7 Permeability

Lecture Outline:

1. Soil Permeability
2. Bernoulli’s Equation
3. Darcy’s Law
4. Hydraulic Conductivity Lab Test
5. Permeability Test in the Field
Soil Permeability

What is Permeability?
• Soils are assemblages of solid particles with interconnected voids where
water can flow from a point of high energy to a point of low energy.
• Permeability is the measure of the soil’s ability to permit water to flow
through its pores or voids.
• It is one of the most important soil properties of interest to geotechnical
engineers

Loose soil Dense soil

Easy to flow - High permeability Difficult to flow – Low permeability
Soil Permeability

Importance of permeability:
• Permeability influences the rate of settlement of a saturated soil under load.
• The design of earth dams is very much based upon the permeability of the
soils used.
• The stability of slopes and retaining structures can be greatly affected by the
permeability of the soils involved.
• Filters made of soils are designed based upon their permeability.
The study of permeability is important for:
• Estimating the quantity of underground seepage.
• Investigating problems involving pumping seepage of water for underground
constructions.
• Analyzing the stability of earth dams and earth retaining walls subjected to
seepage forces.
Bernoulli’s Equation

• According to Ber oulli’s equation, the total head at a point in water under
motion can be expressed as the summation of the pressure, velocity, and
elevation heads:
h  z

2
v p
h: total head (m)
2g m p: water pressure (Pa)
v: velocity of water (m/s)
Pressure Velocity Elevation
Head Head Head z: elevation head (m)

• When water flows through soils, the seepage velocity is often very small. It is
even smaller when squared, and the third component in Ber oulli’s equation
becomes negligible compared to the first two components. Therefore, the
total head at any point can be adequately represented by :

h z

p
m
Bernoulli’s Equation

• The heads of water at points A and B as the water flows from A to B are
given as follows (with respect to a datum):

• Total head at A: h  z

p A
A A

• Total head at B: h   z
w


p B
B B
w

• The loss of head between A and B:

p  p 
h  h  h    z     z 
   
A B
A B A B
w w

• The head loss may be expressed as:

h
i
i: hydraulic gradient
L L: distance between points A and B
Bernoulli’s Equation

• the variation of the velocity (v) with the hydraulic gradient (i) may be
divided into three main zones, as shown in the figure:

laminar, thus: v  i
• In most soils, the flow of water through the void spaces can be considered
 Flow of water through soils may either be a laminar
flow or a turbulent flow

Each fluid particle travel

along a definite path
which never crosses
the path of any other
particle

Paths are irregular and

twisting, crossing at
random
 Absolute permeability

Coefficient Of Independent of the properties

Permeability of water
It depends only on the
characteristics of soil
Depends not only on the The absolute permeability only
properties of soil but also depends on the geometry of the
on the properties of water pore-channel system.

Relative permeability is the ratio of

effective permeability of a particular fluid to its
absolute permeability.
Darcy’s Law

• Henri Darcy in 1856 derived an empirical formula for the behavior of flow
through saturated soils. He found that the quantity of water (q) per sec
flowing through a cross-sectional area (A) of soil under hydraulic gradient (i)
can be expressed by the formula:
v  ki q   kiA
or
Q
where, t
v: discharge velocity, which is the quantity of water flowing in unit time
through a unit gross cross-sectional area of soil (cm/s).
k: coefficient of permeability or hydraulic conductivity (cm/s).
q: flow rate (cm3/s).
Q: volume of collected water (cm3).
A: cross-sectional area (cm3).
i: hydraulic gradient.
Darcy’s Law

• Seepage velocity vs: is the actual velocity of water through the void spaces.
• vs is greater then v.

A A  A
v s

q  vA  v A
q  v A  A   A v
s s

v A  A  v A  A L vV  V 
v s v s

v 
s
v
 s
 v s v s

 V 
A AL V where,
1    
v v v

 V  1  e  v
Vv: volume of voids.

v

v v  v 
   e  n
s Vs: volume of solids.

 V 
s
V e: void ratio.
 
v

s
n: porosity.
Problem:
A sample of sand, 5cm in diameter and 15cm long, was prepared at a porosity of 60% in a
constant head apparatus. The total head was kept constant at 30 cm and the amount of water
collected in 5s was 40cm3. The test temperature was 20C. Calculate the hydraulic
conductivity and the seepage velocity.
Step 1: calculate the cross-sectional area of Step 2: Calculate 𝑘𝑧
sample and hydraulic gradient,
𝑞 8
𝑘= = = 0.2 cm/s
𝐷 = 5cm 𝑖𝐴 2 × 19.6

𝜋 × 𝐷2 𝜋 × 52
𝐴= = = 19.6 cm2
4 4

Δ𝐻 = 30 cm Step 3: Calculate the seepage velocity

Δ𝐻 30
𝑖= = =2
𝐿 15 𝑘𝑖 0.2 × 2
𝑣𝑠 = = = 0.67 cm/s
𝑛 0.6
𝑄 = 40 cm3

𝑄 40
𝑞= = = 8 cm3 /s
𝑡 5
Hydraulic Conductivity

• The coefficient or permeability (k), also known as hydraulic conductivity, is a

measure of soil permeability. It is generally expressed in cm/sec or m/sec in
SI units.
• The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends on several factors:
 Fluid viscosity
 Pore size distribution
 Grain size distribution
 Void ratio
 Degree of soil saturation
Structure of soil mass
Shape of particles
Impurities in water
 Determination Of Coefficient Of
Permeability

Capillarity-
Laboratory Indirect Methods permeability Test
Methods Field Methods

Pumping-out Test
Constant-head Computation
Permeability Test From The Particle
Pumping-in Test Size

Variable-head From Consolidation

Permeability Test Test Data
Constant Head Test

• The constant head test is used primarily for coarse-grained soils.

• It is based on the assumption of laminar flow where k is independent of i
(low values of i).
• This test applies a constant head of water to each end of a soil in a
per ea eter (ASTM D 2434).
• After a constant flow rate is established, water is collected in a graduated
flask for a known duration.

Permeameter cell
Constant Head Test

• The total volume of water collected may be expressed as:

Q  Avt
v  ki i
h
and
 h
Q  A k t
L

 L
therefore,

k
QL
m/s
Aht

Q: volume of water collected

A: area of cross section of the soil sample
t: duration of collection of water
Constant Head Test

• Test procedure (ASTM D 2434):

1. Setup screens on the permeameter
2. Measurements for permeameter, (D), (L), (H1)
3. Take 1000 g passing No.4 soil (M1)
4. Take a sample for M.C.
5. Assemble the permeameter–make sure seals are air-tight
6. Fill the mold in several layers and compact it as prescribed.
7. Put top porous stone and measure (H2)
8. Weigh remainder of soil (M2)
9. Complete assembling the permeameter. (keep outlet valve closed)
10. Connect Manometer tubes, but keep the valves closed.
11. Apply vacuum to remove air for 15 minutes (through inlet tube at top)
12. Ru the Test follow i stru tio s i the la a ual …..
13. Take readings
• Manometer heads (h1) & (h2)
• Collect water at the outlet, Q (in ml) at time t ≈60 se .
Falling Head Test

• The falling head test is used for both coarse-grained soils as well as fine-
grained soils.
• Same procedure in constant head test except:
 Record initial head difference, h1 at t = 0
 Allow water to flow through the soil specimen
 Record the final head difference, h2 at time t = t2
 Collect water at the outlet, Q (in ml) at time t ≈ 60 sec

Permeameter cell
Falling Head Test

• The rate of flow of the water through the specimen at any time t can be

q  k A  a
given by: h dh
L dt
q: rate of flow
a: cross sectional area of standpipe
A: cross sectional area of the soil sample
aL  dh 
dt       
t1
aL dh
h1

Ak  h 
dt
0 Ak h
h2

t k
aL h aL h
ln 1
ln 1

Ak h At h
k  2.33
2 2

aL h
log 1

At h 2

h1: distance to bottom of the beaker before the test

h2: distance to bottom of the beaker after the test
 Limitations of Laboratory Tests

 Soil specimen is not representative of the natural deposit.

 Effect of the boundary conditions due to the small size of the
specimen.

 Air bubbles may be trapped in the test specimen, or air may come
out of solution of the water.

 When k is very small, say 10-5 – 10-9 cm/sec, evaporation may

affect the measurements.
 Temperature variation, especially in test of long duration, may
affect the measurements.

 Migration of fines in testing sands and silts.

 To expedite the test, the laboratory hydraulic gradient h/L is

often made 5 or more, whereas in the field more realistic values
may be on the order of 0.1 to 2.0
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Measurement of coefficient of permeability – Field tests

Assumptions
1. The aquifer is homogeneous.
2. Darcy’s law is valid.
3. The flow is horizontal.
4. The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer.
5. Natural groundwater regime remains constant with time.
6. Dupuit’s theory is valid that is, i = dz/dr

Case 1: Unconfined Aquifer

Let r and z be the radial distance and height above the impervious boundary at any point
on the drawdown curve as shown in Figure 4.6. At steady state, the rate of discharge due
to pumping can be expressed as, q = kiA
dz
Hydraulic gradient at any point is given by Dupuit’s theory, i =
dr

Figure 4.6: Field permeability test – Pumping out test in an unconfined aquifer

dz
∴q = k 2π rz (Q A = 2π rz )
dr
r2 z2
dr 2π k dr 2π k
r
=
q
( z.dz ), integrating both sides ∫ r
=
q ∫ z.dz
r1 z1
 2.303q  r 
⇒k = 2 2 
log10 2 
π ( z2 − z1 )  r1 
Note: z1 = (h – d1) & z2= (h – d2)

2.303q  r2 
∴k =  log10 
r1 
π [(d1 − d 2 )(2h − d1 − d 2 )] 
If the values of r1, r2, z1, z2, and q are known from field measurements, the coefficient of
permeability can be calculated using the above relationship for k.
Case 2: Confined Aquifer
Let r and z be the radial distance and height above the impervious boundary at any point
on the drawdown curve as shown in Figure 4.7. At steady state, the rate of discharge due
to pumping can be expressed as, q = kiA

Figure 4.7: Field permeability test – Pumping out test in confined aquifer
dz
∴q = k 2π rH (Q A = 2π rH )
dr
H is depth of confined aquifer
z2 r2
q dr q dr
kdz =
2π H r
integrating both sides, k ∫ dz =
2π H ∫ r
z1 r1

z2 q r2
⇒ k[ z ] 
z1 2π H 
= log e r 
r1
⇒k =
2.303q
2π H ( z2 − z1 ) ( r
log10 2 ;
r1 ) ⇒k =
q
(
2.7283 × H ( z2 − z1 )
r
log10 2
r1 )
Note: z1 = (h – d1) & z2= (h – d2)

∴k =
q
2.7283 × H (d1 − d1 ) ( r
log10 2
r1 )
If the values of r1, r2, z1, z2, and q are known from field measurements, the coefficient of
permeability can be calculated using the above relationship for k.

4.10 Total Stress, Effective Stress and Pore Pressure

• External loading increases the total stress at every point in a saturated soil above
its initial value.
• The magnitude of this increase depends mostly on the location of the point
• The pressure transmitted through grain to grain at the contact points through a soil
mass is termed as inter-granular or effective pressure.
• It is known as effective pressure since this pressure is responsible for the decrease
in the void ratio or increase in the frictional resistance of a soil mass.
• If the pores of a soil mass are filled with water and if a pressure induced into the
pore water, tries to separate the grains, this pressure is termed as pore water
pressure or neutral stress. It is the same in all directions
The total stress, either due to self-weight of the soil or due to external applied forces or
due to both, at any point inside a soil mass is resisted by the soil grains as also by water
present in the pores or void spaces in the case of a saturated soil.
Total stress = Effective stress + Pore water Pressure (Neutral stress)
σσ==σσ ++uu
'
If γ b and γ w are soil bulk unit weight and unit weight of water respectively, then at any depth, z ,
Effective, total and neutral stresses relationship may be expressed as
σ ' = σ − u = γbz − γ wz
σ ' = z (γ b − γ w ) = γ ' z
where, u = γ w z .
Usually the unit weight of soil varies with depth. Soil becomes denser with depth owing
to the compression caused by the geostatic stresses. If the unit weight of soil varies
continuously with depth, the vertical stress at any point, σv can be evaluated by means of
the integral:
z
σ v = ∫ γ .dz
0

If the soil is stratified, with different unit weights for each stratum, σv may be computed
conveniently by summation:
n
σ v = ∑ γ .(∆z )i
i =1

4.11 Upward flow – Quick sand condition and Critical hydraulic gradient
Consider a case of water flowing under a hydraulic head x through a soil column of
height H as shown in the Figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Computation of critical hydraulic gradient at point O.

The state of stress at point O situated at a depth of h2 from the top of soil column may be
computed as follows,
Vertical stress at O is,
σ v = h1γ w + h2γ sat
O

If γ w is the unit weight of water then pore pressure uO at O is,

uo = (h1 + h2 + x)γ w
If γ sat and γ ' saturated and submerged unit weights of the soil column respectively,
Then effective stress at O is,
σ ' = σ v − uo = (h1γ w + h2γ sat ) − (h1 + h2 + x)γ w
O

σ = h2 (γ sat − γ w ) − xγ w = h2γ ' − xγ w

'

For quick sand condition(sand boiling) the effective stress tends to zero;
that is, σ ' = 0
We get critical hydraulic gradient icritical as,
σ ' = h2γ ' − xγ w = 0;
x γ ' γ w (G − 1) 1 G − 1
icritical = = = × =
h2 γ w 1+ e γ w 1+ e
Where G is the specific gravity of the soil particles and e is the void ratio of the soil mass.
Therefore critical hydraulic gradient corresponds to hydraulic gradient which tends to a
state of zero effective stress. Hence critical hydraulic gradient is given by
G −1
icritical =
1+ e

4.12 Capillary water in soil

• Capillary rise results from the combined actions of surface tension and inter-
molecular forces between the liquid and solids.
• The rise of water in soils above the ground water table is analogous to the rise of
water into capillary tubes placed in a source of water.
• But, the void spaces in a soil are irregular in shape and size, as they interconnect
in all directions.
• The pressure on the water table level is zero, any water above this level must have
a negative pressure.
• In soils a negative pore pressure increases the effective stresses and varies with
the degree of saturation

Capillary rise in glass tube:

Consider capillary tube of diameter d, capillary rise, hc in the tube can be computed
equating the surface tension forces to weight of water column that is raised due to
capillary action as follows, (Refer to Figure 4.10)
 πd2
(π d ) × Ts cos α = hc × γ w
4
4Ts cos α 4T
hc = ; For pure water and a glass tube of very small diameter, α = 0, ∴ hc = s
dγ w dγ w

Figure 4.10: Capillary rise due to surface tension

4Ts
The maximum negative pore pressure is: u = hcγ w =
d
The surface tension, TS for water at 20° C is equal to 75 x 10-8 kN/cm.
• The capillary process starts as water evaporates from the surface of the soil.
• The capillary zone is comprised of a fully saturated layer with a height of usually less
than hc, and a partially saturated layer overlain by wet or dry soil.
• Negative pore pressure results in an increase in the effective stress and is termed soil
suction.
• In granular materials (gravels and sands) the amount of capillary rise is negligible
while in fine grained soils the water may rise up to several meters.
EXAMPLE: 4.1
The results of a constant head permeability test on fine sand are as follows: area of the
soil specimen 180 cm2, length of specimen 320 mm, constant head maintained 460 mm,
and flow of water through the specimen 200mL in 5 min. Determine the coefficient of
permeability.
Data: L = 320 mm = 32 cm, Q = 200 ml.=200 cm3, A =180 cm2, t = 5 minutes = 300 s
h = 460 mm = 46 cm
Q L 200 32
∴k = = = 0.00258 cm / s
At h 180 × 300 46
∴ k = 0.0258 mm / s
EXAMPLE: 4.2
The discharge of water collected from a constant head permeameter in a period of 15
minutes is 400 ml. The internal diameter of the permeameter is 6 cm and the measured
difference in heads between the two gauging points 15 cm apart is 40. Calculate the
coefficient of permeability. If the dry weight of the 15 cm long sample is 7.0 N and the
specific gravity of the solids is 2.65, calculate the seepage velocity.
Data – I: Data – II:
L = 15 cm G = 2.65
2 2
A = πD /4 = π(36)/4=28.27 cm L=15 cm
h = 40 cm Wdry = 7.0 N
3
Q = 400 ml.=400 cm
t = 15 minutes = 900 s
Q L 400 15
∴k = = = 0.0059 cm / s
At h 28.27 × 900 40
Volume of the sample is
= AL = 28.27 × 15 = 424.05 cm3
7 kN
Dry density γ dry = × 1000 = 16.51 3
424.05 m
Gγ w Gγ w 2.65 × 9.81
γ dry = ; ∴1 + e = = = 1.575; ∴ e = 0.575
1+ e γ dry 16.51
e 0.575
n= = = 0.365; Superficial velocity,
1 + e 1.575
Q 0.0059
v= = = 0.016 cm / s
At 28.27 × 900
v 0.016
∴ seepage velocity, vs = = = 0.0438 cm / s
n 0.365
EXAMPLE: 4.3
In a falling head test permeability test initial head of 1.0 m dropped to 0.35 m in 3 hours,
the diameter being 5mm. The soil specimen is 200 mm long and 100 mm in diameter.
Calculate coefficient of permeability of the soil.
Data:
L = 200 mm
A =πD2/4 = π(1002)/ 4 = 7853.98 mm2; a =πD2/4 = π(52)/ 4 = 19.635 mm2
t = 3 hours=180 minutes = 10800 s
h1 = 1 m = 1000 mm, h2 = 0.35 m = 350 mm
aL h 
k = 2.303 log10  1 
At  h2 
19.635×200  1000  −5
k = 2.303 log10   = 4.86×10 mm
7853.98×10800  350 
EXAMPLE: 4.4
A falling head permeability test is to be performed on a soil sample whose permeability is
estimated to be about 3 × 10–5 cm/s. What diameter of the standpipe should be used if the
head is to drop from 27.5 cm to 20.0 cm in 5 minutes and if the cross-sectional area and
length of the sample are respectively 15 cm2 and 8.5 cm ? Will it take the same time for
the head to drop from 37.7 cm to 30.0 cm ?
Data – I: L = 8.5 cm A = 15 cm2;
t = 5 minutes = 300 s h1 = 27.5 cm, h2 = 20.0 cm
Data – II: h1 = 37.7 cm, h2 = 30.0 cm
aL h  a×8.5  27.5 
log10  1  ; ⇒ 3×10 = 2.30315×300 log10  20 
k = 2.303 −5
At  h2   

3×10−5 ×15×300
∴ a= = 0.049864 cm2;
 27.5 
2.303×8.5×log10  
 20 
4×0.049864
⇒d = ×10 = 2.52 mm
π

Time required for h1 = 37.7 cm to h2 = 30.0 cm

aL h  0.049864×8.5  37.7 
t = 2.303 log10  1 ;⇒ t = 2.303 − 5
log10  
Ak  h2  15×3×10  30 
t = 215.22 s < t = 300 s ∴it requires less time

EXAMPLE: 4.5
A sand deposit of 12 m thick overlies a clay layer. The water table is 3 m below the
ground surface. In a field permeability pump-out test, the water is pumped out at a rate of
540 liters per minute when steady state conditions are reached. Two observation wells are
located at 18 m and 36 m from the centre of the test well. The depths of the drawdown
curve are 1.8 m and 1.5 m respectively for these two wells. Determine the coefficient of
permeability.
Data:
r1 = 18 m, r2 = 36 m
h = 12 – 3 = 9.0 m
d1 = 1.8 m, d2 = 1.5 m
⇒ z1 = 9.0 – 1.8 = 7.2 m & z2 = 9.0 – 1.5 = 7.5 m
q = 540 lit / min = 540 /(60×1000) = 0.009 m3/s

(Refer to Figure E-4.5)

k=
2.303q  r  2.303×0.009  log 36  = 4.504×10−4 m / s
 log10 2  =
2 2 
π ( z2 − z1 )  r1  π (7.52 −7.22 )  10 18 
 Figure E-4.5
EXAMPLE: 4.6
A pumping test carried out in a 50 m thick confined aquifer results in a flow rate of 600
lit/min. Drawdown in two observation wells located 50 m and 100 an from the well are 3
and 1 m respectively. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer
Data:
r1 = 50 m, r2 = 100 m
H = 50 m
d1 = 3.0 m, d2 = 1.0 m
⇒ z1 = 70.0 – 3.0 = 67.0 m & z2 = 70.0 – 1.0 = 69.0 m
q = 600 lit / min = 600 /(60×1000) = 0.010 m3/s
(Refer to Figure E-4.6)

Figure E-4.6
q  r  0.01  100 
k=  log10 2  =  log10
2.7283× H ( z2 − z1)  r1  2.7283×50(69−67)  50 
k =1.1034×10−5 m / s
EXAMPLE: 4.7
A pump test was carried out in an unconfined aquifer of k = 3 x 10-6 m/s with a flow rate
of 20 m3/hour. The radius of the well is 0.4 m and the aquifer has a depth of 80 m above
an impermeable stratum. The drawdown in an observation well at a distance of 150 m
from the well is 2.5 m. Calculate the radius of influence and the depth of water in the
well.
Data:
r1 = rw = 0.4 m, r2 = 150 m, R = ?
h = 80.0 m
d2 = 2.5 m, d1 = dw = ?
⇒ z2 = 80.0 – 2.5 = 77.5 m, z1 = zw?
1
q = 20.0 m3/hour = m3/s, k = 3 x 10 -6 m/s
180
 1 
2.303× 
k=
2.303q 
 log
r2 
=  180   log 150  = 3.0×10−6 m / s
 
10 r  10
π ( z22 − zw2 )  w π (77.52 − zw2 )  0.40 

 2.303×log10 (375.0) 
(
zw2 = 77.52 − )  180 × 3.0×10 −6
×π  ⇒ zw = 50.12 m ⇒ d w = 80 − 50.12 = 29.88 m

 1 
 
k=
q 
 loge
R=

 180  
 loge
R  = 3.0×10−6 m / s

2 
π (h − z w )  rw  2 2
π (80 −50.12 )  0.40 

 R  = 3.0×10−6 π (802 −50.122 )×180 

 loge
 0.40   
⇒ R = 0.40× exp 3.0×10 ×π (80 −50.12 )×180  ⇒ R = 292.81 m
 −6 2 2
 
EXAMPLE: 4.8
The following data relate to a pump-out test:
Diameter of well = 24 cm → (rw)
Thickness of confined aquifer = 27 m → (H)
Radius of circle of influence = 333 m → (R)
Draw down during the test = 4.5 m → (zw = h - 4.5 )
Discharge = 0.9 m3/s. What is the permeability of the aquifer ?

q  r 
k=  log10 2  for z1 = h − d1; z2 = h − d2
2.7283× H ( z2 − z1)  r1 
q  r 
⇒k =  log10 2 
2.7283× H (d 2 − d1)  r1 
 q  R 0.9  333 
k=  log10  =  log10
2.7283× H (d w −0)  rw  2.7283×27×(4.5−0)  0.12 
k = 9.35×10−3 m / s

EXAMPLE: 4.9
A soil profile consists of three layers with the properties shown in the table below.
Calculate the equivalent coefficients of permeability parallel and normal to the stratum.
Layer Thickness (m) k (m/s)
1 3.0 2.0x 10 -6
2
4.0 5.0x 10 -8
3 3.0 3.0x 10 -5
Parallel to the layers.
 k H + k 2 H 2 + k 3 H3   (2×10-6 ×3) + (5×10-8 × 4) + (3×10-5 ×3)  -6
kh =  1 1 =  = 9.62×10 m / s
 (H1 + H 2 + H 3 )   (3 + 4 + 3 ) 
Normal to the layers.
 
H  10 
kv = =  = 1.23×10-7 m / s
 H1 H 2 H 3    3   4   3  
 + +   +
-6  
+
-8   -5  
 k1 k 2 k 3    2×10   5×10   3×10  

EXAMPLE: 4.10
The data given below relate to two falling head permeameter tests performed on two
different soil samples:
(a) stand pipe area = 4 cm2, (b) sample area = 28 cm2,
(c) sample height = 5 cm, (d) initial head in the stand pipe =100 cm,
(e) final head = 20 cm,
(f) time required for the fall of water level in test 1, t = 500 sec,
(g) for test 2, t = 15 sec.
Determine the values of k for each of the samples. If these two types of soils form
adjacent layers in a natural state with flow (a) in the horizontal direction, and (b) flow in
the vertical direction, determine the equivalent permeability for both the cases by
assuming that the thickness of each layer is equal to 150 cm.

Test −1 :
aL  h  2.303×4×5 100
⇒ k = 2.303 log10  1  = log = 2.3×10−3 cm / s
At  h2  28×500 20
Test − 2:
aL  h  2.303×4×5 100
⇒ k = 2.303 log10  1  = log = 76.65×10−3 cm / s
At  h2  28×15 20
Horizontal direction flow
 k H + k 2 H 2   (2.3×10-3 ×150) + (76.65×10-3 ×150) 
kh =  1 1 =  = 0.0395 cm / s
 (H1 + H 2 )   (150 +150) 

Vertical direction flow

 
H  300 
kv = =  = 4.466×10-3 cm / s
 H1 H 2    150   150  
 +   -3 
+ -3  
 k1 k 2    2.3×10   5×10  

EXAMPLE: 4.11
A layer of clay of 4 m thick is overlain by a sand layer of 5 m, the top of which is the
ground surface. The clay overlay an impermeable stratum. Initially the water table is at
the ground surface but it is lowered 4 meters by pumping. Calculate σ’v at the top and
base of the clay layer before and after pumping. For sand e = 0.45, G = 2.6, Sr (sand, after
pumping) = 50%. For clay e = 1.0, G = 2.7.
Gγ w (1 + w) 2.6 × 9.81× (1 + 0.08654)
(γ b )sand ( S =50%) = = = 19.113 kN / m3
r
1+ e 1 + 0.45
eS 0.45 × .50
w= r = = 0.08654
G 2.7
γ w (G + e )
9.81× (2.6 + 0.45)
(γ sat )sand = = = 20.635 kN / m3
1+ e 1 + 0.45
γ (G + e) 9.81× (2.7 + 1.0)
(γ sat )clay = w = = 18.15 kN / m3
1+ e (1 + 1)
At the top of the clay layer before pumping:
σv = 20.635×5.0 = 103.175 kPa,
u = 9.81×5.0 = 49.0 kPa,
σv’ = 103.175 - 49.0 = 54.175 kPa.
At the base of the clay layer before pumping:
σv = 103.175 + 18.15x4.0 = 175.775 kPa.
u = 9.81×9.0= 88.3 kPa,
σv’ = 175.775 - 88.3 = 87.475 kPa
At the top of the clay layer after pumping:
σv = 19.113×4.0+ 20.635×1.0 = 97.087 kPa,
u = 9.81×1.0 = 9.81 kPa,
σv’ = 97.087 - 9.81 = 87.277 kPa.
At the base of the clay layer after pumping:
σv = 97.087 + 18.15×4.0 = 169.687 kPa,
u = 9.81×5.0 = 49.05 kPa,
σv’ = 172.99 -49.05 = 120.637 kPa.
∆σv’ (at the top) = 87.277 – 54.175 = 33.102 kPa.
∆σv’ (at the base) = 120.637 – 87.475 = 33.162 kPa.
The increase in the effective vertical stress throughout the clay layer is uniform.
EXAMPLE: 4.12
A soil profile is shown in figure. Plot the distribution of total stress, pore pressure and
effective stress up to a depth of 12 m.

0.0 m − 2.0 m
Gγ w 2.65 × 9.80
γ dry = = = 16.23 kN / m3
( ) (
1 + e 1 + 0.6 )
2.0 m − 5.0 m

γ sat =
(G + e) γ w =
(2.65 + 0.6) × 9.80
= 19.91 kN / m3
(1 + e ) (1 + 0.6 )
5.0 m − 8.0 m
γ sat = 20.5 kN / m3
8.0 m − 12.0 m
γ sat = 22.0 kN / m3
z = 0.0 m ⇒ u = 0.0, σ = 0.0, σ ′ = 0.0
z = 2.0 m ⇒ u = 0.0, σ = 16.23 × 2 = 32.46 kN / m3 ,
σ ′ = 32.46 − 0.0 = 32.46 kN / m3
z = 5.0 m ⇒ u = 3 × 9.8 = 29.4 kN / m3 , σ = 32.46 + 19.91× 3 = 92.19 kN / m3 ,
σ ′ = 92.19 − 29.4 = 62.79 kN / m3
z = 8.0 m ⇒ u = 6 × 9.8 = 58.80 kN / m3 , σ = 92.19 + 20.50 × 3 = 153.69 kN / m3 ,
σ ′ = 153.69 − 58.80 = 94.89 kN / m3
z = 12.0 m ⇒ u = 10 × 9.8 = 98.0 kN / m3 ,
σ = 153.69 + 22.0 × 4 = 241.69 kN / m3 ,
σ ′ = 241.69 − 98.0 = 143.69 kN / m3
Depth (m) u = z γw (kPa) σ = z γsat (kPa) σ’= σ-u (kPa)
0.0 0.00 0.00 0.00
2.0 0.00 32.46 32.46
5.0 29.40 92.19 62.79
8.0 58.80 153.69 94.89
12.0 98.00 241.69 94.89

Figure: Example: 4.12 - Pore pressure, Total stress and Effective stress Distribution
EXAMPLE: 4.13
If a glass tube of 0.002 mm diameter is immersed in water, what is the height to which
water will rise in the tube by capillary action? Derive the necessary expression for
capillary rise and use the same.
TS = 75 x 10-8 kN/cm. = 75 x 10-6 kN/m.
D = 0.002 × 10-3 m
γw = 9.80 kN/m3
4T 4 × 75 × 10−6
hc = s =
dγ w 0.002 × 10 −3 × 9.80
hc = 15.36 m

EXAMPLE: 4.14
What is the height of capillary rise in a soil with an effective size of 0.06 mm and void
ratio of 0.72 ?
Effective size = 0.05 mm
Volume of solids = (0.05)3 mm3
voidratio = 0.72
Volume of voids = 0.72 × (0.05)3 = 9 × 10−5 mm3
1
−5 3
Approximately, void size, d = (9 × 10 ) = 0.0448 mm
4Ts 4 × 75 × 10−6
Capillary rise, hc = = = 0.683 m
d γ w 0.0448 × 9.80 ×10 −3

EXAMPLE: 4.15
Water is flowing at the rate of 50 mm3/s in an upward direction through a sample of sand
whose coefficient of permeability is 2x10 -2 mm/s. The sample thickness is 120 mm and
cross section area is 5000 mm2. Determine the effective pressure at the middle and at
bottom sections of the sample. Take the saturated unit weight of sand as 19 KN/m3.
q = 50 mm3 / s; k = 2×10- 2 mm / s; A = 5000 mm 2 ; z = 120 mm
γ' = γ sat - γ w = 19.0 - 9.80 = 9.2 kN / m3
q 50
Hydraulic gradient = i = = -2
= 0.5
kA 2×10 ×5000
For upward flow, ⇒ σ ' = z × (γ' - iγ w )
At the bottom; z = 120 mm; ⇒ σ ' = 120×10- 3 × (9.2 - 0.5×9.8)
(σ )
'
z=120mm
= 0.516 kPa
At the middle; z = 60 mm; ⇒ σ ' = 60×10- 3 × (9.2 - 0.5×9.8)
(σ )
'
z=60mm
= 0.258 kPa
EXAMPLE: 4.16
A 1.60 m layer of the soil of specific gravity, G = 2.66 and porosity, n= 38% is subject to
an upward seepage head of 2.0 m. What depth of coarse sand would be required above
the soil to provide a factor of safety of 1.5 against quick sand condition assuming that the
coarse sand has the same porosity and specific gravity as the soil and that there is
negligible head loss in the sand?
n 0.38
G = 2.66; n = 38% ⇒ e = = = 0.613
1 − n 1 − 0.38
G − 1 2.66 − 1
Critical hydraulic gradient ; ⇒ ic = = = 1.029
1 + e 1 + 0.613
h 2
Length of flow required is, L = = = 2.916 m
i 0.686
Available thickness of soil = 1.60 m
∴ Additional thickness of sand layer required
d = 2.916 − 1.60 = 1.316 m
Additional thickness of sand layer required = 1.316 m

************************************************
Example 7.17
EXAMPLE

A pumping well test was made in a sand layer extending to a

depth of 15 m where an impermeable stratum was
encountered. The initial ground-water level was at the ground
surface. Observation wells were sited at distances of 3 m and
7.5 m from the pumping well. A steady state was established at
about 20 hours when the discharge was 3.8 L/s. The
drawdowns at the two observation well were 1.5 m and 0.35 m.
Calculate the coefficient of permeability for the sand layer.
Example 7.14
Example 7.14
Example 7.15
Example 7.15
Examples
1. An impervious layer as shown in the figure underlies a permeable soil layer.
With k = 4.8x10-3 cm/sec for the permeable layer, calculate the rate of seepage
through it in cm3/sec/cm length width. Given H = 3 m and = 5o .
Ground surface

G.W.T (free surface)

H cos h = L tan
Direction L /cos
of seepage
H

Impervious layer L
Solution
From the above figure
headloss L tan
i sin
length L
cos
4 4
q kiA k sin H cos .1 4.8 x10 sin 5 . 3 cos 5. 12.5 x10

q 12.5 cm3/sec/cm length

2. The following figure shows the layers of soil in a tube 100mmx100mm in cross –
section. Water is supplied to maintain a constant head difference of 300 mm across the
sample. The permeability coefficient of the soils in the direction of flow through them
are as follows: Find the rate of supply.
Water
supply

Constant head difference =

300 mm

B
A
C

150 mm 150 mm 150 mm

 Soil k (cm/sec)
A 1x10-2
B 3x10-3
C 5x10-4
Solution
For the soil layers B & C (the flow is parallel to the stratification)
1 1
k H ( eq ) kh1H1 k h 2 H 2 (3x10 3 (5) 5 x10 4 (5)) 1.75 x10 3
cm/sec
H 10
For the layer A with equivalent layer of B&C
 H 45 3
keq 3.8 x10
H1 H2 30 15
2 3
k1 k2 1x10 1.75 x10
keq 0.003888cm / sec
300 2
q keqiA 0.003888 10 0.259 cm3 / sec
450
3.The permeability coefficient of a sand at a void ratio of 0.55
is 0.1 ft/min. estimate its permeability coefficient at avoid ratio
of 0.7. Use Casagrande empirical relationship
Solution
From Casagrande relation k=1.4e k0.85 2
k e 2 .So
2 2
k1 e12 0.1 0.55 0.1 0.7
k2 0.16
k2 e22 k2 0.7 2
0.55 2 ft/min at e = 0.7
4.for normally consolidated clay soil, the following are given:
Void ratio k (cm/sec)
-7
1.1 0.302x10
0.9 0.12x10-7

Estimate the permeability coefficient of clay at void ratio of

1.2 .
Use Samarasingh et. al. relation.
Solution
en
Samarasingh et.al. eq. k C3
1 e
e1n
k1 1 e1
k2 e2n
1 e
1.1 n
n
03.02 x10 7 1 1.1 1.9 1.1
2.517
0.12 x10 7 0.9 n 2.1 0.9
1 0.9
 2.782 1.222 n
log 2.782 0.444
n 5. 1
log 1.222 0.087
So
5.1
e
k C3
1 e

To find C3
 7 1.1 5.1 1.626
0.302 x10 C3 C3
1 1.1 2. 1
0.302 x10 7 2.1
C3 0.39 x10 7 cm / sec
1.626
Hence
7 e 5.1
k 0.39 x10
1 e

At a void ratio of 1.2

7 1.25.1 7
k 0.39 x10 0.449 x10
1 1.2 cm /sec.
5. pumping test from Gravity well in a permeable layer
underlain by an impervious stratum was made. When steady
state was reached, the following observations were made q =
100 gpm; h1 = 20 ft; h2 = 15 ft; r1 = 150 ft; and r2 = 50 ft.
Determine the permeability coefficient of the permeable layer.
Solution
r1
2.303q log10
r2
k
Since h12 h22
Given: q = 100gpm = 13.37 ft3 / min, so
150
2.303 x13.37 log10
50
k 2 2
0.0267 ft / min 0.027 ft / min
20 15