DAR-ES-SALAAM MARITIME INSTITUTE

MARINE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

BACHELAR DEGREE IN OIL AND GAS ENGINEERING (BOGE 2)
NTA LEVEL 7
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
MODULE CODE: OGU 07315
INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT 1

STUDENT NAME : ALHAJI MASSOUD JUMA

REGISTRATION NUMBER: BOGE/22/104
LECTURER’S NAME : ENG. GREGORY MELLA
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2023/2024
1. Describe adiabatic, isobaric, isothermal and isometric processes.
ANSWER:
Adiabatic process:
An adiabatic process is one in which pressure, volume and temperature of the system change but
heat will not exchange between system and surroundings. (Deepak Pathak, 2019)

During an adiabatic process, a system exchanges no heat with its surroundings.

The word adiabatic comes from the Greek word adiabatos, which means not to be passed.
There are two ways a process can be adiabatic:
i. Either the system is well insulated so that only a negligible amount of heat can pass
through the boundary or
ii. Both the system and the surroundings are at the same temperature and therefore there is
no driving force (temperature difference) for heat transfer.

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Energy can cross the boundaries of a closed
system in the form of heat and work.
Sometimes it is desirable to know the rate of heat
transfer (the amount of heat transferred per
unit time) instead of the total heat transferred
over some time interval. (Yunus A.Çengel, 2008)
Formula for heat transfer:
Q
q= kJ /kg
m
q = Heat transfer in kJ/kg
Q = Amount of heat transfer
M = Mass
Adiabatic relation between P and V:
γ
PV =k
Adiabatic relation between V and T & P and T:
γ −1 k
V T=
R
γ −1 γ k
Also P T = γ
R
Isobaric processes:
It refers to the thermodynamic process in which there is no change in pressure during the
process. Such type of processes is also known as isobaric processes. To understand let us take a
cylindrical vessel having gas in it. It has a piston above it. Piston is free to reciprocate in the
cylinder. Under normal situation piston shall be subjected to atmospheric pressure. Now, let heat
be added to cylinder from bottom of cylinder. Due to heat addition, presuming energy transfer
taking place reversibly and system always remaining in equilibrium, the gas shall try to expand.
Expansion of gas results in raising up of the piston and it attains a new state say 2. Process is
shown on p-V diagram (Onkar Singh, 2003)

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 Isobaric process

The work involved in the raising of piston shall be given by,

V2

W 1−2=∫ PdV =P (V 2−V 1 )

V1

Mathematically from the first law of thermodynamics, it can be given that,

dQ = dU + dW

2 2 2

∫ dQ=∫ dU +∫ dW
1 1 1

Q1−2=mC v ( T 2−T 1 ) + P(V 2−V 1 )

Q1−2=mC v ( T 2−T 1 ) +mR (V 2−V 1)
R
Substituting for C v ; 𝑖. 𝑒 ∶ C v =( )
γ −1
R
Q1−2=m( ) ( T 2−T 1 ) + mR (V 2−V 1 )
γ −1
1
= mR( T 2−T 1 ) ( +1) (Onkar Singh, 2003)
γ −1

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Isothermal processes:
Thermodynamic process in which the temperature remains constant is called constant
temperature or isothermal process. In this case the gas or vapour may be heated at constant
temperature and there shall be no change in internal energy. The work done will be equal to the
amount of heat supplied, as shown ahead. For a perfect gas during isothermal process
(Onkar Singh, 2003)
P1 V 1=Constant ,
P1 V 1
Or P=
V
V2

so work involved, W 1−2=∫ PdV

V1

V2
P1 V 1 V
W 1−2=∫ dV =P1 V 1 ln 2
V1
V V1
W 1−2=P1 V 1 ln r
Where r = ratio of final and initial volumes.
By first law of thermodynamics:
2 2 2

∫ dQ=∫ dU +∫ dW
1 1 1

Q1−2=W 1−2 + ( U 2−U 1 )=W 1−2+0

U 2−U 1=mC V ( T 2−T 1) ,∧T 2 =T 1

Isothermal process (Onkar Singh, 2003)

Isometric processes:

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When a fluid undergoes a thermodynamic process in a fixed enclosed space such that the process
occurs at constant volume, then the process is called constant volume process or Isometric
process (isochoric process). Let us consider heating of a gas in fixed enclosure at constant
volume. On p–V diagram this process is represented by a vertical line as shown in figure below.
Area under the process line is zero which indicates that there is rise in pressure but there is no
work done as there is no change in volume.( Onkar Singh, 2003)

Isochoric process
Work involved shall be,
V2

W 1−2=∫ PdV =P ( V 2 −V 1 )=0

V1

From first law of thermodynamics,

2 2 2

∫ dQ=∫ dU +∫ dW
1 1 1

Q1−2=U 2−U 1=mC V ( T 2−T 1)

Thus, it indicates that the effect of heat addition in constant volume process is to increase the
temperature and consequently the internal energy of system.( Onkar Singh, 2003)
2. Explain principle of operation of air condition and refrigeration plants.
ANSWER:
Air condition:
An air conditioner, often referred to as AC, is a system that helps regulate the temperature,
humidity, and overall quality of the air in an enclosed space. Its primary function is to cool down
the air, especially during hot weather, but some air conditioners can also provide heating.
Principle of operation of air condition:

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To explain this concept clearly, we need to understand the functions of different components like
compressor, evaporator, condenser and the function of refrigerants. It is a question of which
comes first like the working principle or the components mentioned.
In the interest of making it simple to understand, we are going to refer to the image of air
conditioning parts and explain these parts and the working principles as we go along.
An air conditioner (AC) in a room works by collecting hot air from a given space, processing it
to release cool air into the same space where the hot air had originally been collected. This
processing is primarily done using five components:
Blower, Evaporator, Compressor, Condenser, Expansion valve (Metering device) & Refrigerant
is the medium used. (DR. IIANGO SIVARAMN, 2019)

Let us start from the room- a space to become a conditioned one. Let us assume that we turn on
the window air conditioner. The blower is now on. This blower fan draws air from the room and
blows it across the evaporator. There is a refrigerant n liquid state, at a low pressure flowing
through the evaporator.
As per the properties of a chosen liquid refrigerant at low pressure, when warm air pass over it,
the refrigerant absorbs the heat from it – The cooler air which had transferred its heat is now sent
back inside the room.
The refrigerant had now become hot and changed its state from liquid to gas (because it had
absorbed the heat) and is at low pressure flows into the compressor. (The compressor literally
sucks the as coming out of the evaporator). Before the gas enters the compressor – it is referred
as the suction side.

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Here, at the compressor, the gas Is squeezed/compressed, and the gas is now at high pressure and
at high temperature. The refrigerant gas is now allowed to flow through to high pressure side – a
series of tubes - referred as Condenser coils located at the rear end of the air conditioner.
The refrigerant gas gives of its heat as it flows through the condenser coil- This giving off heat is
Absorbed by the air surrounding the condenser and blown outside.
(DR. IIANGO SIVARAMN, 2019)

Then the refrigerant then leaves the condenser and goes on to the expansion valve – Here the
refrigerant pressure becomes even less, facilitating the refrigerant to boil at lower temperature
when absorbing heat at the evaporator coil. This cycle is repeated and again.
Refrigeration plants:
Refrigerator: Refrigerators are cyclic devices, used to transfer heat from a low temperature
medium to a high temperature medium. The working fluid used in the refrigeration cycle is
called a refrigerant. The most frequently used refrigeration cycle is the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.
Principle of operation of Refrigeration plants:
Refrigerant:
Is the generic name for the chemical blend that cycle through an air conditioner, changing from
a liquid to a gas as it absorbs and releases heat. Sometimes referred to by the trademarked name
Freon, refrigerant has come in a variety of types ("blends") during its history, starting originally
as toxic and combustible chemicals. Today's blends are safe and have no ozone- depleting effect.
Refrigerant can shift easily between liquid and gas states, which make it ideal for ACs since it
doesn't take significant amounts of energy to cause the phase shift. Refrigerant starts inside the
compressor, where the reduction of volume turns it into a high-pressure gas about 150°F. It
moves to the outdoor condenser coil, where the warm air (which is still cooler than the
refrigerant) moves across it and causes condensation, which releases heat from the refrigerant.
The gaseous refrigerant then heads toward the indoor coil, and is now lowered to about 100°F.
The gas moves through an expansion device, dropping its temperature and pressure and changing
it to a liquid about 20"F. (DR. IIANGO SIVARAMN, 2019)

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The cold refrigerant now passes through the evaporator coil, and the warmer indoor air blowing
across the coil goes through evaporation, warming the refrigerant and lowering the indoor
temperature. The refrigerant, now approximately 50°F, returns to the compressor to restart the
cycle. At no point in this process is refrigerant lost; it remains at a set level, known as its
"charge," Refrigerant will only lose its charge through leaking, which is a major repair need; a
lowered. Charge will not only endanger cooling power, but the change in pressure in the system
can cause damage to the compressor.
Refrigerant moves between two sets of coils in the system, one indoors and one outdoors. Along
the indoor coil, the refrigerant absorbs heat from the indoors, cooling the air. The refrigerant then
moves to the outdoor coil and releases the heat. The process then repeats. Many refrigerants are
known to have a negative effect on the environment because they contribute to global warming
and they deplete the ozone layer. (DR. IIANGO SIVARAMN, 2019)

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3. Calculate the net and gross calorific values of hydrocarbon fuels
ANSWER:
Calorific values of hydrocarbon fuels:
The calorific value of a fuel is an experimentally determined figure, namely the amount of heat
released when a known quantity of fuel is burned under specified conditions. Experimental
determinations of calorific value are made at both constant pressure and constant volume, so
there is often some confusion at first acquaintance as to why, for example, the calorific value for
a liquid fuel measured at constant volume differs from its internal energy of combustion. Such
discrepancies are small and they arise from the actual conditions under which the experimental
measurements are made; this will be apparent when the operations of the calorimeters used are
described. (Victor I. Hanby, 2012)
The calorific value of a fuel is normally expressed as kJ (or MJ) per m³ (gaseous fuels) or kJ
(MJ) per kg which is applicable to all types of fuel. The phase of the water produced is clearly
important if the calorific value includes the latent heat of condensation of the water produced it is
usually referred to as the gross calorific value, whereas if the water is in the vapour phase, the
term net calorific value is used. The expressions higher calorific value and lower calorific value
are also in use, but are not so common.
A fuel can have four calorific values:
1. Gross calorific value at constant volume;
2. Gross calorific value at constant pressure;
3. Net calorific value at constant volume;
4. Net calorific value at constant pressure.
Example 1.1
A liquid fuel consists of 86% carbon and 14% hydrogen (by mass). Its gross calorific value is
43.5 MJ kg¹. Calculate the net calorific value.
SOLUTION:
1 kg fuel contains 0.14 kg hydrogen. The stoichiometric combustion equation for the hydrogen is
1
H 2 + O2 → H 2 O
2

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Hence 2 kg hydrogen produces 18 kg water vapour. The mass of water vapour produced by the
combustion of 1 kg fuel is thus
0.14 X 9= 1.26 kg
The net calorific value of the fuel is then
43.5 - 1.26 x 2.442=40.42 MJkg−1

The calorific value of a fuel derives from the heat released when the carbon and hydrogen in the
fuel are burned. On a per kilogram basis, hydrogen has a much higher calorific value than
carbon. Carbon has a calorific value of 32.8MJ kg−1 whereas molecular hydrogen has a net
calorific value of 120.9 MJkg−1
The calorific value of a hydrocarbon fuel cannot be predicted with any degree of accuracy from
these figures, but there is an implicit suggestion that the calorific value of a fuel may be roughly
related to the relative quantities of carbon and hydrogen from which it is made up .
(Victor I. Hanby, 2012)

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REFERENCES:

i. HVAC PRINCIPLES AND SYSTEMS BY DR. IIANGO SIVARAMN 2019

ii. COMBUSION AND POLLUTION CONTROL IN HEATING SYSTEMS BY VICTOR
IAN HANBY
iii. APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS BY ONKAR SINGH 2003
iv. THERMODYNAMIC PROCESS BY: ASST. LECT. KARRAR AL-MANSOORI
v. VEER SURENDRA SAI UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY BURLA, ODISHA
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

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