say in programs and
materials the Library offers, to make sure the Library remains a vital, well-used community service.
Royse City residents of all ages are encouraged to complete this survey, including multiple members
of households.

7.1 Use of Planning Surveys

1. How do you, or would you, likes to use the library? (Select all that apply.)
• Check out books
• Check out music
• Check out movies

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Library and its Users

Notes • Check out audiobooks

• Study or research
• Download E-books and/or audiobooks
• Use public computers
• Use electronic resources
• Use photocopier/fax
• Read newspapers or magazines
• Use public meeting room
• Meet with friends
• Attend adult programs
• Attend youth programs
• Attend free classes
• Watch free movies
2. The C.F. Goodwin Library’s current hours are Mon & Tues 11-8, Wed and Thurs 11-6, Fri
11-5, Sat 12-4. If funding were available for extended hours, which of the following would
you be most likely to use?
The C.F. Goodwin Library’s current hours are Mon and Tues 11-8, Wed and Thurs 11-6, Fri 11-5, Sat
12-4. If funding were available for extended hours, which of the following would you be most likely
to use? Would recommend no change in hours
• Weekday and Saturday morning (open at 10:00)
• Friday and Saturday afternoon (open until 6:00)
• Sunday 1-5
3. Which of the following Library sponsored adult programs would you be interested in
attending? (Select all that apply.)
Which of the following Library sponsored adult programs would you be interested in attending?
(Select all that apply.) Book club
• Personal investment series
• Travel series
• Elder care series
• Language classes
• Cooking classes
• Cultural events
• Career counseling
• Other (please specify)
• Nature, gardening series
• Music, lectures, performances
• Film discussion series
• Computer classes
• Citizenship classes
• Parenting classes
• Health education

40 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 7: Planning Surveys

4. Which of the following Library sponsored teen programs would you be interested in Notes
attending? (Select all that apply.)
• Gaming (Wii, Kinects)
• Crafts
• Local band performances
• Anime club
• Other (please specify)
• Tutoring
• Teen advisory group
• Board games
• Creative arts
5. Which of the following Library sponsored Family/youth programs would you be interested
in attending? (Select all that apply.)
• After school crafts
• Summer reading programs
• Family storytime
• Other (please specify)
• Music programs
• Storytelling
• Grade school book club
6. Currently preschool storytime is offered on Wednesdays and Fridays at 11:00 a.m., and
Family storytime at 6:30 p.m. on Tuesdays. What other times would you be interested in
attending storytimes?
After school
• Monday evenings
• Monday mornings
• Tuesday mornings
• Weekday afternoons
• Saturday afternoons
7. If you have visited the Library in the past 6 months, please mark all the areas in which
you think the Library can improve. (Select all that apply.)
• More study room
• More study carrels
• More storytime/craft space
• More study tables
• More meeting areas
• More information books
• More popular fiction
• More audiobooks

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Library and its Users

Notes • More movies

• More programs
• More public computers
• Other (please specify)
8. If you haven’t used the Library in the last 12 months, please tell us why. (Select all that
apply.)
• Limited time
• Homebound
• Prefer other activities over reading
• Library not open convenient hours
• Disagreement with Library policies
• Acquire reading materials elsewhere
• No transportation
• Library not conveniently located
• Owe fines to the Library
• Library doesn’t have the materials I want
• Poor service
• Other (please specify).

7.2 Collecting Information Processing

Library Collection Development is the process of meeting the information needs of the people in a
timely and economical manner using information resources locally held, as well as from other
organization.
Collections are developed by librarians and library staff by buying or otherwise acquiring materials
over a period of time, based on assessment of the information needs of the library’s users.
In addition to ongoing materials acquisition, library collection development includes:
• the creation of policies to guide material selection
• replacement of worn or lost materials
• removal (weeding) of materials no longer needed in the collection
• planning for new collections or collection areas
• cooperative decision-making with other libraries or within library consortia.

Examine the collecting information processing in library.

42 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 7: Planning Surveys

Self Assessment Notes

Fill in the blanks:

1. ...... is the process of meeting the information needs of the people in a timely and economical
manner using information resources locally held, as well as from other organization.
2. Collections are developed by ...... by buying or otherwise acquiring materials over a period
of time, based on assessment of the information needs of the library’s users.

7.3 Analysis of Data Interpretation

Library Interpretation process

Figure 7.1

OCL Editor OCL Evaluator

Grammar Library
file file

Library parsing

Library parse tree

Library OCL OCL

interpretation expressions parsing

model OCL
instances parse tree

OCL
OCL
expression
interpretation
results

Result

In the library interpretation process, depicted in above, two parts are considered. The first one is
related to the library concept and is in the scope of the OCL Editor functionality. The second one is
related to the interpretation of standard OCL and is in the scope of the OCL Evaluator functionality.
As mentioned in the architecture description, the OCL Evaluator uses Eclipse OCL. For the sake of
simplicity this fact is neglected in the below description.
The interpretation process starts with two input files used in the OCL Editor. The first one is the
grammar file with the definition of the libraries’ concrete syntax. The second one is a library file
with a library to be interpreted. The input library is parsed based on the grammar and an appropriate

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Library and its Users

Notes parse tree is obtained. Tokens related to standard OCL are sent to the OCL Evaluator together with
model instances. In the OCL Evaluator, OCL-expression-parsing and-interpretation take place, and
the results are sent back to the OCL Editor. In the OCL Editor the results from the OCL Evaluator are
used to obtain the complete interpretation of the input library.

Library Presentation

The Library of the Development Centre participated in the 75th World Library and Information
Congress organized by the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA),
this summer in Québec, Canada.
This year’s IFLA Congress focused on “Libraries without borders: Navigating towards global
understanding” and brought together 4500 professionals, from libraries, information technology
and scientific publishing firms around the world. Participants learned about the latest trends in
digital library services, innovation, heritage preservation, training and continuing education.
Michele Girard, librarian at the Development Centre, presented the new intranet library site and
the Centre’s most recent flagship publications. The new Library intranet site, based on a Wiki platform
provides easy access and exchange of knowledge between OECD professionals and the Development
Centre’s library. The Wiki site, enables speedy and easy access to the library’s numerous digital
resources and was rated by IFLA participants as an outstanding innovative model.

Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:

3. IFLA stands for:
(a) International Federation of Library Association
(b) International Federation of Laboratory Association
(c) International Federation of Library Assembly
(d) International Foundation of Library Association.
4. Who was the librarian at the Development Centre, presented the new intranet library site
and the Centre’s most recent flagship publications?
(a) Michele Girard (b) Jubb
(c) Green (d) None of these.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
5. The Library of the Development Centre participated in the 75th World Library and Informa-
tion Congress organized by the International Federation of Library Associations and Insti-
tutions (IFLA).
6. In the OCL Evaluator, OCL-expression-parsing and-interpretation take place, and the results
are sent back to the OCL Editor.

7.4 Summary
• Library Collection Development is the process of meeting the information needs of the people
in a timely and economical manner using information resources locally held, as well as from
other organization.

44 LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY

 Unit 7: Planning Surveys

• Collections are developed by librarians and library staff by buying or otherwise acquiring Notes
materials over a period of time, based on assessment of the information needs of the library’s
users.
• The interpretation process starts with two input files used in the OCL Editor. The first one is
the grammar file with the definition of the libraries’ concrete syntax. The second one is a
library file with a library to be interpreted.

7.5 Keywords
OCL Editor : Related to the library concept.
OCL Evaluator : Related to the interpretation of standard OCL.

7.6 Review Questions

1. What is library collection process?
2. Explain the library planning surveys.
3. Write a paragraph on library presentation.
4. Discuss in detail the analysis of data interpretation.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Library Collection Development 2. librarians and library staff 3. (a)
4. (a) 5. False 6. True

7.7 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://openmed.nic.in/73/01/iaslicpaper1.pdf

www.wikipedia.com

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Library and its Users Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Notes
Unit 8: Techniques and Tools of Library Surveys

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

8.1 Primary Data Collection Methods

8.2 Questionnaires

8.3 Interviews

8.4 Observation

8.5 Case Study

8.6 Summary

8.7 Keywords

8.8 Review Questions

8.9 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Discuss primary data collction methods
• Explain questionnaires and interviews.

Introduction
Data Collection is an important aspect of any type of survey. Inaccurate data collection can impact
the results of a study and ultimately lead to invalid results. In this section, we will discuss some of
the most important methods of data collection.

8.1 Primary Data Collection Methods

In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as interviews and
questionnaires.

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 Unit 8: Techniques and Tools of Library Surveys

Notes

The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to you and your research and,
until you publish, no one else has access to it.

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
• questionnaires, interviews, observation, case-studies, diaries, critical incidents, portfolios.

8.2 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require
many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.

Advantages:
• Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey.
• Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
• Can cover a large number of people or organisations.
• Wide geographic coverage.
• Relatively cheap.
• No prior arrangements are needed.
• Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
• Respondent can consider responses.
• Possible anonymity of respondent.
• No interviewer bias.

Disadvantages:
• Design problems.
• Questions have to be relatively simple.
• Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
• Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
• Require a return deadline.
• Several reminders may be required.
• Assumes no literacy problems.
• No control over who completes it.
• Not possible to give assistance if required.
• Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
• Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
• Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not.
For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

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Library and its Users

Notes Self Assessment

Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... is an important aspect of any type of survey.
2. In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using methods such as ...... and ...... .

8.3 Interviews
Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons
and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews can be undertaken on
a personal one-to-one basis or in a group.

Interviews can be conducted at work, at home, in the street or in a shopping

centre, or some other agreed location.

Personal Interview
Advantages:
• Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
• Good response rate.
• Completed and immediate.
• Possible in-depth questions.
• Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
• Can investigate motives and feelings.
• Can use recording equipment.
• Characteristics of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.
• Can use props.
• If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
• Used to pilot other methods.

Disadvantages:
• Need to set up interviews.
• Time consuming.
• Geographic limitations.
• Can be expensive.
• Normally need a set of questions.
• Respondent bias–tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview
quickly.
• Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
• Transcription and analysis can present problems – subjectivity.
• If many interviewers, training required.

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 Unit 8: Techniques and Tools of Library Surveys

Self Assessment Notes

Multiple Choice Questions:

3. The technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying reasons
and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behaviour is called:
(a) Interviews (b) Questionnaires
(c) Written test (d) None of these.
4. Which one of the following is a advantage of personal interview?
(a) Good response rate (b) Time consuming
(c) Expensive (d) None of these.

8.4 Observation
Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a systematic
manner. Observational methods may be:
• structured or unstructured
• disguised or undisguised
• natural or contrived
• personal
• mechanical
• non-participant
• participant, with the participant taking a number of different roles.

8.5 Case Study

The case study has been especially used in social science, psychology, anthropology and ecology.
This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real
world situations. For example, if an anthropologist were to live amongst a remote tribe, whilst their
observations might produce no quantitative data, they are still useful to science.
Basically, a case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping
statistical survey. It is a method used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one easily
researchable topic.

Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:

5. Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner.
6. Case study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using them in real
world situations.
7. A case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping
statistical survey.

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Library and its Users

Notes 8.6 Summary

• Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often
require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.
• Interviewing is a technique that is primarily used to gain an understanding of the underlying
reasons and motivations for people’s attitudes, preferences or behaviour. Interviews can be
undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group.
• Observation involves recording the behavioural patterns of people, objects and events in a
systematic manner.
• The case study has been especially used in social science, psychology, anthropology and ecol-
ogy. This method of study is especially useful for trying to test theoretical models by using
them in real world situations.

8.7 Keywords
Data Collection: Data collection is an important aspect of any type of survey.
Questionnaires : Questionnaires can be posted e-mailed or faxed.
Interviewing : Interviewing can be undertaken on a personal one-to-one basis or in a group.
Observation : Observation involves recording the behavioral patterns of people, objects and events
in a systematic manner.
Case Study : Case study is an in depth study of a particular situation rather than a sweeping
statistical survey.

8.8 Review Questions

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires?
2. Describe the advantages and disadvantages of interviews.
3. Explain observation.
4. Define case study.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Data collection 2. interviews, questionnaires 3. (a) 4. (a)
5. True 6. True 7. True.

8.9 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/25801/1/Unit2.pdf

http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intrview.php
http://dge.stanford.edu

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Reena Kapoor, Lovely Professional University Unit 9: User Studies

Notes
Unit 9: User Studies

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

9.1 Methods and Techniques

9.1.1 Contextual Field Research

9.1.2 Intensive Interviewing

9.1.3 Usability Testing

9.1.4 A Cell Biology Research Laboratory

9.1.5 Information Needs

9.1.6 User Study Techniques Applied to the Design of Labscape

9.2 Summary

9.3 Keywords

9.4 Review Questions

9.5 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Describe the methods and techniques of user studies
• Know about the cell biology research laboratory.

Introduction
Academic libraries are increasingly advocating local user studies as a way to provide the library
services that are relevant to the culture and user population of the institution. Good methods for
studying user behavior and user needs can and should be shared; however, user needs are shaped
by a variety of local factors. Replicating user studies at the local level can provide information for
improving existing services or developing new ones. Training and experience of library staff in
planning and implementing these studies varies widely, and good studies require collaboration
and participation from many individuals. Duke University Libraries to conducted the valid studies
of user needs and behaviors and use these findings to improve our efficiency and effectiveness. Our
primary strategy is a staff development series aimed at increasing the awareness and skills of staff

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Library and its Users

Notes in good research practice that will also build collaborative relationships and provide a support
network for staff as they embark on user studies. Events are free of charge to all Duke Libraries
staff, pending discussion with their supervisor. Staffs are also encouraged to include participation
in this series in their professional development (“PEP”) plan.

Staff who attend a minimum of 4 events during the year and contribute to the planning
or implementation of a user study will be eligible to receive a certificate of participation
from Library HR.

9.1 Methods and Techniques

Survey of Relevant User Study Techniques

These techniques are appropriate for different stages in the development of an application, from
initial concepts, to design and evaluation of a working application. Based on previous experience, we
are in favor of using multiple techniques and advocate that the participants be representative of the
target user population.

9.1.1 Contextual Field Research

Contextual field research (CFR) is a technique for gathering qualitative data by observing and
interacting with users as they go about their normal activities. It is typically used to discover how
users think and act rather than to test preformulated hypotheses. Data is collected by a combination
of note taking, video, audio, and photographs. Some benefits of CFR are that it is conducted in the
user’s environment rather than the laboratory, users perform their normal activities rather than
contrived tasks, and because no application needs to be in place to conduct CFR, it may be used to
help guide the application’s requirements and design. However, CFR has disadvantages. Users may
alter their behavior when they know they are being observed. It can be more expensive than other
qualitative techniques.
The cost of CFR can be difficult to gauge before it begins, as the evaluator may not know what he
will learn, how much data he will have to collect, or how long the observations will take. He may
also not know how long the data will take to analyze.
The evaluator cannot guarantee that the sessions he observes are typical for the users. Despite the
disadvantages, the quality of data from CFR is often better than that from other techniques; evaluators
do not have to rely on the user to remember everything about his work and environment, nor must
evaluators worry about inventing appropriate tasks for the user to attempt.

9.1.2 Intensive Interviewing

Intensive interviewing is a technique for gathering qualitative data by asking users open-ended
questions about their work, background, and ideas. Unlike more structured interviewing techniques,
question order and content may vary from user to user. As with other interviewing techniques,
evaluators must ask questions in such a way as to not influence users’ responses. Several hours are
often spent with each user over a series of one to two hour sessions; the total time spent with each
user is typically between six and fifteen hours. Similar to CFR, data is captured by a combination of
note taking, video, and audio. Some benefits of intensive interviewing are that evaluators learn about
the user’s work in the user’s own words, and it is relatively inexpensive compared to observational

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 Unit 9: User Studies

techniques. Intensive interviewing also helps evaluators establish a rapport with the user, which can Notes
be particularly useful when the evaluators intend to use additional user study techniques. Because
intensive interviewing does not need to be performed in the user’s environment, the evaluators do
not have to disrupt that environment, and scheduling may be easier.
Because everyday actions can become automatic, a significant disadvantage of intensive interviewing
is that users will often fail to mention important aspects of what they do. Similar to CFR, evaluators
do not know how much time they will need to spend with each user. In theory, the interview process
stops when the evaluator is not learning much new information. In practice, the interview process
often stops before that point is reached, due to resource and time constraints. Another disadvantage
is that audio transcription is time consuming. As mentioned above, intensive interviewing does not
need to be conducted in the field. Though that has its benefits, it also has disadvantages. When
interviewing is conducted in the field, being in the user’s environment may serve to jog his memory;
for example, he may be more likely to explain how he uses things in his environment. Outside of his
environment, he may neglect to mention that information.

Intensive interviewing can be a good technique to use when combined with

observational techniques. It provides valuable information, but is not comprehensive
enough to be used on its own.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... is a technique for gathering qualitative data by observing and interacting with users as
they go about their normal activities.
2. ...... is a technique for gathering qualitative data by asking users open-ended questions about
their work, background, and ideas.

9.1.3 Usability Testing

Usability testing is a technique for gathering empirical data by observing users as they perform tasks
with the application that is being evaluated. There are several variations of usability testing; we discuss
informal, qualitative studies involving between five and fifteen users per study. Usability testing
may be conducted in the field, but it is more commonly conducted in a usability laboratory where
equipment for recording and observing the sessions is available. The goal of usability testing is to
create an application that is easy to use and provides appropriate functionality for its users. This is
usually done in an iterative process of testing followed by improvement.
Usability testing is inexpensive compared to other observational techniques, and results can be
generated quickly. If testing is conducted in a usability laboratory, an additional benefit not shared
by the other techniques we discuss is that members of the development team can observe the testing
as it takes place.
A significant disadvantage of usability testing is that the testing situation is artificial: even if testing
takes place in the field, both the tasks and situations are contrived. Even if the application tests well
in the study, there is no guarantee that the application will be a success in practice. Another
disadvantage is that, as with CFR, users may alter their behavior because they know they are being
observed.

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Library and its Users

Notes 9.1.4 A Cell Biology Research Laboratory

Our primary collaborator on Labscape is the Cell Systems Initiative (CSI), part of the Bioengineering
Department at the University of Washington. Five biologists share the immunology laboratory at
CSI—three are full-time researchers and two are students.
The laboratory consists of one main room, two auxiliary rooms, and some equipment in the hallway.
While performing work in the laboratory, the biologists frequently move between various stations,
as the stations are highly task specific.
The biologists primarily work in the main laboratory, but occasionally use the other areas. Though
the researchers each have a small station in the main laboratory that is considered their personal
space, the majority of the laboratory and equipment is shared; the students do not have any personal
space.

Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:

3. CSI stands for:
(a) Cell Systems Initiative (b) Cell System Interactive
(c) Cell Social Initiative (d) None of these.
4. Cell biology research laboratory consists of:
(a) One main room (b) Two main room
(c) Three main room (d) None of these.

9.1.5 Information Needs

Biologists need to plan, execute, and document their laboratory work. In planning, records of previous
procedures may be consulted to avoid introducing unintended variability into the experiment and to
review previous results that may influence their plans. During the procedure’s execution, biologists
may need to access their plans, track progress, and record observations and data. Finally, biologists
must formally document their work for future reference and legal compliance.
Biologists meet their information needs in a variety of ways; the most prevalent is through the use
of pencil and paper. In addition, commercial laboratory information management systems and
electronic laboratory notebooks can be used to organize and access data produced by laboratory
experiments. Such systems have penetrated highly repetitive clinical and production laboratories,
especially those having stringent legal record-keeping requirements. However, these tools are rarely
found in research-oriented laboratories that require flexibility and rely on voluntary use of
information technology. New computing tasks that do not contribute to the biologists’ abilities to
perform good experiments are quickly abandoned.
Labscape is a ubiquitous laboratory assistant that satisfies these information needs without distracting
biologists from their work: it presents needed information in the context of the experiment, it records
experiment data and observations as the work is performed, and it provides ubiquitous access to
the experiment record. As we develop a better understanding of the biologists’ needs and how
technology might help, we can further enhance the environment to improve their ability to focus on
the biology rather than on the information support system.
Biology research is a goal-oriented activity that allows for iterative assessment of performance on
similar tasks before and after the deployment of new technologies. As a result, Labscape is an excellent
test case for user study techniques in the iterative design and evaluation of ubicomp applications.

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 Unit 9: User Studies

9.1.6 User Study Techniques Applied to the Design of Labscape Notes

In this, we discuss how two user study techniques helped us design Labscape: intensive interviewing
and contextual field research (CFR). To design Labscape, we needed to gain a general understanding
of the biologists’ work and environment. We also needed answers to some specific questions. In
particular, we were interested in learning whether computing should be distributed throughout the
environment, carried by the user, or a combination of the two. In addition, we wanted to know where,
how, and why biologists accessed and recorded information during experiments.
We started with intensive interviewing, as it is a relatively fast way to obtain a lot of information.
Because we also intended to use CFR, intensive interviewing allowed us to establish a rapport with
the biologists, learn the rules of the biology laboratory, and get an idea of what we would observe.
The interviews were conducted at CSI and at Intel Research Seattle. For the interviews conducted at
Intel Research Seattle, a floor plan of the biology laboratory and dozens of photos of the laboratory,
tools, and equipment were available for reference purposes. Before we finished the interviews, we
started CFR.Notes were taken to capture data for both studies; in addition, audio recordings were
made of the interviews, and still photographs were taken during the CFR. Most of the results
discussed below came from a combination of the two techniques.

Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:

5. Labscape is a ubiquitous laboratory assistant that satisfies these information needs with
distracting biologists from their work.
6. To design Labscape, we needed to gain a general understanding of the biologists’ work and
environment.

9.2 Summary
• Good methods for studying user behavior and user needs can and should be shared; however,
user needs are shaped by a variety of local factors. Replicating user studies at the local level
can provide information for improving existing services or developing new ones.
• Contextual field research (CFR) is a technique for gathering qualitative data by observing
and interacting with users as they go about their normal activities.
• Usability testing is a technique for gathering empirical data by observing users as they perform
tasks with the application that is being evaluated.

9.3 Keywords
User Study Techniques : User Study Techniques are appropriate for different stages in the
development of an application.
Contextual Field Research (CFR) : Contextual Field Research is typically used to discover how users
think and act rather than to test preformulated hypothesis.
Intensive Interviewing : Intensive interviewing can be a good technique to use when
combined with observational techniques.

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Library and its Users

Notes Usability Testing : Usability testing is inexpensive compared to other observational

techniques and results can be generated quickly.
Labscape : Labscape is an excellent test case for user study techniques in the
iterative design and evaluation of ubicomp applications.

9.4 Review Questions

1. Write a note on CFR including its advantages and disadvantages.
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of usability testing?
3. Write a short note on information needs.
4. What is the function of labscape?

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Contextual field research 2. Intensive interviewing 3. (a)

4. (a) 5. False 6. True

9.5 Further Readings

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://www.pathways.cu.edu.eg/subpages/

http://www.librijournal.org/pdf/1999-3pp132-141.pdf

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Seema Sharma, Lovely Professional University Unit 10: Evaluation of User Studies

Notes
Unit 10: Evaluation of User Studies

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

10.1 Evolution of the System and Interface Design

10.2 Summary

10.3 Keywords

10.4 Review Questions

10.5 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain evaluation of user studies
• Describe evolution of the system and interface design.

Introduction
The Alexandria Digital Library (ADL) is a geolibrary (Goodchild, 1998; National Research Council,
1999) where a primary means of describing and finding information is with a geographic footprint. A
footprint shows a location on the surface of the Earth associated with either a collection object (CO)
(such as a map, an aerial photograph, or a remote-sensing image) or with a user’s query. The footprint
may be represented as a point or polygon, with latitude and longitude co-ordinates. When a user
queries the ADL collections through the user interface, the user creates a footprint on an interactive
map to indicate the area of interest (the query area). The query area is matched with the CO footprints
recorded in the metadata to retrieve relevant collection objects—that is, COs “about” the query area.
This means that the user can choose arbitrary query areas, not just geographic areas that have place
names. This also means that COs about the query area do not have to have the names associated
with them that the user enters for a text based query. For example, the user’s query might be of the
type “What do you know about the Santa Barbara area?” Which can be translated into a query area
for Santa Barbara, which can then be used to find COs with matching footprints.
This approach opens up the possibility of finding all types of information related to an area, including
aerial photographs, remote sensing images, data sets, and texts. Geographic footprints can be applied
to both on-line-accessible (e.g., digital images) and off-line-accessible (e.g., paper maps) COs, giving

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Library and its Users

Notes the user an integrated means of locating information about a geographic location. This geo-spatial
approach to digital library information management and retrieval presents a new environment for
users. Studies showing how the geolibrary approach will affect user work practices are just beginning.
ADL has proven to be a rich environment to begin to learn how users will use such a system, what
they would like for it to be able to do, and how they react to the iterative designs of a developing
geolibrary prototype.

This first describes the evolution of the ADL system and interface design and then
provides a brief overview of the research and test bed activities. Descriptions are
then given for ADL’s three primary user communities (earth scientists, information
specialists, and educators), the user evaluation methodologies applied, and the
findings from working with these user groups. Finally, some thoughts are proposed
about the potential impacts of geolibraries (ADL in particular) on user communities,
on research libraries, and on teaching.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. The Alexandria Digital Library (ADL) is a ...... .
2. Geographic footprints can be applied to both ...... and ...... COs.

10.1 Evolution of the System and Interface Design

The ADL is one of the six digital library funded by NSF, DARPA, and NASA. ADL’s collection and
services focus on geo referenced information: maps, images, data sets, text, and other information
sources with links to geographic locations. The ideas for ADL grew out of a previous project funded
by the Research Libraries Group known as GRIN—the Geographic Resources Information Network
(Research Libraries Group, 1989). The first ADL prototype was called the Rapid Prototype and was
distributed on CD-ROM (Alexandria Digital Library—UCSB, 1995). This was followed by a WWW
version, known as the beta web prototype, in 1996 (Smith, et al., 1996).
The web prototype was accompanied by an active user evaluation phase that included:
(1) collecting data about the beta testers (anyone who signed up to use the web prototype),
(2) an on-line survey of beta testers,
(3) target user groups, and
(4) ethnographic studies (Hill et al., 1997).
There were also three ADL Design Review meetings during this time that brought together invited
parties to discuss and advise on the goals and the progress of the project. Two of these took place
over several days, and involved 30–50 people; the third was a panel of system designers who met
for 2 days to advise on system specifications.
The results of these user evaluations were fed back into the design of the current Java-based interface
and supporting system, which has been subjected to two formal internal evaluations involving
personnel from the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) and University of Colorado at
Boulder. The Java user interface client, known as JIGI for “Java Interface to Geospatial Information,”
has undergone numerous interim releases. The database and middleware components of the system
have been redesigned and the collections of data and metadata continue to grow in complexity.

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 Unit 10: Evaluation of User Studies

Current information about ADL, including descriptions of the current JIGI interface with screenshots Notes
and a brief overview of the functionality, is available at http://www. alexandria.ucsb.edu.
Using ADL, one can
1. Find information about a geographic area—the “what’s there” question that starts with a
query area drawn on a map browser.
2. Find where a place or feature is located—the “where is it” question that starts with a
place or feature name.
These basic query types can be combined into “what’s there” questions that start with place names,
as in the “What do you know about the Santa Barbara area?” example. The query to ADL can also
contain other parameters such as a date range, a type of information (e.g., maps or a particular
feature type such as rivers), a format (e.g., TIFF), freetext, assigned terms, originators, or identifiers
(e.g., control numbers).
A selection can be made among the multiple collections available for searching. The items returned
that match the query parameters can be evaluated by their footprints, thumbnail and browse images,
and metadata attributes. Thumbnail images are small image representations, Browse images are
larger, and provide more detail. Selected items can be put aside in user-named folders. On-line data
can be downloaded directly to local storage. Interfaces have been tested that provide access to
application packages with which items from ADL’s collections can be processed.

Interaction of Evaluation with Design and Implementation

There are obvious problems with evaluating an innovative and evolving system, and with eliciting
from users what they might do with such a system if it existed. With new software systems there is a
degree of education involved, because users must understand the new capabilities to evaluate them.
The process may be thought of as a cycle in which the implementers build certain functionality, users
are introduced to the potential of the new features, the users request additional functionality (some of
which may be part of the system but not recognized), and the implementers modify the design. This
has been the pattern with ADL.

It describes the formative evaluation process that has captured the development
cycle and guided the evolution of the geo library system and the understanding
of potential use.

Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:

3. The first ADL prototype was called:
(a) Rapid prototype (b) Research libraries
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these.
4. ADL is funded by
(a) NSF (b) NASA
(c) GRIN (d) None of these.

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Notes Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:
5. Using ADL, one can find information about a geographic area.
6. Thumbnail images are large image representations, Browse images are larger, and provide
more detail.

10.2 Summary
• A footprint shows a location on the surface of the Earth associated with either a collection
object (CO) (such as a map, an aerial photograph, or a remote-sensing image) or with a user’s
query.
• The ADL is one of the six digital library funded by NSF, DARPA, and NASA. ADL’s collection
and services focus on geo referenced information: maps, images, data sets, text, and other
information sources with links to geographic locations.

10.3 Keywords
ADL : The Alexandria Digital Library is a geolibrary where a primary means of describing and
finding information is with a geographic footprint.
Footprint : Footprint may be represented as a point or polygon with lattitude.

10.4 Review Questions

1. Write a short note on ADL.
2. What do you mean by footprint?
3. Explain in detail the evolution of the system and interface design.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. geolibrary 2. on-line-accessible, off-line-accessible 3. (a)

4. (a) 5. True 6. False

10.5 Further Readings

Girja Kumar: Philosophy of user Education, Delhi, Vikas, 1983

Peter, Fox: Library user education
Line, Maurice (B): Library Surveys, London, Clive Bingley, 1982
Lancaster, (F.W): The measurement and evaluation of Library Services.

Online links http://www.dlib.org/dlib/may04/goodchild/05goodchild.html

http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/
http://www.librijournal.org

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Seema Sharma, Lovely Professional University Unit 11: User Education

Notes
Unit 11: User Education

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

11.1 Concepts

11.2 Goals and Objectives

11.3 Levels

11.4 Techniques and Methods

11.5 Summary

11.6 Keywords

11.7 Review Questions

11.8 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain user education-concepts, goals and objectives
• Describe different levels of user education
• Realise techniques and methods.

Introduction
The various definitions of information literacy focuses on how it has evolved from library user
education, and the aims of various information literacy programmes. It emphasize that information
literacy is a signal skill for lifelong and flexible learning situations. It indicate the key role of librarians
in information literacy and identify some barriers to librarians’ effective involvement in and delivery
of these programmes. It does not cover pedagogical elements such as methods of teaching information
literacy and nor does It discuss the particular content of such programmes though It address generic
elements. Information literacy is not some entirely new phenomenon. The term “information literacy”
first appeared in library literature during the 1970s and it is now sometimes wrongly employed to
describe library user education and bibliographic instruction.
However, information literacy programmes do a great deal more than tell how to use the Library.
Information literacy is vitally tied to the strategic value and use of information. For the purposes of

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Library and its Users

Notes this is to talk about those programmes which ensure that people (of school age and up) are taught
about information not only available within the library in print and digital form, but are also provided
with the context in which information is created, located and utilized in the wider world of
information and knowledge.
The ever expanding volume of information available through print and digitized formats has the
capacity to both stimulate and overwhelm. The digitizing of information and the development of IT
based tools to access, manipulate and deliver information available in electronic formats is an element
of what has been called the Information age. The vast quantity of information available in a variety
of media and the fact that especially through the Internet much information has not been through a
process of peer reviewer scholarly editorial process before being widely disseminated means that it
is imperative that users apply critical thinking to the information gathering and evaluating process
if their own work is to withstand scrutiny.

11.1 Concepts
Concepts of User Education
Tremendous increase in the volume of publication as well as the resulting complexity of libraries
and the methods by which literature is organized and disseminated necessitate the user education.
Rapid changes in teaching methods and the resulting trend towards a wider use of multi-media
learning resources ranging from the press cutting to slide tapes package and multiple kit. Such
format has added new dimensions to the learning process in all types of institutions.
Dr. S.R. Ranganathan’s Second Law is user oriented law. Every citizens has the right to access the
information (Right to Information Act, 2004). This law guides the library or information professionals
to take care of information users, so that they can access information without any obstacle. Here is
a necessity of User Survey, User Study and User Education. User Orientation may help in acquiring
the need and satisfying the purpose.
According to Dr. S.R. Ranganathan, books are for use. Every reader is a book. Every book is a
reader. Tape recorder saves the time of the reader and a library is a growing organism. The above
mentioned laws expected to meet the challenges of fast paced social and cultural changes which
affect the library users. Hence, library serves humanity. Library is a store house of knowledge. One
must use modern technology to gather information from the library.

Education is a long life process, there is no end. As far as library activities are
concerns, the users are illiterates.

They need some sought of user education on how to use library resources and services. Because the
collection libraries are very complicated. To know how to use and what the service available is etc.,
they must need assistance and guidance (Instructions, Initiation and education).
It has its own objectives. Broadly it means to bring the awareness about or to guide the users, about
library facilities, collection, services, etc., for new users this type of guidance is necessary.

Definitions
According to Shahi “It is a process of activities involved in making the users of the library conscious
about tremendous value of information in day to day life to develop interest among the users to
seek information as and when they requires”.

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Dramatic changes in technology and society are having a considerable impact on libraries and their Notes
instruction programs. These changes have created an urgency to teach users how to become more
effective, efficient, and independent in their information searching. In response to this, the goals of
library user education have expanded from teaching tools to teaching concepts and from library
instruction to information literacy and lifelong learning.
The Gateway to Information, developed by the Ohio State University (OSU) Library, is one response
to the current issues and problems and those foreseen in the future of libraries and information. The
Gateway to Information was designed to help undergraduate and graduate students identify, find,
evaluate, and select the most useful information for their needs without help screens or handouts.
The Gateway guides users in applying search strategy concepts and critical thinking to their
information seeking.
Under development since 1987, The Gateway to Information has been continuously evaluated by
users; revisions have been made based on the results of more than 7,000 evaluations. The Gateway
is available on most public terminals in the OSU library system. It will soon be accessible via the
Internet and will integrate the sources of the Internet into its narrative. The information explosion
has hastened the need for development of expert systems like this.
The origins of library user education can be traced back more than 170 years. The earliest evidence
of instruction—a librarian lecturing to undergraduates—was found at Harvard College in the 1820s.
Most early academic librarians were professors with part-time library appointments who taught
the use of libraries for academic purposes. Library lectures were the chosen form of instruction by
such institutions as Harvard, Indiana University, and Columbia. Separate courses were implemented
in the late 1800s by Ray Davis at the University of Michigan, Azariah Root at Oberlin College, and
others. Over the next few years, about seventeen other institutions adopted instruction lectures or
courses.
By 1900, six of the seventeen institutions examined were no longer providing library instruction,
and by 1903, instruction had been dropped by two more institutions. These instruction activities
existed from one to fifteen years with an average of about five and a half years (Hernon, 1982, p. 25).
Why were these programs of such comparatively short tenure? In the 1860s, social changes and
developing technology shaped education and its goals. These same factors led to the early rise and
rapid decline of library instruction between 187(land 1914).
As academic libraries grew in number, however, librarians became concerned about making
collections accessible, and the importance of library instruction again became apparent. In the early
1900s, the resurgence was led by William Warner Bishop and William Frederick Poole who espoused
concepts of library instruction that are valid today. They wanted to make students independent
learners and to clarify the role of the library in the university. In 1912, Bishop noted that librarians
and professors were looking at methods of library instruction and doing some experimenting
(Tucker, 1979, p. 273). These were largely individual efforts and did not result in established
programs. There was some advocacy for course-related instruction instead of the separate course,
but the concept was not developed.

Content
Content covered and methods used are central to understanding the current status of user education
programs. For more than a decade, the consensus has been that library user education should focus
on the many sources of information available and not on the mechanics of using the system. Many
instruction librarians have espoused, and continue to espouse, the search strategy approach because
it provides a conceptual framework for teaching students research techniques. This idea has dominated
library instruction since the mid 1970s because it is a simple and adaptable teaching framework. It
teaches the use of different types of tools and resources and provides an outline for systematic

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Library and its Users

Notes information seeking that is broadly applicable, comprehensive, and time saving. In addition to teaching
students how to find information, librarians now recognize the importance of teaching critical thinking
skills to enable students to evaluate and select the best information for their needs.

Impact
What has the impact of library instruction been as measured in evaluation studies? There are two
purposes for evaluation. One is to measure the effectiveness of instruction for guidance in how to
improve the program (formative evaluation). The other is to measure the effect of library instruction
on the students and their performance (summative evaluation). Most evaluation of library user
education has been formative. Librarians have tended not to focus on evaluation studies that would
demonstrate the impact of library instruction on student learning or attitude. Most evaluation studies
done in the 1970s appear to fall into one of three methods: opinion surveys, knowledge testing, and
library use observation.
The CLR/NEH program required close work with the faculty. Funded for three to five years, the
total cost was more than $2.3 million. However, a study done in the late 1970s revealed that most of
the programs no longer existed. The most common reasons for failure were staff turnover, lack of
commitment from the library and institutional administrations, poor co-operation from the faculty,
lack of adequate planning with faculty input, and insufficient evaluation studies. Involvement of
the faculty depended on stipends which ceased when the grant ended. Staff energies and staff
turnover affected programs. Other factors were lack of funding and failure by librarians to plan,
prepare, implement, and evaluate carefully their instruction programs. Gwinn (1980) concluded,
however, that programs were having a positive effect on education even though progress was slow.
Miller (1978), in his study of programs of thirteen libraries, observed that alternatives to formal
library instruction programs were point-of-use devices, expanded reference service, and written
guides which, in his opinion, were the best alternatives if they were used. Another issue is where
does the responsibility lie for developing and maintaining the user education program? Breivik
(1982) believes that a growing program needs a single person with a defined role to provide leadership
and handle the day-to-day issues. Carlson and Miller (1984) noted such problems as cost, faculty
dependency, the challenges of teaching, and the difficulty of evaluation. Other complications they
identified were the difficulty of achieving a balanced program and the inability of students to transfer
library knowledge from one course to another.
“Information literacy will be essential for the growing cadre of knowledge workers in the 21st
century” (Green and Gilberth, 1995, p. 23). Information literacy, which is now the avowed objective
of most library user education programs, is an expansion of instruction as to objectives, materials,
and methods. It has evolved in the way that instruction evolved from library orientation into
bibliographic instruction. The Think Tank II report on bibliographic instruction defined “information
literacy” as encompassing the entire world of information and seeking to prepare people to pursue
the concept of lifelong learning. Information literacy extends its objectives to teaching information-
seeking skills to all ages and at all times. It prepares people to use information effectively in any
situation. There are no boundaries for information anywhere in any format. Information literacy
may be defined as the ability to access and evaluate information effectively for problem solving and
decision making. Information literate people know how to be lifelong learners in an information
society (Rader and Coons, 1992, p. 113).
To achieve these goals, librarians and faculty will have to work closely together in developing
teaching strategies using the latest technologies. One example of the integration of information
literacy into the academic curriculum is found at Cleveland State University, where the curriculum
has been rewritten to include an information literacy component. Librarians work with the faculty
to include information literacy modules in courses. The library is implementing a comprehensive
information literacy program that will include the teaching of critical thinking skills and evaluation
of the program itself (Rader, 1990).

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The Middle States Association Commission on Higher Education has indicated in its “Framework Notes
for Outcomes Assessment,” issued in 1991, that faculty should assume some responsibility, along
with administrators, librarians, and other information specialists, for information literacy for students.
The statement implies that students need to acquire more complex information-seeking skills as
they progress in their academic education. The commission statement indicates that this can best be
done through partnerships across academe. The commission advocates examining course syllabi to
determine how well the teaching of these skills is integrated into the curriculum.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. The term “information literacy” first appeared in library literature during the year ...... .
2. According to ...... , books are for use. Every reader is a book. Every book is a reader.
3. The Gateway to Information, developed by the ...... Library.
4. “Framework for Outcomes Assessment,” issued in the year ...... .

11.2 Goals and Objectives

Academic libraries support the teaching and research needs of institutions they serve. It is the libraries’
responsibility to ensure that the use of its information sources, resources and services are maximized
to benefit its users, hence the necessity for user education programmes.
Developments in computers, microelectronics, and communication technologies have radically
changed the library and information environment. Gone are the days of stand-alone libraries, in
which a library was judged less by the quality of its resources and services than by the number of
documents it had available.
Traditional libraries were dominated by print publications and the access mechanisms were also by
and large manual. The paradigm shift from stand-alone libraries to library and information networks,
available via the Internet, can provide end-users with a seamless connection to Internet-based
services.
Moreover, we are surrounded by automated, digital, and virtual libraries as well as by networked
data, specialized networks, and library networks. Multimedia and the Internet have further made
the job of library and information professionals more challenging.

The development of new technology makes direct access to information easier for
users, and, while information skills are required to collect and present that information,
in the future there is likely to be less of a role for information workers as intermediaries
between users and information sources.

Definition

Fleming (1990) defines user education “as various programmes of instruction, education and
exploration provided by libraries to users to enable them to make more effective, efficient and
independent use of information sources and services to which these libraries provide access”.

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Library and its Users

Notes The Challenge in Information Services

Information has become more complex and expensive. The traditional services, such as reference
service, current awareness services, and selective dissemination of information need be supplemented
by “Selective Elimination of Information,” the evaluation of information to separate quality information
from junk. In this context, the basic challenge is to convince and convert traditional users into users of
Internet-based resources and services. Information literacy can contribute to developing information
technology (IT) related competencies among end-users as it includes basic computer and network
literacy. The aim of information literacy is to make information users capable of locating, retrieving,
and using information.

The Changing Academic Library

During the recent economic recession, money for education and libraries in India became very tight,
requiring cuts in serial subscriptions and book purchases for academic libraries. At the same time,
subscription prices were soaring, as were the costs and number of databases and journals available.
Library planning is now essential in order to maximize available resources and take advantage of
emerging technologies. Academic libraries in India should now implement a Library Planning and
Action Initiative (LPAI).
To accomplish the goals of the LPAI, a planning team should be established in every academic
library. An advisory task force must be formed to work closely with the planning team. The advisory
task force members could be chancellors, vice-chancellors, other academic administrators, academic
librarians, a representative from the Librarian’s Association, information technologists, and other
faculty including representation from faculty governance bodies.

The Need for User Education

1. User education is essential. It helps publicize library services. It improves the image of the
library. Above all, user education and training are the best ways to implement Ranganathan’s
five laws of library science.
2. User education and training are often fee-based, because developing the infrastructure for
the network environment is very costly. The world still appears to be suffering from an
exponential increase in all kinds of information – bearing material. Even if much of this is of
little value, it still has to be shifted to find the required information.
Several new methods of information transfer, such as mechanized information retrieval systems,
are being developed, giving rise to new aspects of user education. Both educational and research
topics are becoming increasingly multidisciplinary in nature, thereby drawing information from a
wider range of sources. Not being able to find necessary information delays research or decisions.
Lack of awareness of information leads to duplication of effort. Various estimate of the extent and
cost of this have been made.

Planning of User Education

The establishment of the UNISIST programme within UNESCO as an Inter-Governmental programme
to stimulate and guide voluntary Co-Operation in the flow of S&T information at the national, regional
and international levels, and the launching of national information systems, such as NISSAT in India,
has focused attention on the need for training the users in the effective use of information.
The UNESCO General Information programme (PGI) has been making organized efforts to promote
user education and training programmers through organizing seminars, workshops, and developing

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 Unit 11: User Education

tools, publications and guidelines. The ‘UNISIST Guide for Teachers‘ and the ‘Guidelines for Notes
Developing and Implementing a National Plan for Training in information use‘, are the two vary
useful publications.
Several countries, particularly USA and UK, have made organized efforts in promoting programme
for educating and training information users and extensive literature in the field is available to
guide the formulation of such programmes in India.
Libraries provide a support service to the institutions they serve. It is important to understand the
goals of the institution served to enable librarians to come up with a mission statement which should
reflect the library’s commitment in helping the institution achieve its goals. Thorough planning is
needed to ensure that all activities carried out are towards meeting the institutional goals.
Commitment to educate users should be reflected in the mission statement of the library. This should
be followed by a written user education policy.
User education programmes should aim to make all users aware of the information resources
available, both directly in the library and from external sources and enable users to enjoy the search
for information. It is interesting to note that many of the objectives listed by libraries in this study
stressed the self sufficiency of users through a successful user education programme. Written policies
and objectives on user education provide a basis for self-evaluation. This could be used to answer
questions like, is the user education programme achieving what it was set out to achieve? If not
more detailed studies on user information needs should be conducted. User education programmes
need continuous revision to keep up to date with the changing information environment. Written
objectives for instruction should be derived from the written profiles of the information needs of
the users. Universities have unique identities “each university library must design its own course
to meet the immediate needs of its clientele as well as fit into the university teaching programme”.
This is evident in the responses; some libraries’ concern is introducing first year students to the
library “some of whom have never used a library before”.

Some specific components of user education are:

• Librarians introducing new students, some of who come from school systems where there are
generally no school librarians or well established libraries, to the complexities of university
library facilities.
• Librarians familiarizing users, who have little or no information seeking skills at all with a
broad range of library resources in order to develop library skills.
• Librarians educating users on how to find materials manually or electronically using on-line
public access catalogues and CD-ROMs.

It is generally agreed that there are three levels of user education:

The library orientation is to be given at the beginning of every academic year or semester it should be
applicable to all those who are using the library for the first time.
• The second stage, i.e., subject oriented instruction for undergraduates at a stage when they
are admitted to a special branch or subject of their choice or at the time of project work.
• Literature search training should be provided at the beginning of their research work.’ The
literature search is specified as being for post-graduate students but with students developing
as self-guided independent learners there is no reason why this should be the case. Depending
on the student, the course, and the assignment there may be some overlap between the three
stages.
Knowing which level of user education is required by a particular group of students enables the
librarian to determine the aims and objectives of the session.

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Library and its Users

Notes The three main aims of user education regardless of level are:
• To train the user to exploit the library resources effectively.
• To provide the user with the skills for independent information seeking.
• To encourage the user to seek the assistance of library professionals.

User education for students is necessary

If study programmes are to be based on the students’ active search for knowledge, then students
must acquire sounder knowledge of searching for, evaluating and utilizing scientific and scholarly
information.
Libraries today offer comprehensive courses in library orientation and information retrieval
(i.e., “user education” in library terminology). Such courses have become better organized and certain
larger libraries have special user education divisions. However, the courses vary in scope and are
not always well integrated into the teaching process. User education ought to be integrated as much
as possible into the different parts of each study programme. Moreover, librarians and lecturers in
co-operation with each other should hold the courses.

User education for lecturers

New pedagogic methods, new technology and extended study programmes necessitate the further
development of user education. Development is being hindered by the fact that user education often
lacks permanent formal status and position, and shortcomings in the pedagogic competence of
librarians, whose education has so far included little training in teaching skills. Moreover, libraries
must offer a much broader selection of courses in user education for lecturers. Ideally lecturers ought
to be much more proficient in information retrieval and library orientation than their students, so
that they can actively use the library as a resource in their teaching. This is not always the case, which
can be difficult to admit.

11.3 Levels
This study examines how user education programmes are planned, organized and implemented in
academic libraries in Southern Africa. It further examines the influences of information technology
on user education and on the problems experienced in various institutions.
Fleming (1990) defines user education “as various programmes of instruction, education and
exploration provided by libraries to users to enable them to make more effective, efficient and
independent use of information sources and services to which these libraries provide access”.
Some specific components of user education are:
1. Librarians introducing new students, some of whom come from school systems where
there are generally no school librarians or well established libraries, to the complexities
of university library facilities.
2. Librarians familiarizing users, who have little or no information seeking skills at all with
a broad range of library resources in order to develop library skills.
3. Librarians educating users on how to find materials manually or electronically using
on-line public access catalogues and CD-ROMs.

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Literature Review Notes

An evaluation of user education literature reveals the importance of user education in academic
libraries. It is believed that improving users’ knowledge of their libraries’ collection and services
could be a motivating factor for more usage and more demands on the library.
Mews argues that training in the use of information should be part of all students’ education. There
is need for instruction in the use of libraries and information services. He sees user education as a
continuous process which should cover use of the catalogue, abstracts, bibliographies and reference
books. At the post-graduate level detailed instruction in methods of searching and formulation of
clear requests, is necessary.
Foss (1994) corroborates this by arguing that user education should be organized at different
information levels to ensure that needs of all users are met. Foss outlines these different levels
within the Fourah Bay College’s (Sierra Leone) user education programme. The first stage provides
a general introduction to the library. The next stage is concerned with more subject and bibliographic
material. The third stage of instruction would cater for the needs of advanced and research students.
While Foss (1994) basis his levels of user education on information levels, the China Ministry of
Education (1995) recommended three levels of user education based on the users educational
background. The first level is library orientation for freshmen; the second courses of bibliographic
instruction for juniors and seniors; and the third is more sophisticated user education involving the
sorting and summarizing of documentation and the studying and analyzing of information for all
graduate students.
Ford (1994) notes that in South Africa, Australia and the Netherlands issues related to information
access and use have become an increasing concern and, therefore concepts of user education and
information literacy are being incorporated in their school and higher education curriculum. She
further points out that the International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA)
recognizes the importance of the development of information seeking skills to all members of society.
The above views indicate that user education is a continuous process which has to be performed for
all user groups. To ensure that users are equipped with efficient methods of accessing, evaluating
information from a variety of sources and synthesizing the information into a coherent whole, training
can be organized around level of difficulty of information and or users educational background.
The goal of user education should be to improve the quality of users research output and ensure
lifelong learning.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of this study is to examine how academic libraries are responding to the challenge of
teaching students information seeking skills in this rapidly changing information environment.
The following aspects of user education are examined:
1. User education planning Policies and objectives.
2. Organization and implementation of user education.
1. Co-ordination.
2. Library orientation and bibliographic instruction. Library orientation refers to the basic
introduction to the library services given to new students. This includes library tours,
library guides on the layout of the library and library registration. Bibliographic instruction
includes introduction to the use of catalogues and instruction given on the use of abstracts,
indexes, bibliographies and reference books, regardless of whether they are in print or
electronic form.

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Library and its Users

Notes 3. Ways in which user education is evaluated.

4. Current problems and barriers to user education programmes.
3. User education and technology.

Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:

5. Who defines user education “as various programmes of instruction, education and explora-
tion provided by libraries to users”?
(a) Fleming (b) Miller
(c) Carlson (d) Gwinn.
6. LPAI stands for:
(a) Library Planning and Action Initiative (b) Library Proposal and Action Initiative
(c) Laboratory Planning and Action Initiative (d) None of these.

11.4 Techniques and Methods

Developments in computers, microelectronics, and communication technologies have radically
changed the library and information environment. Gone are the days of stand-alone libraries, in which
a library was judged less by the quality of its resources and services than by the quantity of materials
it had available. Traditional libraries were dominated by print publications and the access mechanisms
were also by-and-large manual. The paradigm shift from stand-alone libraries to library and
information networks, available via the Internet, can provide end-users with connection to Internet-
based services. Moreover, we are surrounded by automated, digital, and virtual libraries as well as
by networked data, specialized networks, and library networks.

Multimedia and the Internet have further made the job of library and information
professionals more challenging.

Other Developments
• growing recognition of the importance of life-long and individualized learning
• a new enthusiasm for research library instruction and bibliographic control and automation
has emerged
• bibliographic instruction, also called library use instruction, or user education, has grown
over the years from a simple area of interest to a complex area of study
• instruction librarians have begun to examine the complexities of search strategies, the differ-
ing information needs of novices and experts, and the organization of knowledge in various
fields in order to better serve their patrons
• all these contribute to the emergence of an important role for the librarian, that of the teacher.
These dramatic changes in information technology have made a considerable impact on libraries
and their instruction programs. Because of these changes, the library’s mission to teach users how
to become more effective and efficient, and certainly, more independent in their information seeking,

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 Unit 11: User Education

has generated new concerns in developing library user education programs that would be more Notes
responsive to their needs. Current user education programs have expanded from teaching tools to
teaching concepts and from library instruction to information literacy and lifelong learning.

Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:

7. Developments in computers, microelectronics, and communication technologies have
radically changed the library and information environment.
8. Bibliographic instruction, also called library use instruction, or user training.

11.5 Summary
• The various definitions of information literacy focuses on how it has evolved from library
user education, and the aims of various information literacy programmes. It emphasize that
information literacy is a signal skill for lifelong and flexible learning situations.
• Tremendous increase in the volume of publication as well as the resulting complexity of
libraries and the methods by which literature is organized and disseminated necessitate the
user education.
• Many instruction librarians have espoused, and continue to espouse, the search strategy
approach because it provides a conceptual framework for teaching students research
techniques.
• Academic libraries support the teaching and research needs of institutions they serve. It is the
libraries’ responsibility to ensure that the use of its information sources, resources and services
are maximized to benefit its users, hence the necessity for user education programmes.
• Libraries provide a support service to the institutions they serve. It is important to understand
the goals of the institution served to enable librarians to come up with a mission statement
which should reflect the library’s commitment in helping the institution achieve its goals.
• An evaluation of user education literature reveals the importance of user education in academic
libraries. It is believed that improving users’ knowledge of their libraries’ collection and services
could be a motivating factor for more usage and more demands on the library.

11.6 Keywords
The Gateway to Information : The Gateway to information is developed by the Ohio State University
Library.
User Education : User education helps publicize library services.

11.7 Review Questions

1. Define the term information literacy.
2. Define user education.
3. Brief out the challenges in information services.
4. Mention any one specific components of user education.

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Library and its Users

Notes 5. What is the purpose of studying user education?

6. Explain the concepts of user education.
7. Write the impacts of library instructions.
8. Write the goals and objectives of user education.
9. Write a short note on Changing Academic Library.
10. Discuss the need for user education.
11. Analyze on “Planning of User Education”
12. Explain the techniques and methods in user education.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. 1970 2. Dr. S.R. Ranganathan 3. Ohio State University (OSU) 4. 1991
5. (a) 6. (a) 7. True 8. False.

11.8 Further Readings

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/dxml/

www.fh-potsdam.de/~IFLA/INSPEL/94-4pair.pdf

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Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University Unit 12: Evaluation of User Educational Programmes

Notes
Unit 12: Evaluation of User Educational Programmes

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

12.1 Information Literacy—Definition and Need

12.2 Specific Aspects of Information Literacy

12.3 National Forum on Information Literacy

12.4 Bibliography

12.5 Summary

12.6 Keywords

12.7 Review Questions

12.8 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain information literacy—definition and need
• Describe specific aspects of information literacy
• Discuss national forum on information literacy.

Introduction
Several conceptions and definitions of information literacy have become prevalent. For example,
one conception defines information literacy in terms of a set of competencies that an informed
citizen of an information society ought to possess to participate intelligently and actively in that
society.
The American Library Association’s (ALA) Presidential Committee on Information Literacy, Final
Report states, “To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information is
needed and has the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.”
Information Literacy is important to all libraries, library users, and the general public.
Jeremy Shapiro and Shelley Hughes (1996) define information literacy as “A new liberal art that
extends from knowing how to use computers and access information to critical reflection on the
nature of information itself, its technical infrastructure and its social, cultural, and philosophical
context and impact.”

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Notes

Information Literacy is a most important part of education. Sunita, DLIS. It is

also a vital part of university-level education.

12.1 Information Literacy—Definition and Need

The phrase information literacy first appeared in print in a 1974 report by Paul G. Zurkowski, written
on behalf of the National Commission on Libraries and Information Science. Zurkowski used the
phrase to describe the “techniques and skills” known by the information literate “for utilizing the
wide range of information tools as well as primary sources in molding information solutions to
their problems”.
Subsequently a number of efforts were made to better define the concept and its relationship to
other skills and forms of literacy. Although other educational goals, including traditional literacy,
computer literacy, library skills, and critical thinking skills, were related to information literacy and
important foundations for its development, information literacy itself was emerging as a distinct
skill set and a necessary key to one’s social and economic well-being in an increasingly complex
information society.
A seminal event in the development of the concept of information literacy was the establishment of
the American Library Association’s Presidential Committee on Information Literacy, whose 1989
final report outlined the importance of the concept. The report defined information literacy as the
ability “to recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use
effectively the needed information” and highlighted information literacy as a skill essential for
lifelong learning and the production of an informed and prosperous citizenry.
The committee outlined six principal recommendations: to “reconsider the ways we have organized
information institutionally, structured information access, and defined information’s role in our
lives at home in the community, and in the work place”; to promote “public awareness of the
problems created by information illiteracy”; to develop a national research agenda related to
information and its use; to ensure the existence of “a climate conducive to students’ becoming
information literate”; to include information literacy concerns in teacher education; and to promote
public awareness of the relationship between information literacy and the more general goals of
“literacy, productivity, and democracy.”
The recommendations of the Presidential Committee led to the creation later that year of the National
Forum on Information Literacy, a coalition of more than 90 national and international organizations.
In 1998, the American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology published Information Power: Building Partnerships for Learning,
which further established specific goals for information literacy education, defining some nine
standards in the categories of “information literacy”, “independent learning”, and “social
responsibility”.
In 1999, SCONUL, the Society of College, National and University Libraries in the UK, published
“The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy” model, to “facilitate further development of ideas
amongst practitioners in the field ... stimulate debate about the ideas and about how those ideas
might be used by library and other staff in higher education concerned with the development of
students’ skills.” A number of other countries have developed information literacy standards since
then.
In 2003, the National Forum on Information Literacy, together with UNESCO and the National
Commission on Libraries and Information Science, sponsored an international conference in Prague
with representatives from some twenty-three countries to discuss the importance of information

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literacy within a global context. The resulting Prague Declaration described information literacy as Notes
a “key to social, cultural and economic development of nations and communities, institutions and
individuals in the 21st century” and declared its acquisition as “part of the basic human right of life
long learning”.
On May 28, 2009, U.S. California Governor Arnold Schwarzenneger signed Executive Order
S-06-09 establishing a California ICT Digital Literacy Leadership Council, which, in turn, is directed
to establish an ICT Digital Literacy Advisory Committee. “The Leadership Council, in consultation
with the Advisory Committee, shall develop an ICT Digital Literacy Policy, to ensure that California
residents are digitally literate.” The Executive Order states further: “ ICT Digital Literacy is defined
as using digital technology, communications tools and/or networks to access, manage, integrate,
evaluate, create and communicate information in order to function in a knowledge-based economy
and society.” The Governor directs “...The Leadership Council, in consultation with the Advisory
Committee develop a California Action Plan for ICT Digital Literacy (Action Plan).” He also directs
“The California Workforce Investment Board (WIB)... [to] develop a technology literacy component
for its five-year Strategic State Plan.” His Executive Order ends with the following: “ I FURTHER
REQUEST that the Legislature and Superintendent of Public Instruction consider adopting similar
goals, and that they join the Leadership Council in issuing a “Call to Action” to schools, higher
education institutions, employers, workforce training agencies, local governments, community
organizations, and civic leaders to advance California as a global leader in ICT Digital Literacy”.
Information literacy rose to national consciousness in the U.S. with President Barack Obama’s
Proclamation designating October 2009 as National Information Literacy Awareness Month.
President Obama’s Proclamation stated that “Rather than merely possessing data, we must also
learn the skills necessary to acquire, collate, and evaluate information for any situation. Though we
may know how to find the information we need, we must also know how to evaluate it. Over the
past decade, we have seen a crisis of authenticity emerge. We now live in a world where anyone can
publish an opinion or perspective, whether true or not, and have that opinion amplified within the
information marketplace. At the same time, Americans have unprecedented access to the diverse
and independent sources of information, as well as institutions such as libraries and universities,
that can help separate truth from fiction and signal from noise.”
His Proclamation ends with: “NOW, THEREFORE, I, BARACK OBAMA, President of the United
States of America, by virtue of the authority vested in me by the Constitution and the laws of the
United States, do hereby proclaim October 2009 as National Information Literacy Awareness Month.
I call upon the people of the United States to recognize the important role information plays in our
daily lives, and appreciate the need for a greater understanding of its impact.”

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... define information literacy as “A new liberal art that extends from knowing how to use
computers and access information to critical reflection on the nature of information.
2. The phrase information literacy first appeared in print in a 1974 report by ...... .
3. In the year ...... SCONUL, the Society of College, National and University Libraries in the
UK, published “The Seven Pillars of Information Literacy” model.
4. In 2003, the ...... together with ...... and the National Commission on Libraries and Information
Science, sponsored an international conference in Prague.
5. ....... proclamation designating October 2009 as National Information Literacy Awareness
Month.

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Notes 12.2 Specific Aspects of Information Literacy

In “Information Literacy as a Liberal Art”, Jeremy J. Shapiro and Shelley K. Hughes advocated a
more holistic approach to information literacy education, one that encouraged not merely the addition
of information technology courses as an adjunct to existing curricula, but rather a radically new
conceptualization of “our entire educational curriculum in terms of information”.
Drawing upon Enlightenment ideals like those articulated by Enlightenment philosopher Condorcet,
Shapiro and Hughes argued that information literacy education is “essential to the future of
democracy, if citizens are to be intelligent shapers of the information society rather than its pawns,
and to humanistic culture, if information is to be part of a meaningful existence rather than a routine
of production and consumption”.
To this end, Shapiro and Hughes outlined a “prototype curriculum” that encompassed the concepts
of computer literacy, library skills, and “a broader, critical conception of a more humanistic sort”,
suggesting seven important components of a holistic approach to information literacy:
• Tool literacy, or the ability to understand and use the practical and conceptual tools of current
information technology relevant to education and the areas of work and professional life that
the individual expects to inhabit.
• Resource literacy or the ability to understand the form, format, location and access methods
of information resources, especially daily expanding networked information resources.
• Social-structural literacy or understanding how information is socially situated and produced.
• Research literacy or the ability to understand and use the IT-based tools relevant to the work
of today’s researcher and scholar.
• Publishing literacy or the ability to format and publish research and ideas electronically, in
textual and multimedia forms … to introduce them into the electronic public realm and the
electronic community of scholars.
• Emerging technology literacy, or the ability to continuously adapt to, understand, evaluate
and make use of the continually emerging innovations in information technology so as not to
be a prisoner of prior tools and resources, and to make intelligent decisions about the adoption
of new ones.
• Critical literacy, or the ability to evaluate critically the intellectual, human and social strengths
and weaknesses, potentials and limits, benefits and costs of information technologies.
• Ira Shor further defines critical literacy as “[habits] of thought, reading, writing, and speaking
which go beneath surface meaning, first impressions, dominant myths, official
pronouncements, traditional clichés, received wisdom, and mere opinions, to understand the
deep meaning, root causes, social context, ideology, and personal consequences of any action,
event, object, process, organization, experience, text, subject matter, policy, mass media, or
discourse”.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
6. Who argued that information literacy education is “essential to the future of democracy?
(a) Shapiro and Hughes (b) Obama
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these.

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7. Tool literacy or ability to understand is a holistic approach to information literacy is stated Notes
by:
(a) Shapiro and Hughes (b) Ira Shor
(c) Barack Obama (d) None of these.

12.3 National Forum on Information Literacy

In 1983, the seminal report “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform” declared
that a “rising tide of mediocrity” was eroding the very foundations of the American educational
system. It was, in fact, the genesis of the current educational reform movement within the United
States. Ironically, the report did not include in its set of reform recommendations the academic
and/or the public library as one of the key architects in the redesign of our K-16 educational system.
This report and several others that followed, in conjunction with the rapid emergence of the
information society, led the American Library Association (ALA) to convene a blue ribbon panel of
national educators and librarians in 1987.
The ALA Presidential Committee on Information Literacy was charged with the following tasks:
(1) to define information literacy within the higher literacies and its importance to student
performance, lifelong learning, and active citizenship; (2) to design one or more models for
information literacy development appropriate to formal and informal learning environments
throughout people’s lifetimes; and (3) to determine implications for the continuing education and
development of teachers. In the release of its Final Report in 1989, the American Library Association
Presidential Committee on Information Literacy summarized in its opening paragraphs the ultimate
mission of the National Forum on Information Literacy:
“How our country deals with the realities of the Information Age will have enormous impact on
our democratic way of life and on our nation’s ability to compete internationally. Within America’s
information society, there also exists the potential of addressing many long-standing social and
economic inequities. To reap such benefits, people—as individuals and as a nation—must be
information literate. To be information literate, a person must be able to recognize when information
is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information.
Producing such a citizenry will require that schools and colleges appreciate and integrate the concept
of information literacy into their learning programs and that they play a leadership role in equipping
individuals and institutions to take advantage of the opportunities inherent within the information
society. Ultimately, information literate people are those who have learned how to learn. They
know how to learn because they know how knowledge is organized, how to find information and
how to use information in such a way that others can learn from them. They are people prepared for
lifelong learning, because they can always find the information needed for any task or decision at
hand.”

Acknowledging that the major obstacle to people becoming information literate

citizens, who are prepared for lifelong learning, “is a lack of public awareness of the
problems created by information illiteracy,” the report recommended the formation
of a coalition of national organizations to promote information literacy.”

Thus, in 1989, the A.L.A. Presidential Committee established the National Forum on Information
Literacy, a volunteer network of organizations committed to raising public awareness on the
importance of information literacy to individuals, to our diverse communities, to our economy, and
to engaged citizenship participation.

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Notes The Forum Today

Since 1989, the National Forum on Information Literacy has evolved steadily under the leadership
of its first chair, Dr. Patricia Senn Breivik. Today, the Forum represents over 90 national and
international organizations, all dedicated to mainstreaming the philosophy of information literacy
across national and international landscapes, throughout every educational, domestic, and workplace
venue.
Although the initial intent of the Forum was to raise public awareness and support on a national
level, over the last several years, the National Forum on Information Literacy has made significant
strides internationally in promoting the importance of integrating information literacy concepts
and skills throughout all educational, governmental, and workforce development programs. For
example, the National Forum co-sponsored with UNESCO and IFLA several “experts meetings”,
resulting in the Prague Declaration (2003) and the Alexandria Proclamation (2005) each underscoring
the importance of information literacy as a basic fundamental human right and lifelong learning
skill.
In the United States, however, information literacy skill development has been the exception and
not the rule, particularly as it relates to the integration of information literacy practices within our
educational and workforce development infrastructures. In a 2000 peer reviewed publication, Nell
K. Duke, found that students in first grade classrooms were exposed to an average of 3.6 minutes of
informational text in a school day. In October, 2006, the first national Summit on Information Literacy
brought together well over 100 representatives from education, business, and government to address
America’s information literacy deficits as a nation currently competing in a global marketplace.
This successful collaboration was sponsored by the National Forum on Information Literacy,
Committee for Economic Development, Educational Testing Service, the Institute for a Competitive
Workforce, and National Education Association (NEA). The Summit was held at NEA headquarters
in Washington, D.C.
A major outcome of the Summit was the establishment of a national ICT literacy policy council to
provide leadership in creating national standards for ICT literacy in the United States.
As stated on the Forum’s Main Web page, it recognizes that achieving information literacy has been
much easier for those with money and other advantages. For those who are poor, non-White, older,
disabled, living in rural areas or otherwise disadvantaged, it has been much harder to overcome the
digital divide. A number of the Forum’s members address the specific challenges for those
disadvantaged. For example, The Children’s Partnership advocates for the nearly 70 million children
and youth in the country, many of whom are disadvantaged. The Children’s Partnership currently
runs three programs, two of which specifically address the needs of those with low-incomes: Online
content for Low-Income and Underserved Americans Initiative, and the California Initiative Program.
Another example is the National Hispanic Council on Aging which is:
Dedicated to improving the quality of life for Latino elderly, families, and communities through
advocacy, capacity and institution building, development of educational materials, technical
assistance, demonstration projects, policy analysis and research (National Hispanic Council on Aging,
and, Mission Statement section).
In the final analysis, the National Forum on Information Literacy will continue to work closely with
educational, business, and non-profit organizations in the U.S. to promote information literacy skill
development at every opportunity, particularly in light of the ever growing social, economic, and
political urgency of globalization, prompting us to re-energize our promotional and collaborative
efforts here at home.

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12.4 Bibliography Notes

Prague Declaration: “Towards an Information Literate Society” http://www.infolit.org/2003.html

Alexandria Proclamation: A High Level International Colloquium on Information Literacy and
Lifelong Learning,http://www.infolit.org/2005.html 2006 Information Literacy Summit: American
Competitiveness in the Internet Age http://www.infolit.org/reports.html 1989 Presidential
Committee on Information Literacy: Final Reporthttp://www.ala.org/ala/mgrps/divs/acrl/
publications/whitepapers/presidential.cfm
1983 A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform http://www.ed.gov/pubs/
NatAtRisk/index.html Gibson, C. (2004). Information literacy develops globally: The role of the
national forum on information literacy.

Knowledge
Quest. http://www.ala.org/ala/aasl/aaslpubsandjournals/kqweb/kqarchives/vol32/
324TOC2.cfm Breivik P.S. and Gee, E.G. (2006). Higher education in the internet age: Libraries
creating a strategic edge. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.

Educational schemata
One view of the components of information literacy
Based on the Big6 by Mike Eisenberg and Bob Berkowitz.
http://big6.com/
1. The first step in the Information Literacy strategy is to clarify and understand the
requirements of the problem or task for which information is sought.
Basic questions asked at this stage:
(i) What is known about the topic?
(ii) What information is needed?
(iii) Where can the information be found?
2. Locating: The second step is to identify sources of information and to find those resources.
Depending upon the task, sources that will be helpful may vary. Sources may include
books, encyclopedias, maps, almanacs, etc. Sources may be in electronic, print, social
bookmarking tools, or other formats.
3. Selecting/analyzing: Step three involves examining the resources that were found. The
information must be determined to be useful or not useful in solving the problem. The
useful resources are selected and the inappropriate resources are rejected.
4. Organizing/synthesizing: It is in the fourth step this information which has been selected
is organized and processed so that knowledge and solutions are developed.
Examples of basic steps in this stage are:
(i) Discriminating between fact and opinion
(ii) Basing comparisons on similar characteristics
(iii) Noticing various interpretations of data
(iv) Finding more information if needed
(v) Organizing ideas and information logically.

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Notes 5. Creating/presenting: In step five the information or solution is presented to the

appropriate audience in an appropriate format. A paper is written. A presentation is
made. Drawings, illustrations, and graphs are presented.
6. Evaluating: The final step in the Information Literacy strategy involves the critical
evaluation of the completion of the task or the new understanding of the concept. Was
the problem solved? Was new knowledge found? What could have been done differently?
What was done well?
The Big 6 skills have been used in a variety of settings to help those with a variety of needs. For
example, the library of Dubai Women’s College, in Dubai, United Arab Emirates which is an English
as a second language institution, uses the Big6 model for its information literacy workshops.
According to Story-Huffman (2009), using Big6 at the college “has transcended cultural and physical
boundaries to provide a knowledge base to help students become information literate” (para. 8). In
primary grades, Big6 has been found to work well with variety of cognitive and language levels
found in the classroom.
Differentiated instruction and the Big6 appear to be made for each other. While it seems as though
all children will be on the same Big6 step at the same time during a unit of instruction, there is no
reason students cannot work through steps at an individual pace. In addition, the Big 6 process
allows for seamless differentiation by interest.
A number of weaknesses in the Big6 approach have been highlighted by Philip Doty:
This approach is problem-based, is designed to fit into the context of Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy
of cognitive objectives, and aims toward the development of critical thinking. While the Big6 approach
has a great deal of power, it also has serious weaknesses. Chief among these are the fact that users
often lack well-formed statements of information needs, as well as the model’s reliance on problem-
solving rhetoric. Often, the need for information and its use are situated in circumstances that are
not as well-defined, discrete, and monolithic as problems (Doty, 2003).
Eisenberg (2004) has recognized that there are a number of challenges to effectively applying the
Big 6 skills, not the least of which is information overload which can overwhelm students. Part of
Eisenberg’s solution is for schools to help students become discriminating users of information.

Another conception of information literacy

This conception, used primarily in the library and information studies field, and rooted in the concepts
of library instruction and bibliographic instruction, is the ability “to recognize when information is
needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information”
(Presidential Committee on Information Literacy, 1989, p. 1). In this view, information literacy is
the basis for life-long learning.
In the publication Information power: Building partnerships for learning (AASL and AECT, 1998),
three categories, nine standards, and twenty-nine indicators are used to describe the information
literate student. The categories and their standards are as follows:

Category 1: Information Literacy

Standards:
1. The student who is information literate accesses information efficiently and effectively.
2. The student who is information literate evaluates information critically and competently.
3. The student who is information literate uses information accurately and creatively.

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Category 2: Independent Learning Notes

Standards:
1. The student who is an independent learner is information literate and pursues information
related to personal interests.
2. The student who is an independent learner is information literate and appreciates literature
and other creative expressions of information.
3. The student who is an independent learner is information literate and strives for excellence
in information seeking and knowledge generation.

Category 3: Social Responsibility

Standards:
1. The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to society is
information literate and recognizes the importance of information to a democratic society.
2. The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to society is
information literate and practices ethical behavior in regard to information and information
technology.
3. The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to society is
information literate and participates effectively in groups to pursue and generate information.
(AASL and AECT, 1998).
Since information may be presented in a number of formats, the term “information” applies to
more than just the printed word. Other literacies such as visual, media, computer, network, and
basic literacies are implicit in information literacy.
Many of those who are in most need of information literacy are often amongst those least able to
access the information they require:
Minority and at-risk students, illiterate adults, people with English as a second language, and
economically disadvantaged people are among those most likely to lack access to the information
that can improve their situations. Most are not even aware of the potential help that is available to
them (Presidential Committee on Information Literacy, 1989, para. 7) .
As the Presidential Committee report points out, members of these disadvantaged groups are often
unaware that libraries can provide them with the access, training and information they need. In
Osborne (2004) many libraries around the country are finding numerous ways to reach many of
these disadvantaged groups by discovering their needs in their own environments (including prisons)
and offering them specific services in the libraries themselves.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
8. In 1983, the seminal report “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform”
declared that a “rising tide of mediocrity” was eroding the very foundations of the American
educational system.
9. 1979, the A.L.A. Presidential Committee established the National Forum on Information
Literacy.
10. The first step in the Information Literacy strategy is to clarify and understand the require-
ments of the problem or task for which information is sought.

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Notes 12.5 Summary

• A seminal event in the development of the concept of information literacy was the
establishment of the American Library Association’s Presidential Committee on Information
Literacy, whose 1989 final report outlined the importance of the concept. The report defined
information literacy as the ability “to recognize when information is needed and have the
ability to locate, evaluate, and use effectively the needed information” and highlighted
information literacy as a skill essential for lifelong learning and the production of an informed
and prosperous citizenry.
• In “Information Literacy as a Liberal Art”, Jeremy J. Shapiro and Shelley K. Hughes advocated
a more holistic approach to information literacy education, one that encouraged not merely
the addition of information technology courses as an adjunct to existing curricula, but rather
a radically new conceptualization of “our entire educational curriculum in terms of
information”.

12.6 Keywords
Information Literacy : First appeared in print in a 1974 report by Paul G. Zurkowski.
Resource Literacy : Understand the form, format, location and access methods of information
resources about literacy.

12.7 Review Questions

1. What does the ALA states?
2. Define resource literacy.
3. What is emerging technology literacy?
4. What is the use information literacy strategy?
5. Explain the specific aspects of information literacy.
6. Write the tasks of the ALA Presidential Committee on Information Literacy.
7. Explain the educational schemata.
8. Explain the various conception of information literacy.
9. Elaborately discuss on Information literacy with its needs.
10. Discuss on National Forum on information literacy.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Jeremy Shapiro and Shelley Hughes 2. Paul G. Zurkowski 3. 1999
4. National Forum on Information Literacy, UNESCO 5. Barack Obama’s
6. (a) 7. (a) 8. True
9. False 10. True.

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12.8 Further Readings Notes

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002.
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://www.cenlib.iitm.ac.in/docs/library/index.php?page=infolit

http://infolit.org/about-the-national-forum/
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/bibliography.html

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Library and its Users Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University

Notes
Unit 13: Purpose and Programmes of Education

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

13.1 Effect on Education

13.2 Education in the USA

13.2.1 Standards

13.2.2 K-12 Education Restructuring

13.2.3 Efforts in K-12 Education

13.2.4 Efforts in Higher Education

13.2.5 Technology

13.2.6 Distance Education

13.2.7 Global Information Literacy

13.3 Summary

13.4 Keywords

13.5 Review Questions

13.6 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Describe the purpose of education
• Explain the programmes of education
• Discuss the education in USA
• Realise the improvements in different stages and types of education.

Introduction
The change from an economy based on labor and capital one based on information requires
information literate workers who will know how to interpret information.

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Barner’s (1996) study of the new workplace indicates significant changes will take place in the future: Notes
• The work force will become more decentralized
• The work force will become more diverse
• The economy will become more global
• The use of temporary workers will increase.
These changes will require that workers possess information literacy skills. The SCANS (1991) report
identifies the skills necessary for the workplace of the future. Rather than report to a hierarchical
management structure, workers of the future will be required to actively participate in the
management of the company and contribute to its success.

To survive in this information society, workers will need to possess skills beyond
those of reading, writing and arithmetic.

13.1 Effect on Education

The rapidly evolving information landscape means that education methods and practices must
evolve and adapt accordingly. Information literacy must become a key focus of educational
institutions at all levels. This requires a commitment to lifelong learning and an ability to seek out
and identify innovations that will be needed to keep pace with or outpace changes. Educational
methods and practices, within our increasingly information-centric society, must facilitate and
enhance a student’s ability to harness the power of information. Key to harnessing the power of
information is the ability to evaluate information, to ascertain among other things its relevance,
authenticity and modernity. The information evaluation process is crucial life skill and a basis for
lifelong learning. Evaluation consists of several component processes including metacognition, goals,
personal disposition, cognitive development, deliberation, and decision-making. This is both a
difficult and complex challenge and underscores the importance of being able to think critically.
Critical thinking is an important educational outcome for students. Education institutions have
experimented with several strategies to help foster critical thinking, as a means to enhance
information evaluation and information literacy among students. When evaluating evidence,
students should be encouraged to practice formal argumentation. Debates and formal presentations
must also be encouraged to analyze and critically evaluate information.
Education professionals must underscore the importance of high information quality. Students must
be trained to distinguish between fact and opinion. They must be encouraged to use cue words
such as “I think” and “I feel” to help distinguish between factual information and opinions.
Information related skills that are complex or difficult to comprehend must be broken down into
smaller parts. Another approach would be to train students in familiar contexts. Education
professionals should encourage students to examine “causes” of behaviors, actions and events.
Research shows that people evaluate more effectively if causes are revealed, where available. Such
initiatives would aid educators help people become more Information Literate. As a society, we
must critically evaluate information to establish a public demand for high information quality.
Because information literacy skills are vital to future success:
• Information literacy skills must be taught in the context of the overall process.
• Instruction in information literacy skills must be integrated into the curriculum and rein-
forced both within and outside of the educational setting.

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Notes Self Assessment

Fill in the blanks:
1. ...... (1996) study of the new workplace indicates significant changes will take place in the
future.
2. ...... is an important educational outcome for students.

13.2 Education in the USA

13.2.1 Standards
National content standards, state standards, and information literacy skills terminology may vary,
but all have common components relating to information literacy.
Information literacy skills are critical to several of the National Education Goals outlined in the
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, particularly in the act’s aims to increase “school readiness”,
“student achievement and citizenship”, and “adult literacy and lifelong learning”. Of specific
relevance are the “focus on lifelong learning, the ability to think critically, and on the use of new
and existing information for problem solving”, all of which are important components of information
literacy.
In 1998, the American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology published “Information Literacy Standards for Student Learning”,
which identified nine standards that librarians and teachers in K-12 schools could use to describe
information literate students and define the relationship of information literacy to independent
learning and social responsibility:
• Standard One: The student who is information literate accesses information efficiently and
effectively.
• Standard Two: The student who is information literate evaluates information critically and
competently.
• Standard Three: The student who is information literate uses information accurately and
creatively.
• Standard Four: The student who is an independent learner is information literate and pursues
information related to personal interests.
• Standard Five: The student who is an independent learner is information literate and
appreciates literature and other creative expressions of information.
• Standard Six: The student who is an independent learner is information literate and strives
for excellence in information seeking and knowledge generation.
• Standard Seven: The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to
society is information literate and recognizes the importance of information to a democratic
society.
• Standard Eight: The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to
society is information literate and practices ethical behavior in regard to information and
information technology.
• Standard Nine: The student who contributes positively to the learning community and to
society is information literate and participates effectively in groups to pursue and generate
information.
In 2007 AASL expanded and restructured the standards that school librarians should strive for in
their teaching. These were published as “Standards for the 21st Century Learner” and address several

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literacies: information, technology, visual, textual, and digital. These aspects of literacy were Notes
organized within four key goals: that “learners use of skills, resources, & tools” to “inquire, think
critically, and gain knowledge”; to “draw conclusions, make informed decisions, apply knowledge
to new situations, and create new knowledge”; to “share knowledge and participate ethically and
productively as members of our democratic society”; and to “pursue personal and aesthetic growth”.
In 2000, the Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), a division of the American Library
Association (ALA), released “Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher Education”,
describing five standards and numerous performance indicators considered best practices for the
implementation and assessment of postsecondary information literacy programs. The five standards
are:
• Standard One: The information literate student determines the nature and extent of the
information needed.
• Standard Two: The information literate student accesses needed information effectively and
efficiently.
• Standard Three: The information literate student evaluates information and its sources
critically and incorporates selected information into his or her knowledge base and value
system.
• Standard Four: The information literate student, individually or as a member of a group, uses
information effectively to accomplish a specific purpose.
• Standard Five: The information literate student understands many of the economic, legal,
and social issues surrounding the use of information and accesses and uses information
ethically and legally.
These standards are meant to span from the simple to more complicated, or in terms of Bloom’s
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, from the “lower order” to the “higher order”. Lower order
skills would involve for instance being able to use an online catalog to find a book relevant to an
information need in an academic library. Higher order skills would involve critically evaluating
and synthesizing information from multiple sources into a coherent interpretation or argument.

Self Assessment
Multiple Choice Questions:
3. The American Association of School Librarians and the Association for Educational
Communications and Technology published “Information Literacy Standards for Student
Learning” in the year:
(a) 1998 (b) 1999
(c) 1997 (d) 2000.
4. AASL expanded and restructured the standards that school librarians should strive for in
their teaching in the year:
(a) 1998 (b) 2007
(c) 2006 (d) 2001.
5. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL), a division of the American Library
Association (ALA), released “Information Literacy Competency Standards for Higher
Education” in the year:
(a) 2001 (b) 2007
(c) 2000 (d) None of these.

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Notes 13.2.2 K-12 Education Restructuring

Educational reform and restructuring make information literacy skills a necessity as students seek
to construct their own knowledge and create their own understandings. Today instruction methods
have changed drastically from the mostly one-directional teacher-student model, to a more
collaborative approach where the students themselves feel empowered. Much of this challenge is
now being informed by the American Association of School Librarians that published new standards
for student learning in 2007.
Within the K-12 environment, effective curriculum development is vital to imparting Information
Literacy skills to students. Given the already heavy load on students, efforts must be made to avoid
curriculum overload. Eisenberg strongly recommends adopting a collaborative approach to
curriculum development among classroom teachers, librarians, technology teachers, and other
educators. Staff must be encouraged to work together to analyze student curriculum needs, develop
a broad instruction plan, set information literacy goals, and design specific unit and lesson plans
that integrate the information skills and classroom content. These educators can also collaborate on
teaching and assessment duties.
Educators are selecting various forms of resource-based learning (authentic learning, problem-based
learning and work-based learning) to help students focus on the process and to help students learn
from the content. Information literacy skills are necessary components of each. Within a school
setting, it is very important that a students’ specific needs as well as the situational context be kept
in mind when selecting topics for integrated information literacy skills instruction. The primary
goal should be to provide frequent opportunities for students to learn and practice information
problem solving. To this extent, it is also vital to facilitate repetition of information seeking actions
and behavior. The importance of repetition in information literacy lesson plans cannot be
underscored, since we tend to learn through repetition. A students’ proficiency will improve over
time if they are afforded regular opportunities to learn and to apply the skills they have learnt.

The process approach to education is requiring new forms of student assessment.

Students demonstrate their skills, assess their own learning, and evaluate the
processes by which this learning has been achieved by preparing portfolios,
learning and research logs, and using rubrics.

13.2.3 Efforts in K-12 Education

Information literacy efforts are underway on individual, local, and regional bases.
Many states have either fully adopted AASL information literacy standards or have adapted them
to suit their needs. States such as Oregon (OSLIS, 2009) increasing rely on these guidelines for
curriculum development and setting information literacy goals. Virginia, on the other hand, chose
to undertake a comprehensive review, involving all relevant stakeholders and formulate it own
guidelines and standards for information literacy. At an international level, two framework
documents jointly produced by UNESCO and the IFLA (International Federation of Library
Associations and Institutions) developed two framework documents that laid the foundations in
helping define the educational role to be played by school libraries: the School library manifesto
(1999).
Another immensely popular approach to imparting information literacy is the Big 6 set of skills.
Eisenberg claims that the Big 6 is the most widely used model in K-12 education. This set of skills
seeks to articulate the entire information seeking life cycle. The Big 6 is made up of six major stages
and two sub-stages under each major stages. It defines the six steps as being: task definition,

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information seeking strategies, location and access, use of information, synthesis, and evaluation. Notes
Such approaches seek to cover the full range of information problem-solving actions that a person
would normally undertake, when faced with an information problem or with making a decision
based on available resources.
Imaginative Web based information literacy tutorials such as TILT are being created and integrated
with curriculum areas, or being used for staff development purposes.” Library media programs”
are fostering information literacy by integrating the presentation of information literacy skills with
curriculum at all grade levels.

But information literacy efforts are not being limited to the library field, but are also
being employed by regional educational consortia.

13.2.4 Efforts in Higher Education

Information literacy instruction in higher education can take a variety of forms: stand-alone courses
or classes, online tutorials, workbooks, course-related instruction, or course-integrated instruction.
One attempt in the area of physics was published in 2009.
State-wide university systems and individual colleges and universities are undertaking strategic
planning to determine information competencies, to incorporate instruction in information
competence throughout the curriculum and to add information competence as a graduation
requirement for students. The six regional accreditation boards have added information literacy to
their standards, Librarians often are required to teach the concepts of information literacy during
“one shot” classroom lectures. There are also credit courses offered by academic librarians to prepare
college students to become information literate.

Academic library programs are preparing faculty to facilitate their students’ mastery
of information literacy skills so that the faculty can in turn provide information literacy
learning experiences for the students enrolled in their classes.

13.2.5 Technology
Information Technology is the great enabler. It provides, for those who have access to it, an extension
of their powers of perception, comprehension, analysis, thought, concentration, and articulation
through a range of activities that include: writing, visual images, mathematics, music, physical
movement, sensing the environment, simulation, and communication.
Technology, in all of its various forms, offers users the tools to access, manipulate, transform, evaluate,
use, and present information.
Technology in schools includes computers, televisions, video cameras, video editing equipment,
and TV studios.
Two approaches to technology in K-12 schools are technology as the object of instruction approach,
and technology as the tool of instruction approach.
Schools are starting to incorporate technology skills instruction in the context of information literacy
skills. This is called technology information literacy.

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Notes Technology is changing the way higher education institutions are offering instruction. The use of
the Internet is being taught in the contexts of subject area curricula and the overall information
literacy process.
There is some empirical indication that students who use technology as a tool may become better at
managing information, communicating, and presenting ideas.

13.2.6 Distance Education

Now that information literacy has become a part of the core curriculum at many post-secondary
institutions, it is incumbent upon the library community to be able to provide information literacy
instruction in a variety of formats, including online learning and distance education. The Association
of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) addresses this need in its Guidelines for Distance Education
Services (2000):
“Library resources and services in institutions of higher education must meet the needs of all their
faculty, students, and academic support staff, wherever these individuals are located, whether on a
main campus, off campus, in distance education or extended campus programs—or in the absence
of a campus at all, in courses taken for credit or non-credit; in continuing education programs; in
courses attended in person or by means of electronic transmission; or any other means of distance
education.”
Within the e-learning and distance education worlds, providing effective information literacy
programs brings together the challenges of both distance librarianship and instruction. With the
prevalence of course management systems such as WebCT and Blackboard, library staff are
embedding information literacy training within academic programs and within individual classes
themselves (Presti, 2002).

13.2.7 Global Information Literacy

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) has established an
Information Literacy Section. The Section has, in turn, developed and mounted an Information
Literacy Resources Directory, called InfoLit Global. Librarians, educators and information
professionals may self-register and upload information-literacy-related materials (IFLA, Information
Literacy Section, n.d.) According to the IFLA website, “The primary purpose of the Information
Literacy Section is to foster international co-operation in the development of information literacy
education in all types of libraries and information institutions.” http://www.ifla.org/en/about-
information-literacy.

Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
6. American Association of School Librarians that published new standards for student learning
in 2007.
7. IFLA claims that the Big6 is the most widely used model in K-12 education.
8. The Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL) addresses this need in its Guide-
lines for Distance Education Services (2000).
9. The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) has established
an Information Literacy Section.

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13.3 Summary Notes

• The change from an economy based on labor and capital one based on information requires
information literate workers who will know how to interpret information.
• The rapidly evolving information landscape means that education methods and practices
must evolve and adapt accordingly. Information literacy must become a key focus of
educational institutions at all levels. This requires a commitment to lifelong learning and an
ability to seek out and identify innovations that will be needed to keep pace with or outpace
changes.
• Critical thinking is an important educational outcome for students. Education institutions
have experimented with several strategies to help foster critical thinking, as a means to enhance
information evaluation and information literacy among students.
• Education professionals must underscore the importance of high information quality. Students
must be trained to distinguish between fact and opinion. They must be encouraged to use cue
words such as “I think” and “I feel” to help distinguish between factual information and
opinions.
• National content standards, state standards, and information literacy skills terminology may
vary, but all have common components relating to information literacy.
• Educational reform and restructuring make information literacy skills a necessity as students
seek to construct their own knowledge and create their own understandings.
• Information Technology is the great enabler. It provides, for those who have access to it, an
extension of their powers of perception, comprehension, analysis, thought, concentration,
and articulation through a range of activities that include: writing, visual images, mathematics,
music, physical movement, sensing the environment, simulation, and communication.

13.4 Keywords
Critical Thinking : Critical thinking is an important educational outcome for students.
Information Literacy Skills : Information Literacy Skills are vital to future success.

13.5 Review Questions

1. Write a short note on evolution of economy.
2. What are the efforts on education?
3. Briefly explain the education in USA.
4. What are the efforts in K-12 education?
5. What are the efforts in higher education?
6. Describe technology.
7. Write a short note on
(a) Distance Education
(b) Global Information Literacy.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Barner’s 2. Critical thinking 3. (a)
4. (b) 5. (c) 6. True
7. False 8. True 9. True.

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Notes 13.6 Further Readings

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002.
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://studyplaces.com/articles/153449-education-in-the-usa

http://www.ifc.org/ifcext/

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Jovita Kaur, Lovely Professional University Unit 14: Public Relation and Marketing

Notes
Unit 14: Public Relation and Marketing

CONTENTS

Objectives

Introduction

14.1 Public Relations

14.2 Targeting Publics

14.3 Need of Public Relations

14.3.1 Advantages of Public Relations

14.3.2 Disadvantages of Public Relations

14.4 Objectives and Methods of Marketing Objectives

14.5 Summary

14.6 Keywords

14.7 Review Questions

14.8 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
• Discuss public relations
• Explain targeting publics
• Define need of Public Relations
• Elaborate advantages of Public Relations
• Define disadvantages of Public Relations
• Explain objective and methods of marketing.

Introduction
Public relations, abbreviated as PR, primarily concerns enhancing and maintaining the image for
businesses, non-profit organizations, events or high-profile people, such as celebrities and politicians.
An earlier definition of public relations, by The first World Assembly of Public Relations Associations,
held in Mexico City, in August 1978, was “the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting

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Notes their consequences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programs of
action, which will serve both the organization and the public interest.”
Others define it as the practice of managing communication between an organization and its publics.
Public relations provides an organization or individual exposure to their audiences using topics of
public interest and news items that provide a third-party endorsement and do not direct payment.
Common activities include speaking at conferences, working with the media, crisis communications,
social media engagement, and employee communication.
The European view of public relations notes that besides a relational form of interactivity there is
also a reflective paradigm that is concerned with publics and the public sphere; not only with
relational, which can in principle be private, but also with public consequences of organizational
behaviour. A much broader view of interactive communication using the Internet, as outlined by
Phillips and Young in Online Public Relations Second Edition (2009), describes the form and nature
of Internet-mediated public relations. It encompasses social media and other channels for
communication and many platforms for communication such as personal computers (PCs), mobile
phones and video game consoles with Internet access. The increasing use of the mentioned
technologies give the media a democratization power and thus, aid to the demystification of subjects.
Public relations are used to build rapport with employees, customers, investors, voters, or the general
public. Almost any organization that has a stake in how it is portrayed in the public arena employs
some level of public relations.

There are a number of public relations disciplines falling under the banner of corporate
communications, such as analyst relations, media relations, investor relations, internal
communications and labor relations. Most of them include the aspect of peer review
to get liability.

14.1 Public Relations

Say PR, as in public relations, particularly during a conversation about marketing and/or social
media, and participants are liable to have vastly different perspectives on the topic.

Traditionally, public relations referred to the art of getting mentions of a person,

company or other organization placed in the media, namely print, radio and
television.

The practice of public relations is spread widely. On the professional level, there is an organization
called Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), the world’s largest public relations organization.
PRSA is a community of more than 21,000 professionals that works to advance the skill set of public
relations. PRSA also fosters a national student organization called Public Relations Student Society
of America (PRSSA).
The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) says “public relations is concerned with or devoted
to creating mutual understanding among groups and institutions.” The PRSA recognises the place
of groups and institutions in the public relations process. It admits that these entities have interests
that must be protected. It also presupposes a streamlining of these benefits for mutual good. The
concept of mutuality in this definition makes you as a public relations man or woman an intermediary
between your organisation and its publics. This implies that you should be able to align the interests
of these two parties for their mutual advantage. You do this by convincing your organisation that

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public relations attempts to put the broad interest of the public first before the special interest of the Notes
organisation. By doing this, the organisation is indirectly serving its own interest; hence PR has
what is called “enlightened self interest”.
In the USA, public relations professionals earn an average annual salary of $49,800 which compares
with £40,000 for a practitioner with a similar job in the UK . Top earners bring home around $89,220
annually, while entry-level public relations specialists earn around $28,080. Corporate or in-house
communications is generally more profitable, and communications executives can earn salaries in
the mid six-figures, though this only applies to a fraction of the sector’s workforce.

The role of public relations professionals is changing because of the shift from
traditional to online media. Many PR professionals are finding it necessary to learn
new skills and to examine how social media can impact a brand’s reputation.

Methods, Tools and Tactics

Public relations and publicity are not synonymous, but many public relations campaigns include
provisions for publicity. Publicity is the spreading of information to gain public awareness for a
product, person, service, cause or organization, and can be seen as a result of effective public relations
planning. More recently in public relations, professionals are using technology as their main tool to
get their messages to target audiences. With the creation of social networks, blogs, and even Internet
radio public relations professionals are able to send direct messages through these mediums that
attract the target audiences. Methods used to find out what is appealing to target audiences include
the use of surveys, conducting research or even focus groups. Tactics are the ways to attract target
audiences by using the information gathered about that audience and directing a message to them
using tools such as social mediums or other technology. Another emerging theme is the application
of psychological theories of impression management.

Tools
There are various tools that can be used in the practice of public relations. Traditional tools include
press releases and media kits which are sent out to generate positive press on behalf of the
organization. Other widely used tools include brochures, newsletters and annual reports.
Increasingly, companies are utilizing interactive social media outlets, such as
• Blogs
• Social media (Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, foursquare (social network), etc.) as tools in their
public relations campaigns. Unlike the traditional tools which allowed for only one-way
communication, social media outlets allow the organization to engage in two-way
communication, and receive immediate feedback from their various stakeholders and public.
Furthermore, companies can join discussions with multiple user identities to create a positive
image of the company (e.g., quantity of positive statements from different users). PR tools
have changed so much that some are even suggesting the traditional press release may be
dead. The company PR tools have to operate in networks, where their clients are.
One of the most popular and traditional tools used by public relations professionals is a press kit,
also known as a media kit. A press kit is usually a folder that consists of promotional materials that
give information about an event, organization, business, or even a person. What are included would
be backgrounders or biographies, fact sheets, press releases (or media releases), media alerts,

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Notes brochures, newsletters, photographs with captions, copies of any media clips, and social mediums.
With the way that the industry has changed, many organizations may have a website with a link,
“Press Room” which would have online versions of these documents.
The art of public relations is more than simply press kits and social media. ‘PR’ is synonymous in
many people’s minds with “Press Release”, but the tools of the PR industry are actually many and
varied as well as sophisticated and subtle. They include media relations kits containing video and
audio news releases, referred to in the industry as VNRs and ANRs, which are often carefully
produced to emulate the signature style of a particular network news or current affairs program.
These products are then delivered to networks and run as regular program content, with or without
source acknowledgment, thereby saving the network tens of thousands of dollars in production
costs and delivering for the client of the PR firm an extremely effective and subtle method of managing
public opinion. Crisis and issues management campaigns often utilize VNRs and ANRs in their
efforts to manage information pertaining to threats to client reputation or profit. Astroturfing, or
creating front groups designed to appear as genuine grass roots movements, has proven to be a
very effective method of opinion management because people are less suspicious and critical of
“ordinary people voices their concerns” than they are of representatives of corporations or
governments. Buzz generation, or buzz marketing is another powerful and subversive form of PR
in which people are paid to create a “buzz” amongst their peers by exposing them to products or
opinions in a manner that appears not to be deliberate marketing or opinion management. Most PR
campaigns use many or all of these “communication” techniques and a great many more in creative
ways that deliver practical results in marketing or public opinion management.

Self Assessment
Fill in the blanks:
1. ....... says “public relations is concerned with or devoted to creating mutual understanding
among groups and institutions.
2. A press kit, also known as ...... .

14.2 Targeting Publics

A fundamental technique used in public relations is to identify the target audience, and to tailor
every message to appeal to that audience. It can be a general, nationwide or worldwide audience,
but it is more often a segment of a population. A good elevator pitch can help tailor messaging to
each target audience. Marketers often refer to socio-economically driven “demographics”, such as
“black males 18-49”. However, in public relations an audience is more fluid, being whoever someone
wants to reach. Or, in the new paradigm of value based networked social groups, the values based
social segment could be a trending audience. For example, recent political audiences seduce such
buzzword monikers as “soccer moms” and “NASCAR dads.”
An alternative and less flexible, more simplistic, approach uses stakeholders theory to identify people
who have a stake in a given institution or issue. All audiences are stakeholders (or presumptive
stakeholders), but not all stakeholders are audiences. For example, if a charity commissions a public
relations agency to create an advertising campaign to raise money to find a cure for a disease, the
charity and the people with the disease are stakeholders, but the audience is anyone who is likely to
donate money.

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Notes

Sometimes the interests of differing audiences and stakeholders common to a

public relations effort necessitate the creation of several distinct but
complementary messages. This is not always easy to do, and sometimes,
especially in politics, a spokesperson or client says something to one audience
that creates dissonance with another audience or group of stakeholders.

Lobby Groups
Lobby groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy, or public opinion.
An example of this is the American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), which influences
American foreign policy. Such groups claim to represent a particular interest and in fact are dedicated
to doing so. When a lobby group hides its true purpose and support base, it is known as a front
group. Moreover, governments may also lobby public relations firms in order to sway public opinion.
A well illustrated example of this is the way civil war in Yugoslavia was portrayed. Governments
of the newly seceded republics of Croatia and Bosnia, as well as Serbia invested heavily with UK
and American public relations firms, so that they would give them a positive image in the USA.

Spin

In public relations, spin is sometimes a pejorative term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in
specific favor of an event or situation. While traditional public relations may also rely on creative
presentation of the facts, spin often, though not always, implies disingenuous, deceptive and/or
highly manipulative tactics. Politicians are often accused of spin by commentators and political
opponents when they produce a counterargument or position.
The techniques of spin include selectively presenting facts and quotes that support ideal positions
(cherry picking), the so-called “non-denial denial”, phrasing that in a way presumes unproven
truths, euphemisms for drawing attention away from items considered distasteful, and ambiguity
in public statements. Another spin technique involves careful choice of timing in the release of
certain news so it can take advantage of prominent events in the news. A famous reference to this
practice occurred when British Government press officer Jo Moore used the phrase “It’s now a very
good day to get out anything we want to bury”, (widely paraphrased or misquoted as “It’s a good
day to bury bad news”), in an e-mail sent on the day of the September 11, 2001 attacks. The furor
caused when this e-mail was reported in the press eventually caused her to resign.
Skilled practitioners of spin are sometimes called “spin doctors”, despite the negative connotation
associated with the term. Perhaps the best-known person in the UK often described as a “spin
doctor” is Alastair Campbell, who was involved with Tony Blair’s public relations between 1994
and 2003, and also played a controversial role as press relations officer to the British and Irish Lions
rugby union side during their 2005 tour of New Zealand.
State-run media in many countries also engage in spin by selectively allowing news stories that are
favorable to the government while censoring anything that could be considered critical. They may
also use propaganda to indoctrinate or actively influence citizens’ opinions. Privately run media
may also use the same techniques of “issue” versus “non-issue” to spin its particular political
viewpoints.

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Notes Negative PR

Negative public relations, also called dark public relations (DPR), is a process of destroying the
target’s reputation and corporate identity. In other words, instead of concentrating efforts in the
maintenance and the creation of a positive reputation or image of your clients, the objective is to
discredit someone else, usually a business rival. Unlike the regular services in public relations,
those in BPR rely on the development of industries such as IT security, industrial espionage, social
engineering and competitive intelligence. A common technique is finding all of the dirty secrets of
their target and turning them against their very own holder.
The building of a dark PR campaign, also known as a dirty tricks or a smear campaign is a long and
a complex operation.

Traditionally it starts with an extensive information gathering and follows the other
needs of a precise competitive research. The gathered information is being used after
that as a part of a greater strategically planning, aiming to destroy the relationship
between the company and its stakeholders.

14.3 Need of Public Relations

Public relations involve the cultivation of favorable relations for organizations and products with
its key publics through the use of a variety of communications channels and tools. Traditionally,
this meant public relations professionals would work with members of the news media to build a
favorable image by publicizing the organization or product through stories in print and broadcast
media. But today the role of public relations is much broader and includes:
• building awareness and a favorable image for a company or client within stories and articles
found in relevant media outlets
• closely monitoring numerous media channels for public comment about a company and its
products
• managing crises that threaten company or product image
• building goodwill among an organization’s target market through community, philanthropic
and special programs and events.
In this tutorial most of our focus is on how public relations supports marketing by building product
and company image (sometimes referred to as publicity). Yet, it should be noted that there are other
stakeholders companies reached via the public relations function, such as employees and non-target
market groups. Favorable media coverage about a company or product often reaches these audiences
as well and may offer potential benefit to the marketer.
Finally, in most large companies, investor relations (IR) or financial public relations is a specialty in
itself guided by specific disclosure regulations. However, coverage of this type of PR will not be
provided here.

14.3.1 Advantages of Public Relations

Public relations offers several advantages not found with other promotional options. First, PR is
often considered a highly credible form of promotion. One of PR’s key points of power rests with
helping to establish credibility for a product, company or person (e.g., CEO) in the minds of targeted
customer groups by capitalizing on the influence of a third-party — the media. Audiences view

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many media outlets as independent-party sources that are unbiased in their coverage, meaning that Notes
the decision to include the name of the company and the views expressed about the company is not
based on payment (i.e., advertisement) but on the media outlet’s judgment of what is important. For
example, a positive story about a new product in the business section of a local newspaper may
have greater impact on readers than a full-page advertisement for the product since readers perceive
the news media as presenting an impartial perspective of the product.
Second, a well-structured PR campaign can result in the target market being exposed to more detailed
information than they receive with other forms of promotion. That is, media sources often provide
more space and time for explanation of a product.
Third, depending on the media outlet, a story mentioning a company may be picked up by a large
number of additional media, thus, spreading a single story to many locations.
Finally, in many cases public relations objectives can be achieved at very low cost when compared
to other promotional efforts. This is not to suggest public relations is not costly, it may be, especially
when a marketer hires PR professionals to handle the work. But when compared to the direct cost
of other promotions, in particular advertising, the return on promotional expense can be quite high.

14.3.2 Disadvantages of Public Relations

While public relations hold many advantages for marketers, there are also concerns when using
this promotional technique. First, while public relations uses many of the same channels as
advertising, such as newspapers, magazines, radio, TV and Internet, it differs significantly from
advertising in that marketers do not have direct control over whether a message is delivered and
where it is placed for delivery. For instance, a marketer may spend many hours talking with a
magazine writer, who is preparing an industry story, only to find that their company is never
mentioned in the article.
Second, while other promotional messages are carefully crafted and distributed as written through
a pre-determined placement in a media vehicle, public relations generally conveys information to a
member of the news media (e.g., reporter) who then recrafts the information as part of a news story
or feature. Thus, the final message may not be precisely what the marketer planned.
Third, while a PR campaign has the potential to yield a high return on promotional expense, it also
has the potential to produce the opposite if the news media feels there is little value in running a
story pitched (i.e., suggested via communication with the news outlet) by the marketer.
Fourth, with PR there is always a chance that a well devised news event or release will get “bumped”
from planned media coverage because of a more critical breaking news story, such as wars, severe
weather or serious crime.
Finally, in some areas of the world the impact of traditional news outlets is fading forcing public
relations professionals to scramble to find new ways to reach their target markets.

Self Assessment

Multiple Choice Questions:

3. Negative public relations, also called:
(a) DPR (b) DRP
(c) PDR (d) None of these.
4. Promotional option of public relations depends on:
(a) Product (b) Promotion
(c) Media (d) None of these.

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Notes 14.4 Objectives and Methods of Marketing Objectives

Like other aspects of marketing promotion, public relations are used to address several broad
objectives including:
• Building Product Awareness: When introducing a new product or relaunching an existing
product, marketers can use a PR element that generates consumer attention and awareness
through media placements and special events.
• Creating Interest : Whether a PR placement is a short product article or is included with other
products in “round up” article, stories in the media can help entice a targeted audience to try
the product. For example, around the holiday season, a special holiday food may be promoted
with PR through promotional releases sent to the food media or through special events that
sample the product.
• Providing Information: PR can be used to provide customers with more in depth information
about products and services. Through articles, collateral materials, newsletters and websites,
PR delivers information to customers that can help them gain understanding of the product.
• Stimulating Demand: A positive article in a newspaper, on a TV news show or mentioned on
the Internet, often results in a discernable increase in product sales.
• Reinforcing the Brand : In many companies the public relations function is also involved with
brand reinforcement by maintaining positive relationships with key audiences, and thereby
aiding in building a strong image. Today it is ever more important for companies and brands
to build a good image. A strong image helps the company build its business and it can help
the company in times of crises as well.

Methods
With more and more of your customers coming online to talk with, shop, read, and research, being
easily accessible online is vital to your company’s success. Customers come online to read about
you from other customers, the media, and your own website. With so many places for them to find
out about you, ensure that you are monitoring the WOM (word of mouth) being generated about
you. Since it’s a bit difficult to control the WOM your company receives online, you can control the
content your own site or blog produces. Creating great content on your site can help to influence
the other WOM media or bloggers share about you, and it can also help customers to see the whole
picture despite some negative WOM they may have read about you elsewhere. This requires that
you actively monitor other sources of information and that you are actively participating on your
own website.
The four ways to help customers find you first:
1. Use keyword rich copy. Learn what customers are searching for by using Google Alerts
and the Google Keyword tool to see what keywords customers are searching for. Though
this will give you a large list of keywords customers search for regularly, remember to
pay attention to the longer keyword sequences, or the long-tail keywords. These are
keywords and phrases that fewer customers search for because of their length. The main
thing to remember here is that searches made in an online search engine like Google are
often times brand new searches that web users have never searched for before. This is
important to remember so that you can avoid competing with the millions of other blogs
trying to be found through some of the most searched keywords. It is hard to differentiate
yourself as it is, so why not do something small that will make it a bit easier?
2. Optimize your images. Just like the title and the rest of your website’s copy, you can
optimize your image titles. Since search engine spiders (who “crawl” the web,

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 Unit 14: Public Relation and Marketing

documenting the Internet’s content) cannot “see” images, having a great picture on a Notes
website might not do much to help your customers find you. It may help to make their
visit more pleasant once they get to your site, but in order to increase your chances of
being found in a search engine results page, save your image with the same keyword-
rich title you give the webpage or blog post. This will help search engine spiders to see
the importance of your image and also help to increase the search engine results that
your blog post or website appear in.
3. Use multiple vehicles to share your information and content. This means creating videos,
blog posts, and audio recordings to share your information. With people learning in
different ways, a blog post may become more interesting for someone who prefers to
hear someone talk rather than read themselves. Creating multiple methods for people to
“hear” you can greatly improve your chances of reaching more people.
4. Share your content. Use Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn, RSS feeds, etc., to share when your
blog is updated or when you add a new video resource. This can also increase your
reach. Your target audiences may be on different platforms or different social media sites
so use all that are applicable and relevant. Moreover, RSS feeds may be useful to readers
who read all of their favorite blogs that way.

Overall, remember that your audiences are unique and may have different search
methods or preferred methods of consuming content. Make as much available as
possible, and incorporate SEO (search engine optimization) tactics (using keywords
customers search for) into your website content to increase your chances of being
found.

Self Assessment

State whether the following statements are true or false:

5. PR can be used to provide customers with more in depth information about products and
services.
6. A positive article in a newspaper, on a TV news show or mentioned on the Internet, often
results in a discernable increase in product sales.

14.5 Summary
• The public relation is “the art and social science of analyzing trends, predicting their conse-
quences, counseling organizational leaders, and implementing planned programs of action,
which will serve both the organization and the public interest.”
• An another definition is the practice of managing communication between an organization
and its publics.
• Public relations provides an organization or individual exposure to their audiences using
topics of public interest and news items that provide a third-party endorsement and do not
direct payment.
• Common activities include speaking at conferences, working with the media, crisis commu-
nications, social media engagement, and employee communication.

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Notes 14.6 Keywords

Public Relations : Public relations primarily concerns enhancing and maintaining the image for
business, non-profit organisations, events for high-profile people such as celebraties
and politicians.
Lobby Groups : Lobby groups are established to influence government policy, corporate policy or
public opinion.
Spin : In PR, spin is sometimes a pejorative term signifying a heavily biased portrayal in
specific favour of an event or situation.
Negative PR : Negative PR also called dark public relation (DPR) is a process of destroying the
target’s reputation and corporate identity.

14.7 Review Questions

1. Define the term Negative PR.
2. What do you mean by creating interest?
3. Write a short note on stimulating demand.
4. What does optimizing the image mean?
5. Explain the public relation.
6. Write the tools used in public relations.
7. Write a short note on Targeting publics.
8. Write the needs of public relation.
9. Write the advantages and disadvantages of public relations.
10. Explain the objectives and methods of marketing.

Answers: Self Assessment

1. Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) 2. media kit
3. (a) 4. (c) 5. True 6. True

14.8 Further Readings

Lancaster, (F.W): If you want to evaluate your Library

Prasher, (R.G): Information and its communication
Laloo, (Bikika Tariaing): Information needs, information seeking behaviours and users,
Delhi, Ess Ess, 2002
Jordan, (Peter): The academic Library and its users, Gover, 1998.

Online links http://persmin.gov.in/otraining/UNDPProject/undp_modules/

http://www.smallbusinessnotes.com/starting-a-business/

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